Mina Margaret Ogbanga

River State University.

Department of Social Work

Mina.Ogbanga@ust.edu.ng

Abstract

The adoption of clean energy for household cooking has become a critical issue in reducing environmental degradation and improving public health. This study assesses the barriers to the adoption of clean energy in Okrika Local Government Area, Nigeria, where traditional cooking fuels, such as firewood and kerosene, remain prevalent. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, including household surveys and interviews, to identify key factors hindering the transition to cleaner energy sources such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity. The results reveal that socio-economic constraints, including the high cost of clean energy technologies, lack of infrastructure, cultural preferences for traditional fuels, and limited awareness about the benefits of clean energy, are significant barriers. Additionally, unreliable energy supply and inadequate government policies exacerbate the challenge. The study concludes by recommending targeted interventions, such as financial incentives, community education programs, and improved energy infrastructure, to promote the widespread adoption of clean cooking solutions in the region. Addressing these barriers is crucial to enhancing household energy security, improving health outcomes, and reducing environmental impacts in Okrika.

Introduction

Poor access to clean and healthy energy sources for cooking has been a major problem confronting Okrika Local Government Area of Rivers State. In most families, women are either cooking with kerosene stove, charcoal or firewood. This practice has observably gone on for many years unabated. Studies have shown that the non-use of clean energy for cooking is responsible for a number of social and environmental health hazards currently plaguing the world. For instance, an annual premature death of 2.8 million people was recently reported due to smoky environments caused by burning solid biomass in inefficient stoves and or from combustion of kerosene or coal for cooking (IEA, 2017). Furthermore, overreliance on traditional energy sources like wood and agricultural residues has been identified as a leading cause of deforestation. More worrying is the fact that household energy consumption in developing countries has been identified as contributing more to climate change relative to developed countries, since high concentration of methane and black carbon resulting from incomplete combustion of biomass and other solid fuels is generated in developing countries due to predominant use of traditional stoves (WHO, 2011). Empirically, this study acknowledges the existence of several studies such as those conducted by Oyekale (2012), Mensah and Adu (2015), Karimu (2015) and Nlomand Karimu (2015) that have examined the phenomenon of household cooking fuel. However, while these studies only focused on explaining the factors influencing household cooking fuel choice at both local and national perspectives, none offers an explanation as to how women organisations would help to improve the use of clean fuel for cooking in households. It is against this backdrop that this study is designed to bridge the gap in literature by examining the role of women organizations in promoting the use of clean energy. This would be done with focus on Okrika Local Government Area of Rivers State.

Aim and objective of the study

To assess the barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking.

Research question

What are the barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking?

Significance of the study

Practical significance: this study would provide information on the effects of not using clean energy for cooking. This would encourage informed choices among women. The study would also provide information on the factors that influence a family’s energy choice for cooking. The government, international organisations and other stakeholders would find useful, such data for the formulation of relevant policies geared towards promoting the adoption of clean energy for cooking. Also, traditional heads and the society at large would be made to understand how the society could use socio-cultural associations such as women groups to improve healthy lifestyle in our local communities.

Scope of the study

The study examines the role of women organisations in promoting the use of clean energy for household cooking.  The specific issues to be considered are: the factors that influence a family’s cooking energy; the barriers affecting the adoption of clean energy for household cooking; the potential of women organisations in promoting the use of clean energy for household cooking and the implications of heavy use of non-clean energy for household cooking. All these would follow a critical look at the commonly used forms of energy. The study locale is Okrika Local Government Area of Rives State.

Definition of terms

Women: these are members of the female gender

Organisations: a group of people with an explicit purpose and written rules.

Women organisations: these are cultural associations comprising women who unite on the bases of certain socio-cultural factors such as age, marital status and economic standing.

Energy: a substance that allows people to do work.

Clean energy: clean energy refers to any source of fuel that is efficient and poses less environmental health challenges.

Promotion: a practice is promoted when its use is supported ad encouraged

Household: a household is a family, comprising people who are related by blood or other some socially recognised process such as adoption and marriage.

Cooking: this refers to the activity or preparing food for personal or public consumption.

Barriers to the adoption of clean cooking energy

The factors that have hindered the adoption of clean cooking energy in Nigeria are discussed under the following sub-headings.

