Water is one of the most critical natural resources, essential for life, agriculture, industry, energy, and ecosystem balance. India, with its diverse geography and climate, possesses significant water resources in the form of rivers, lakes, groundwater, glaciers, and rainfall. However, despite being endowed with a vast network of rivers and an average annual rainfall of about 1,170 mm, the country faces acute challenges in managing its water resources. Unequal distribution, overexploitation, and pollution have made water scarcity a pressing issue.
Water Resources in India
India’s water resources can be categorized into surface water and groundwater:
- Surface Water
India has 12 major river basins, including the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Mahanadi, and Kaveri. Together, these account for most of the country’s surface water availability. Lakes, reservoirs, and canals also play vital roles in irrigation, hydropower, and drinking water supply. The total utilizable surface water is estimated at about 690 billion cubic meters (BCM). - Groundwater
Groundwater is the backbone of India’s agriculture, providing nearly 60% of irrigation and over 80% of rural drinking water supply. States like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh heavily depend on groundwater for high-yield agriculture. The utilizable groundwater resources are estimated at about 433 BCM annually. - Rainfall and Glaciers
Rainfall is the primary source of water, concentrated in the monsoon season (June–September). However, its distribution is highly uneven across regions. The Himalayan glaciers also feed perennial rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra, which are crucial for northern India’s water security.
Problems Associated with Water Resources in India
- Uneven Distribution
Water resources are highly uneven across time and space. The north and northeast regions are water-rich, while the western and southern regions often face scarcity. Seasonal dependence on monsoons makes water availability uncertain and unreliable. - Overexploitation of Groundwater
Unsustainable extraction of groundwater for irrigation, especially in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and parts of Gujarat, has led to alarming declines in the water table. In some areas, aquifers are near exhaustion, threatening long-term agricultural sustainability. - Water Pollution
Industrial effluents, untreated sewage, agricultural runoff containing fertilizers and pesticides, and solid waste contaminate rivers, lakes, and groundwater. The Ganga, Yamuna, and Sabarmati are among the most polluted rivers. Contaminated water affects health, causing diseases like diarrhea, cholera, and fluorosis. - Inefficient Irrigation Practices
Agriculture consumes nearly 80% of India’s freshwater, yet irrigation efficiency remains low due to over-reliance on flood irrigation. This leads to waterlogging, salinization of soils, and wastage of precious resources. - Inter-State Water Disputes
Competition among states over river waters, such as the Cauvery dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu or the Satluj-Yamuna Link conflict between Punjab and Haryana, highlights the political and social challenges in water-sharing. - Climate Change Impact
Erratic rainfall, frequent droughts, floods, and glacial retreat due to global warming are exacerbating water stress. Himalayan rivers face long-term risks from shrinking glaciers, while coastal regions face saline water intrusion. - Population Growth and Urbanization
Rising population and rapid urbanization increase the demand for drinking water, sanitation, and industrial use. Cities like Chennai, Bengaluru, and Delhi frequently face severe water shortages. The mismatch between demand and supply is widening every year. - Decline in Traditional Water Systems
Traditional water conservation systems like tanks, ponds, step-wells, and baolis have been neglected, reducing community-based resilience to water stress.
Conclusion
India’s water resources are vast but under severe stress due to overexploitation, pollution, uneven distribution, and the growing pressures of population and climate change. Effective solutions lie in sustainable water management—improving irrigation efficiency, rainwater harvesting, watershed management, pollution control, and interstate cooperation. Reviving traditional practices alongside modern technology can help ensure water security for future generations.
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