¹Kingsley Obumunaeme Ilo

Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State

Email: kingsley.ilo@unn.edu.ng

²Ikegbunam, Uchenna Lilian

Department of Educational Foundations and Administration, 

Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe, Anambra State

Email: ucikegbunam1@gmail.com

³Chijioke A. C. Okoye

Department of History and International Studies,

Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State

Email: ca.okoye@coou.edu.ng  

^4*Chukwuemeka Dominic Onyejegbu*

Social Sciences Unit, School of General Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu State

Email: onyejegbudominic@gmail.com

*Corresponding author*

Abstract

This paper examined the issue of terrorism in contemporary Nigeria society paying particular attention to the case of Boko-Haram. Boko-Haram is a form of well-known terrorist group that has caused havoc and displaced many citizens; particularly in the North-Eastern part of Nigeria. The paper utilized secondary data and was anchored on frustration-aggression theory. Amongst other factors, the paper argues that it is evident that the Boko-Haram sect exploits widespread youth unemployment, and a high prevalence of illiteracy in Nigeria to perpetrate their terrorist acts. The reasons ranged from the frustrations of the unemployed youths and some people who dropped out of school. The paper posits that unless something is done to control it, a better, safer and more prosperous society emerging in Nigeria will remain elusive. Thus, the study recommends that there is need to review and restructure current governmental programmes to create sustainable jobs and encourage economic empowerment since current governmental  programmes have not met the employment need of the society. Also, present laws and practices guiding education system in Nigeria should be reviewed in a way that literacy level in Nigeria can be improved. In particular, there is need to explore the extant laws and ascertain the extent to which they are being enforced with a view to establishing their efficacy.

Keywords: Boko-Haram, Terrorism, Unemployment, Indiscriminate violence, Nigeria

1.1 Introduction 

Terrorism is one of the most challenging problems facing Nigeria today. The issue of terrorism and how to control it has remained a recurrent debate among scholars in the Nigerian socio-politics, yet there seems to be no end in sight. According to Ikeke (2015), when terrorism happens in any society, it affects almost every segment of that society. It brings about the destruction of human life and property; and the destruction of bio-cultural diversity. The lives of people and that of society are impeded. To Boff (2006:47), terrorism is today the major threat to the current global order, and its power can strike anywhere in the world.

 Eno, Eno, Ingiriis and Haji (2012) maintained, humans need not justify terrorism of any kind, regardless of whether one is Muslim, Christian or Jew, because it is the axis of evil and devastation of mankind. To Ogudiya and Amzat (2008), terrorism is a socio-political disorder that has grown to the detriment of the international security system and global economy. Acts of terrorism have increased over the years since September 11, 2001 terrorist attack directed at the United States of America. Since then, some nations, including Nigeria, have been suspected as pro-terrorist countries, possible haven for the terrorists and prone to terrorist attack (Ajah, Ajah, Ajah, Onwe, Ozumba, Iyoke & Nwankwo, 2022; Ogudiya & Amzat, 2008).

Terrorism is the use of intentional indiscriminate violence and intimidation such as mass destruction of lives and properties, kidnapping and assassination against members of the public as a means to create fear in order to achieve a political, religious and other aims. According to America’s State Department, terrorism is the premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience. Oyeniyi (2010) defines terrorism as any act which is a violation of the criminal laws of a state party and which may endanger the life, physical integrity or freedom of, or cause serious injury or death to any person, any number or group of persons or causes or may cause damage to public or private property, natural resources, environmental or cultural heritage and is calculated or intended to: 

• intimidate, put in fear, coerce or induce any government, body, institution, the general public or any segment thereof, to do or abstain from doing any act, or to adopt or abandon a particular standpoint or to act according to certain principles; or 
• disrupt any public  service, the delivery of any essential service to the public or to create a public  emergency; or 
• create general insurrection in a state.

Wilkinson (2006:328) noted that terrorism can be distinguished from other forms of violence in the following ways: 

• It is premeditated and designed to create a climate of extreme fear. 
• It is directed at a wider target than the immediate victims. 
• It is considered by the society in which it occurs as ‘extra-normal’, that is, it violates the norms regulating disputes, protest and dissent.
•  It is used primarily, though not exclusively to influence the political behavior of governments, communities or specific social groups.

 Mooney, Knox and Schacht (2002) are of the view that terrorism could be used to publicize a cause, promote an ideology, achieve religious freedom, attain the release of a political prisoner, or rebel against a government. What actually defines terrorism is not the motive but the means utilized in driving the motive (Eze, Okpa, Onyejegbu & Ajah, 2022; Ogundiya & Amzat, 2008).

In Nigeria, Boko-Haram (which loosely interprets to western education is sin) is a well-known terrorist group that has caused havoc and displaced many citizens; particularly in the North-Eastern part of the Country. These acts of terrorism have seriously caused untold hardships to the Nigerian citizens. Beri (2017) asserts that Boko Haram continues to target civilians and government infrastructure despite several rounds of operation conducted by the Nigerian Army. Boko Haram, which came up in 2009, had emerged as the ‘world’s deadliest terrorist organization’ by 2014. In the last eight years, it is said that Boko Haram has taken 20,000 lives, displaced 2.6 million people, created 75,000 orphans and caused about nine billion Naira worth of damage. Links with the ISIS, with leadership tussle between Abubakar Shekau and ISIS favouring Abu Musab al-Barnawi, have turned the situation more complex (Okpa, Ajah, Eze & Enweonwu, 2022; Beri, 2017). 