Gender of household head: There are literature indications that having a man as the head of the household increases the probability of a household using clean energy for cooking. In families run by women, the reserve is usually the case. As we know, female headed households are usually less financially strong compared to male headed ones which makes such households to settle for less expensive fuel for cooking, even if such fuel is dangerous to human health. Generally, female heads and consequently their households are economically vulnerable because of poor access to employment opportunities and resources which the men enjoy (Ogwumike, 2014; Rahut, 2017).

Age of household head: Studies have shown that the probability of using clean energy is also significantly linked with the age of the household head. For instance, it is shown in Baiyegunhi and Hassan (2014) that the probability of using gas as cooking fuel decreases as the age of household head increases when other variables are held constant, while it increases for firewood. This arises due to reduction in income of the head when he or she is no longer economically active coupled with the fact that such household head might not have any other source of income, either through remittances, pension or other income sources. The reality of low or no and unstable income (for pensioners) which is prevalent in Nigeria is seen to have lowered the standard of living of households with older heads. Other reasons could be due to the old habit of conservatism associated with older people. In this case, old folks may have become accustomed to the use of traditional fuel energy source(s) and thus are less willing to change towards modern reality of energy usage (Mensah and Adu, 2015).

Household size: Studies have proved that there will be a reduction in the probability of a household using clean energy for cooking as household size increases. This is majorly due to the amount of energy required for cooking for large number of persons and the consequent cost implication associated with it, which is higher for larger households. It is expected that larger households will prefer to use firewood, because it requires a large amount of fuel energy in aggregate to meet the family needs. In line with the submission of Pundo and Fraser (2016), it is comparatively affordable to use firewood for large family than LNG.

Education of household heads: There are indications that, increase in education attainment increases the chances of a household using clean energy as main cooking fuel while on the other hand, it reduces the likelihood of using kerosene, charcoal and wood as main coking fuels as expected, ceteris paribus. A positive and higher return to education can be deduced in this regard; that is, positive returns on employment opportunities, income and standard of living generally resulting in economic affordability of better and clean fuel energy options for cooking and other domestic uses (Bisu, 2016; Mensah and Adu, 2015).

Dwelling: Living in rural areas reduces households’ chances of using clean energy for cooking. It is suggested that rural life significantly increases the probability of using wood for cooking. This is mainly due to easy accessibility of firewood in the rural areas unlike urban areas where development in all forms has led to major deforestation; thus, various forms of improved cooking fuel energy are available to choose from. For this reason, the significant use of firewood is not unexpected (Ogwumike, 2014). This could also largely be a result of little supply of clean energy, the easy accessibility and availability of alternative fuel energy options in the rural areas.

Cost: The costs associated with acquisition of LPG gas ancillaries (i.e., cooker, gas cylinder, re-filling of the gas cylinder as needs demand) which is considered high considering the minimum wage in the country and the traditional perception of high cost and that usage of LPG gas is meant for the rich in the society is another factor affecting the use of clean energy (Sa’ad and Bugaje, 2016)

Research Methodology

Research Design

According to Cooper and Schindler (2016), a research design is like a plan by which a given research work is to be carried out. The descriptive survey research design is adopted for this study. The descriptive survey design is a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals (Kombo & Tromp, 2016). This type of design is also useful when collecting information about people’s attitudes, opinions, and habits (Kombo and Tromp, 2016).  Since this falls within the focus of this study, the descriptive survey would be the most appropriate design to be used.  

Population of the study 

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2019), the population of a study is that population to which a researcher wants to generalise the results of the study. The target population for this study are women in Okrika Local Government Area of Rivers State. According to the National Population Commission’s (2016) projection, the number of women in Okrika Local Government Area is 108,323.

Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

A sample is a smaller part of a statistical population where properties are studied to gain information about the whole (Kombo and Tromp, 2016). A sample size of 399 is adopted for the study. This is based on the application of the Taro Yamene statistical formula as represented below:

Where n is the subject of the formula

1 is constant

E² = margin of error (0.05)

N is the study population of the study (108323).

Therefore,

n = 108323/1+ 108323 (0.0025).

n = 108323/1+270.8075

n = 108323/271.8075

n = 399

The selection of the sample elements will be based on the accidental sampling technique. The accidental sampling technique involves selecting available individuals who indicate readiness to participate in the study. The respondents do not have to meet any predetermined criteria. Ten out of the towns/villages that make up Okrika LGA are selected for the study. This is based on the simple random sampling technique which involves writing the names of all constituent towns in separate pieces of papers which are put in a hat; and picking ten pieces after the hat would have shaken to shuffle the pieces of papers. From each of the selected communities, at least 39 respondents would be chosen to ensure fair representation. (See table 1 below for details)

Table 1            showing selected communities and sample size.

