BY
1Kingsley Obumunaeme Ilo, PhD
Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Email: kingsley.ilo@unn.edu.ng
2*Uchenna Timothy Umeifekwem*, PhD
Department of Public Administration, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University
Email: ukochenna2011@yahoo.com
3Ohabuenyi, Jonas
Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
4Sabo Okonu
Department of Political Science, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Email: sabo.okonu@unn.edu.ng
Abstract
Conflicts of all types have a serious negative impact on society generally. Conflict between communities is an unavoidable component of human existence. It is the result of a variety of circumstances, including environmental, social, political, ethnic, and cultural elements. When it happens, communal conflict is the main reason for starvation, malnourishment, and food insecurity because of the complicated humanitarian crisis that comes with it. The focus of this paper is to analyse the nexus between communal conflict and development in Nigeria. Journal articles, textbooks and newspaper publications were used as sources of data for this article. At the end, the article calls for communities to learn how to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes.
Keywords: Communal conflict, Education, Health, Violence, Social Infrastructure.
INTRODUCTION
Disputes over land or natural resources, including oil reserves, solid minerals, and water, are the major causes of communal disputes in Nigeria. Conflict situation may also occur when groups want to protect their honour, property, or even their very existence against the attack of other societies (Burde, Kapit, Wah, Guven, and Skarpeteig, 2013; Okpiliya, Ekong, & Eni, 2013). Bolarinwa (2006) observed that the prevalence of community disputes hampers the daily livelihoods of rural dwellers and food supply to urban centres. The bulk of farmers have stopped cultivating their far-flung farmlands. They are practically confined to their compounds and a few nearby farmlands. Movement restrictions have hampered access to critical agriculture inputs, including better seeds, fertilisers, and loans. In the end, many farmers could not sell their agricultural products effectively (Ajayi, Akinnagbe, and Aghojare, 2009).
The destruction of property, the deaths of people, and the resulting humanitarian crisis have hampered the socioeconomic and political activity of the affected communities in Nigeria plagued with communal conflict. A growing body of data from an impressively diverse variety of cultural and geographical settings suggests that communal conflict has offensive negative consequences on socio-economic and political well-being of the people. Using a cross-sectional data Popoola, Olawale, and Muftau, (2020) demonstrate that communal conflict negatively impacts on business activities in Osun State, Nigeria. They also found that communal conflict has negative effect on entrepreneurial activities and causes economic damage and seriously affect entrepreneurship development in that community. Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015) similarly show that economic activity is disrupted, a community’s productive base shrinks, and human capital, such as health and education, is lost as a result of communal strife. A loss in family income and wealth is expected to result from all of these repercussions of community strife, they said. As incomes decrease, more families will slip into poverty, and those already in poverty will fall even more. Farming and other rural economic pursuits are becoming more vulnerable to violence resulting from communal conflict.
Gafaro, Ibanez, and Justino (2014) corroborate these results to a large extent, though they link them to the presence of armed non-state actors. Studies by Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015); Jones and Naylor (2014); Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, and Neville (2014) suggest that communal conflict can negatively affect various economic, health, and labour related outcomes.
COMMUNAL CONFLICT
Wig and Kromrey (2018), defined communal conflicts as violent confrontations between non-state actors where the cleavages largely fall along ethnic or tribal lines. Wig and Kromrey (2018) classified communal conflict into two distinct types, namely, inter-communal conflict, that is conflicts between ethnic groups and intra-communal conflict, that is conflicts within a one particular group. However, the classification of ethnic groups and subgroups are ambiguous, making it hard to extricate between intra-communal and inter-communal conflicts. In many of these communal crisis, crimes and ethnic cleansing are commonplace. Also, the crises have left many victims with lasting effects of trauma, homelessness, economic losses, as well as the weakening of social trust.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
. Rural development refers to the process through which capitalism spreads across rural regions, together with the set of policies and projects that are being implemented in rural areas with the goal of improving human conditions. As used by Atkinson (2017), rural development involves efforts that are economic and social in nature intended to encourage concepts of retention, growth, and expansion in areas outside cities, including improving quality of life for rural residents through such activity. According to Nwobi, (2007), rural development can be viewed as the development of the moral, social, political and economic potentialities of rural communities to enhance their self-reliance through the provision of appropriate infrastructure such as pipe-borne water, electricity, good roads and small scale industries, increase their political consciousness and participation, promote their moral and social well-being which will result in tolerance, good discipline, justice, fairness, kindness, love and peace. As such, the term suggests that rural development is a strategy that tries to obtain an improved and productivity, higher socio-economic equality and ambition, and stability in social and economic development..
FACTORS ENCOURAGING COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN NIGERIA
. The root of communal conflicts in Nigeria is linked to several complex factors and vary from one group to another. It has been demonstrated empirically by several researchers that, in particular, the causes of communal conflicts are not static but rather dynamic and varied in nature depending on the socio-economic and geopolitical circumstances at the time (Yecho, 2006, Albert, 2001, Onwudiwe, 2004, and Alimba, 2014).
Poor economic conditions
Like the rest of Africa, Nigeria is neither immune to the poverty cancer nor ignorant of its impact on their fragile peace and stability. With over 80 per cent of her population living below the US$1 a day, civil unrest and grievances, both recipes for conflicts, become widespread. Indeed hunger, starvation, lack of economic growth and development create a high likelihood of violent conflicts and available army of people who are ready to prosecute the conflict either as machinery or as militias. For instance, in research conducted by Vinck et al (2011), 30 per cent of the Liberian population indicated that poverty was one of the root causes of the Liberian civil war. Similar assertions have also been made with regards to the conflicts in Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau (Voz di Paz and Interpeace 2010).
Access to small arms weapons
Small arms induced-crises appears to be a persistent occurence in developing nations of their affordability, accessibility and availability; and porosity of the borders and legal frameworks legitimizing their use (Malam, 2014).This may be adjudged true because a significant number of the communal conflct that occured in Nigeria were prosecuted with small arms, and in some instances extremely sophisticated weapons fit for external assault. The evil perpetuated through this weapon are not measurble, as their avalaibility is usually considered as a major cause that influences communal conflict and the outbreak as well as the continuation of internal conflicts and tensions in Nigeria.
Land ownership
Notable examples of communities in Nigeria that plunged into serious communal conflict hinged on land tussle with destabilized implications to their socio-economic well-being are well documented in literature. In Ebonyi state, Nigeria, there was an ensuing conflict between the people of Ezza and Ezillo communities over a portion of land which resulted in high death rates, destruction of basic infrastructure and services, and malnutrition. With the intervention of government and security agencies, violence was abated leading to a ceasefire between the two communities. However, this superficial peace has always been short-lived as longstanding and simmering ethnic rivalry and distrust has always plunged these two communities into perpetual communal conflict.
Also, In December, 2018, four communities in Biase Local Government Area of Cross River State engaged in three days conflict which result to wanton destruction of lives and peoples’ properties. The conflict was deeply rooted in the “decision by Orugbam people to annex some land in other Erei communities.” The Inyima, Onyadama conflict in March, 2016, where women, children, the aged and the entire houses in Inyima were set ablaze. The conflict which has become a recurring decimal was first fought in 2008 then 2014 and repeated in 2016. The cause of the war according to sources is that an Inyima man was said to have harvested cassava in a disputed portion of land with Onyadama community and since the first outbreak of the conflict many years ago, there have continued to be bad blood and recurring skirmishes which have kept the two erstwhile sister communities at daggers drawn.
IMPACT OF COMMUNCAL CONFLICT ON DEVELOPMENT
The evidence from previous communal clashes in Nigeria, demonstrates that communal conflict has a significant negative impact on development and the well-being of the populations affected by such persistent violence. During community disputes, violence causes devastation and restricts commercial transactions. As a consequence, public and private assets are damaged, individuals are injured or murdered, and markets shrink as transaction costs rise. In addition, people change their behaviour to survive amid violence. Thus, instead of maximising profits, the population dedicates most of its effort to avoiding victimisation and increasing their chance of survival. Both dynamics reduce the income of those caught in violent attacks, cause poverty for the affected families, and make it hard for them to escape hardship.
Communal conflict causes extensive morbidity and mortality among the warring factions. Individuals, families, and whole communities are displaced as a result of armed conflict, leading to large numbers of people being forced to flee their homes. Previous communal conflicts in Nigeria have been marked by excessive cruelty and violence towards civilians, which has resulted in the deaths of a large number of individuals. Health, education, the economy, and social welfare services collapsed, and many features of traditional life and the social structure were destroyed. Moore (2005) argued that “communal conflict negatively impacts human capital by causing physical and mental impairment, declines in health and nutritional status, and education and training opportunities, which in turn drive individuals and households into poverty”. In both the short and long run, declines in health and well-being may limit an individual’s ability to work, thereby limiting their ability to make an income. In times of community war, the physical disabilities of civilians and fighters may keep people poor for a long time.
Impact of communal conflict on Healthcare delivery
Data suggest that over a third of maternal fatalities and half of all infant deaths occur in locations where health systems have been disrupted by violence. During conflict, malaria and other endemic illnesses are likely to be accelerated. Their results suggest negative effects of the insurgency on weight-for-age and weight-for-height z-scores and an increase in the probability of wasting. In their study, Patel, Gibson- Fall, Sullivan, and Irwin (2017) reported in their study the ordeal of health workers in conflict zones. They observed that health workers are frequently attacked and their working tools destroyed. Primary health centres (PHC) are often damaged during conflict. In most cases, the primary health centres are used by fighters as their base, where they sleep and keep their weapons. This makes health workers demoralized and feel bad about their jobs, which makes them less happy about their job.