Serial  number	List of randomly selected towns	Sample size
1.	Abam–Ama	39
2	Okochiri	39
3	Opuado-Ama	39
4	Sara- Ama	39
5	Semembiri-Ama	39
6	Otobipi	39
7	Okujagu-Ama	39
8	Okumgba-Ama	39
9	Omoaobi	43
10	Ogoloma	44
Total	10	399

Sources of data

Two kinds of data are used for this work. First are primary data which are sourced first hand by the researcher from the field using questionnaires. The other are secondary data, sourced from secondary materials including books, magazines, journal articles, newspaper publications and encyclopedia.

Research setting

Okrika is one of the local Government areas of Rivers State. It has its headquarters located in Okrika town. The local government area is made up of several villages with four major districts. The 2006 census determined that the population of Okrika LGA was 222,026. The people of Okrika, like other Ijo sub-groups of the Niger Delta are organised into autonomous and co-equal canoe houses. Kinsmen leaving together in same area make up each War-canoe house. The languages spoken by the Okrika people are okrika and kalabari. Historically, the okrika people of old were polytheists, believing in several gods and deities. Others were animists who believed in many spirits including marine spirits and in the spirits of their ancestors. In modern Okrika, Christianity has emerged as the dominant religion. Traditional religion however still exists side by side with Christianity. Before the onset of oil and gas activities, the people of Okrika were predominantly farmers, fishers and traders.

Instrument of data collection

The research instruments used in this study are questionnaires. The questionnaires are designed using close-ended questions. The questionnaires have two sections. The items in the first section seek demographic information about the respondents such as age, experience and qualifications. The second part seek information on the research questions.

Validity and reliability of research instrument

Orodho (2015) defines validity as a prior qualitative procedure test of the research instrument in attempting to ascertain how they are accurate, correct, true, meaningful and right in enhancing the intended data for the study. Reliability on the other handis a measure of the degree to which the instrument yields consistent data after repeated trials (Mugenda and Mugenda 2013). After preparing the questionnaire, it would be submitted to the project supervisor for perusal. Her contributions would be incorporated to enhance content validity and reliability.

Method of data analysis

The analysis of the research questions would be done using simple percentage, pie-charts and histograms.

Data Presentation and Analysis, and Discussion of Findings

In this section, the data generated from the respondents during the field work are presented and analysed. This is followed by a discussion of the key findings of the study. 

Table 2            Socio-Demographics of Respondents

Age: Less than 18 19-29 30-40 41-50 51 and above Total	Frequency 19 45 51 65 35 215	Percentage 8.9 20.9 23.7 29.3 16.2 100
Sex: Male Female Total	105 110 215	48.8 51,2 100

Table 2 contains the socio-demographic data of the study respondents. This includes age and sex. The number of respondents who are less than 18 years old is represented as 8.9%. Those who are between the groups of 19-29, 30-40, 41-50 and above 51 have percentage scores of 20.9, 23.7, 29.3 and 16.2 respectively. The fraction if men who participated in the study is represented as 48.8%, while that of women is 51.2%.

Figure 1          Barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking.

Discussion of findings

The objective examined the barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking activities. In this study, poverty is identified to be a leading cause of the problem. With rising inflationary trends, unemployment and decline in living standard, it is not unlikely that most families would resort to using non-clean energy such a firewood and charcoal since they are readily available and can be procured cheaply.  Corroborating this finding, is Sa’ad and Bugaje’s (2016) study of gas use in Nigeria. According to the authors, the outrageous costs gas cooker, gas cylinder and re-filling of the gas cylinder, constitute a barrier to the use of clean energy. Ignorance of the dangers associated with the use of non-clean energy is another factor. This problem is usually associated with illiteracy which lowers people’s understanding of how their actions may affect their health or that of society. It is not unlikely that a person who lacks information of how the use of non-clean energy can affect his life would care less about what source of energy he/she uses. As Mensah and Adu (2015) and Bisu (2016) support, education of household heads is a correlate of clean energy use. According to the scholars, being educated the likelihood of using kerosene, charcoal and wood as main coking fuels. However, while these scholars argued in terms of positive returns on employment opportunities the current study considers the issue from the point of view of information. The study further shows that leaving in a rural community also increases the use of non-clean energy. This is not unexpected, considering that poverty rate is usually higher and that modern energy sources are, in most cases, lacking in rural setting. Large household size is also an identifiable factor affecting the use of clean energy. The rationale is that when a family is too large, cooking is usually done in large quantity. This would mean increased cost of procuring clean energy which is already very high in price. As a result, such families would settle for cheaper alternatives of non-clean energy. As Pundo and Fraser (2016) confirms, it is comparatively affordable to use firewood for large family than LNG. The culture of conservatism is also prominent in influencing the poor adoption of clean energy. It is a major problem for most Africans to resist modern practices, particularly those that contravene largely with what they are traditionally used to. In this case, old folks may have become accustomed to the use of traditional fuel energy source(s) and thus are less willing to change towards modern reality of energy usage (Mensah and Adu, 2015).

Recommendations

1.         There should be intensive, monitored and sustainable development programme targeted at rural areas in Nigeria. These programmes should include massive deployment of infrastructures which will aid easy access to cleaner cooking fuel energy for households use.

2.         The Nigerian government could partner with women organisationsin the distribution of low cost technology accessories and ancillary materials needed for the use of LPG for cooking in the country.

References

African Women Power Network Reviews (2015). Fourteen (14) Leading

Ajanovic, A. (2011). Biofuels versus food production: Does biofuels production increase food prices? Energy, 36, 2070–2076.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.05.019

Asumadu-Sarkodie S, &Owusu, P. A. (2016f). The relationship between carbon dioxide and agriculture in Ghana, a comparison of VECM and ARDL model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. doi:10.1007/ s11356-016-6252-x

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016a). Feasibility of biomass heating system in Middle East Technical University, Northern Cyprus campus. Cogent Engineering,

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016b). A review of Ghana’s energy sector national energy statistics and policy framework. Cogent Engineering. 

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016c). Multivariate co-integration analysis of the Kaya factors in Ghana.

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016d). The potential and economic viability of solar photovoltaic in Ghana. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. doi:10.1080/15567036.2015.112 2682

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016e). The potential and economic viability of wind farms in Ghana Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. doi:10.1080/15567036.2015.1122680

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016g). Carbon dioxide emissions, GDP, energy use and population growth: A multivariate and causality analysis for Ghana, 1971–2013. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-6511-x

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., Owusu, P. A., &Jayaweera, H. M. (2015). Flood risk management in Ghana: A case study in Accra. Advances in Applied Science Research, 6, 196–201.

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., Owusu, P. A., &Rufangura, P. (2015). Impact analysis of flood in Accra, Ghana. Advances in Applied Science Research, 6, 53–78.

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., Rufangura, P., Jayaweera, H. M., &Owusu, P. A. (2015). Situational analysis of flood and drought in Rwanda. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 6, 960–970. doi:10.14299/ ijser.2015.08.013

Ayoub, M., & Abdullah, A. Z. (2016). Critical review on the current scenario and significance of crude glycerol resulting from biodiesel industry towards more sustainable renewable energy industry. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16, 2671–2686.

Baiyegunhi, L.J.S., Hassan, M.B. (2014), Rural household fuel energy transition: Evidence from Giwa LGA Kaduna State, Nigeria. Energy for Sustainable Development, 20(1), 30-35.

Barbier, E. (2016). Geothermal energy technology and current status: An overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 6, 3–65. Demirbas, M. F., Balat, M., &Balat, H. (2019). Potential contribution of biomass to the sustainable energy development. Energy Conversion and Management, 50, 1746–1760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-0321(02)00002-3

Bhattacharyya, S.C., Timilsina, G.R. (2019), Energy Demand Models for Policy Formulation. A Comparative Study of Energy Demand Models. Washington D.C: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4866.

Bisu, D., Kuhe, A., Iortyer, H. (2016), Urban household cooking energy choice: An example of Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 6(1), 15.

Brew-Hammond, A. (2016), Energy access in Africa: Challenges Ahead. Energy Policy, 38(5), 2291-2301.

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2023). Fundamentals of Research Writing and Uses of Research Methodologies. Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd.

Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Seyboth, K.,Matschoss, P., Kadner, S. and Stechow, C.  (2016). Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139151153

EEA. (2016). Mitigating climate change, greenhouse gas emissions. Retrieved from http://www.eea. europa.eu/soer-2015/countries-comparison/ climatechange-mitigation

Environmental Science and Pollution Research. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-6245-9

Førsund, F. R. (2015). Hydropower economics (Vol. 217). New York: Springer.

IEA (2014). Energy and poverty. In: World Energy Outlook 2002. International Energy Agency, Paris.

IEA. (2017), Energy Access Outlook 2017: From Poverty to Prosperity. World Energy Outlook Special Report. Available from: http://www. iea.org/energyaccess.

Karimu, A. (2015), Cooking fuel preferences among Ghanaian households: An empirical analysis. Energy for Sustainable Development, 27, 10-17.

Manwell, J. F., McGowan, J. G., & Rogers, A. L. (2015). Wind energy explained: Theory, design and application. Wiley.

Mensah, J, T.,  Adu, G. (2016). An empirical analysis of household energy choice in Ghana. Working paper 06/2012 Swedish University of Agriculture Science, Department of Economics. 

Mensah, J.T., Adu, G. (2015), An empirical analysis of household energy choice in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 51, 1402-1411.

Nlom, J.H., Karimov, A.A. (2015), Modeling fuel choice among households in Northern Cameroon. Sustainability, 7(8), 9989-9999.

OECD and IEA. 2010. CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. Paris, Organization for Economic Co- operation and Development & International Energy Agency, 2010:130.

Ogbanga, M. M. (2024). Communication Skills in Social Work. EduPedia Publications Pvt Ltd.

Ogbanga, M. M. (2024). Oil, Gender and Unemployment: Social Issues in the Niger. Eduindex.

Ogbanga, M. M., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Climate Change and Mental Heat. EduPedia Publications Pvt Ltd.

Ogwumike, F.O., Ozughalu, U. (2016), Energy consumption, poverty and environmental linkages In Nigeria: A case of traditional and modern fuels for cooking. In: Adenikinju, A., Iwayemi, A., Iledare, W., editors. Green Energy and Energy Security: Options for Africa. Ibadan: Atlantis Books. pp.235-254.

Ogwumike, F.O., Ozughalu, U.M. (2016), Analysis of energy poverty and its implications for sustainable development in Nigeria. Environment and Development Economics, 21(3), 273-290.

Ogwumike, F.O., Ozughalu, U.M., Abiona, G.A. (2014), Household energy use and determinants : Evidence from Nigeria. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 4(2), 248-262.

Olojede, I. (2018). Women’s Interest Organizations: Encounters With the State on Issues of Good Governance. Report. Civil Society and Governance Programmes, IDS, Department of Political Science, Lagos State University, Ojo Nigeria.

Organizations Changing the Lives of Nigerian Women and Girls. Available online at https://awpnetwork.com (Accessed October 13, 2015).

Oyekale, A.S. (2012), Assessment of households’ access to electricity and modern cooking fuels in rural and Urban Nigeria: Insights from DHS data. Life Science Journal, 9(4), 1564-1570.

Rahut, D.B., Mottaleb, K.A., Ali, A. (2017), Household energy consumption and its determinants in Timor-Leste. Asian Development Review, 34(1), 167-197.

Sa’ad, S., Bugaje, I.M. (2016), Biomass consumption in Nigeria: Trends and policy issues. Journal of Agriculture and Sustainability, 9(2), 127-157.

Sharma, S. N. (Ed.). (2016). New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd.

Smith, K., Mehta, S. and Maeusezahl-Feuz, M. (2014), “Indoor Air Pollution from Household Use of Solid Fuels”, in Ezzati, M., Rogers, A., Lopez, A., Murray C. (editors), Comparative Quantification of Health Risks, Volume 2, WHO, Geneva.

Urban, F., & Mitchell, T. (2011). Climate change, disasters and electricity generation.

WEO, 2016.   World Energy             outlook.           Available         at; http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/20081994/weo2006.pdf.

WHO, 2011. Health in the Green Economy. Co-benefits of Climate Change Mitigation- Household Energy Sector in Developing Countries. Executive Summary. http://www.who.int/hia/hgebrief_henergy.pdf

s