Impact of communal conflict on Education
. In times of armed conflict, schools and centers of learning are often targeted. Conflict reduces access to education by stopping schools from opening, endangering children’s safety while traveling to and from school, and causing teacher absenteeism. There is an increase in school dropouts, and lower educational survival rates owing to relocation, military enlistment, or economic hardship. Inadequate supply of basic essentials like food, water, and school supplies, education quality diminishes, particularly in communities surrounding the war that may see an inflow of refugees or internally displaced pupils. As a consequence of increased hardship caused by conflict, parents may be forced to prioritize their investments among their children, perhaps resulting in more girls than boys dropping out of school. Furthermore, safety and security concerns may be more prevalent among girls than among boys, with females being more vulnerable to sexual and gender-based abuse than males upon leaving the house.
Many children in developing countries have had their education interrupted or stopped because of endless conflict. In some conflict-torn nations, however, millions of school children have never had the chance to attend school in the first place. Conflict may hinder national development by adversely affecting family income and human resources that could be used to invest in education. This means that there are fewer resources available for families and governments to spend on education than there would be if there were no conflicts. The effect of a conflict extends well beyond the local region of the targeted school. It may lead parents to be hesitant about taking their children to school, instructors to be hesitant about teaching, and schools to shut down. In rare circumstances, military forces may issue instructions prohibiting children from attending school or may restrict entry tacitly. From the forgoing, it is obvious that conflict promotes illiteracy. Illiteracy is a powerful predictor of poverty and hunger, and it is primarily a rural phenomenon that impedes rural development and food security; threatens productivity and health; and hinders possibilities to boost individual living standards and gender parity. The chances of having good job prospects as well as a good income is low for the illiterate population. As a result, they are often faced with the challenges of dependency, low self-esteem, and higher levels of crime.
Impact of communal conflict on Social amenities
Studies have shown that, there has been an increase in the damage of infrastructure due to natural and anthropogenic disasters (Nyanga 2018, Nyanga & Sibanda 2019, Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, & Sillah 2013). The majority of the studies presented fresh information, insights, and understanding regarding the degree to which infrastructure has been devastated by the conflict and how this has affected rural development in general. Nyanga and Sibanda (2019) found that due to the devastation of roads and bridges, workers in conflict zones had a difficult time getting to and from work. Uyang, Nwagbara, Undelikwo, and Eneji (2013) demonstrated in their study that a significant relationship exists between boundary disputes and food security. Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, and Sillah (2013) showed that “a lot of economic infrastructure such as road networks, dams, Information Technology (IT), and financial services were destroyed by the civil war that erupted in Mozambique in 2013.” The study revealed that the destruction caused a lot of disturbances and disruptions to the economy, especially in the agricultural, manufacturing, and banking sectors. The economy was affected by the destruction of roads, bridges, information technology systems, energy and power infrastructure, and communication networks. Chang (2003) study revealed that disasters have huge economic and societal costs that directly affect firms. According to Nyanga (2018), armed conflict destroys the economic infrastructure and breeds insecurity.
One of the most direct ways in which conflict distorts rural development is through reduced production. Farmers lose money directly as a result of damaged health infrastructure caused by conflict, and this can have a big impact on agricultural growth and the lives of people in rural areas. Conflict and long-term crises are making more and more people poor, food insecure, and refugees. It wreaks havoc on agricultural and rural lives, resulting in severe financial loss, food shortages, and harm on all levels. According to Angara (2000), agricultural operations are generally the first to be impacted when there are conflicts in rural regions. Some of these things have a big impact on agricultural output, which leads to a high level of self-sufficiency and a lot of hunger and food shortages.
CONCLUSION
Communal conflict is damaging and can have a big impact on the socioeconomic activities of rural people. The reality is that community strife is on the rise, and its effect on development has been quite worrisome. The poor living standards of the inhabitants in the affected region are aggravated by the prevalence of violent conflict, which seems to affect subsistence farming, the population’s main source of income. These conflicts have slowed down most projects from both government and non-government organizations. Past conflict between communities in Nigeria has led to the deaths of many people. It collapsed the local economy, left the health, education, and social infrastructure devastated, and many aspects of traditional life and social structure obliterated. In order to reduce injustice and promote fairness and transparency, community leaders must adopt appropriate procedures for the distribution of landed properties. Communities should learn to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes. Land-owning clans must carefully ensure that land borders between clans are accurately established, delimited, and recorded as soon as possible.
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