Despite the havoc and challenges Boko-Haram is causing in Nigeria, slow implementation of counter-terrorism framework by the members of the security agencies has created a security gap which they utilize to perpetrate their evil acts. Similarly, divisions in the country along ethnic, religious, and regional lines in addition to support they receive from some members of the public have boosted their operation.

1.2 Overview of Boko-Haram in Nigeria

Popoola (2012) reports that Boko Haram is a militant Islamic sect based in Northern Nigeria. Otherwise known as Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati Wal-Jihad, these mean, “people committed to the propagation of the Prophet Mohammed’s teachings and jihad”.  The group was formed around 2002. Nwanze (2014) maintained that the militant group saw society, particularly the government of Mala Kachalla as irredeemably corrupt. So, in the middle of 2002, the group, under its founder, Mohammed Yusuf, embarked on a hijra to Kanama in Yobe state. The quote below vividly captures the Islamic interpretation of Mohammed Yusuf’s hijra:

In Islam, a hijra is a journey from the bad world to go and be closer to God. The Prophet undertook one, from Mecca to Medina. Usman dan Fodio also undertook his own hijra, to Gudu, when Yunfa wanted to kill him (Nwanze, 2014). 

Kanama is probably where they had their first foreign contact. While there, more members joined, some of these new members were the kids of influential Northern leaders, such as the son of Yobe’s governor at the time “Bukar Abba Ibrahim” (Nwanze, 2014). Guided by the meaning of the name “Boko Haram” (western education is sinful), some people view their mission as reformist in nature. In 2004 after the group moved to Kanamma, Yobe state, they set up a base called ‘Afghanistan’ from where it attacked nearby police stations, killing police officers (Eze, Ajah, Okpa & Ngwu, 2022; Poopola, 2012). 

For strategic operational reasons, Yusuf extended the operations of the group to Maiduguri, Borno state, in 2009 where he attacked and killed several political and religious leaders or their families, especially, those who had openly condemned or criticized Boko Haram’s activities. From that moment, the group stepped up their operations and by 2011 several government officials as well as security operatives were killed (Popoola, 2012).  

In the same year 2011, the group struck other targets in the north including the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, where they bombed the police headquarters and the United Nation’s office. When the group struck at Damaturu and Potiskum, Yobe state, on November 4th, the police confirmed the death of 65 people (Popoola, 2012).  The devastating effect of the group’s attack has thus forced several government ministries, parastatals, and corporate establishments to step up security measures in an attempt to protect lives and property (Popoola, 2012). Ekwueme (2011:42) argues that Boko Haram is fast becoming Nigeria’s version of Muslim extremists operating with impunity elsewhere, maiming and killing those they consider as infidels. Ekwueme (2011:42) also asserts that the group’s teachings resemble that of the Afghanistan Taliban. They believe that any teaching or education that does not conform to the tenets of Islam is sinful and should not be taught at all. They also believed that it was the influence of western education that is watering down Islamic teaching and weakening Islam itself.  

Ekwueme (2011:43) went further to argue that the group exploited the country’s dysfunctional school system that is plagued with numerous strikes by teachers, widespread youth unemployment, and a high prevalence of illiteracy. The group also exploits the absence of an effective security system in the country.  Taking advantage of these economic frustrations and corrupt leadership of the country, they were able to win many converts. Even highly educated and well-connected members of the society joined the sect, and because their teaching addressed the frustrations of the unemployed youths, some of them dropped out of school, left their homes and joined the group fully (Ekwueme, 2011:43). Guardian newspaper (2011:43) expressed a similar view when she argued that Boko Haram is largely populated by young and often educated unemployed believers who are in circumstance restless and disenchanted with a life of idleness and hopelessness. They are therefore, a ready and willing audience for a preacher who, pooh-poohing western education as valueless in this life and in the life to come, calls on his followers to reject it” (p. 43).  

1.3 Causes of Boko-Haram Terrorism in Nigeria

 Olawale (2016) identified the following as the causes of violence in Nigeria and each of these causes has implication in this study:

Poor economy and unemployment: Olwawale (2016) identified that the escalating state of violence in Nigeria has been incessantly linked to poor economy and high level of youth unemployment.  Nigeria’s economy has been marred by corruption and thorough mismanagement of public funds. This has led to widespread unemployment, frustration and restiveness among the youths which makes them susceptible to violence. Nigeria’s unemployment rate is above the sub region’s average that increased to 23.9% in 2011 compared to 21.1% in 2010 and 19.7% in 2009 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2012).  The youth constitute 60% of the country’s population, and majority of them are unemployed and underemployed. Since they are idle and frustrated, they become susceptible to violence, societies with strong economies and low unemployment rates record low percentage of violence (Olawale, 2016). The appeal of using terror to get one’s way is becoming an acceptable option among Nigerians because of frustration of not being employed. One of the Nigerian newspaper reported that:

 The Boko Haram is largely populated by young and often educated unemployed believers who are in circumstance restless and disenchanted with a life of idleness and hopelessness. They are therefore, a ready and willing audience for a preacher who, pooh-poohing western education as valueless in this life and in the life to come, calls on his followers to reject it” Guardian newspaper (2011:43).

Lack of equality and justice: Nigeria is a rich country with alarming number of poor people. The country is vast in natural resources and oil wealth which is controlled by the political class. While a lawmaker earns bogus salaries and allowances, a classroom teacher is paid meager amount which is usually delayed, sometimes for a few months. Civil servants earn far less and delayed salaries. Also, government tax citizens yet the infrastructural deficit in the country is depressing; intra and interstate roads are extremely poor, power supply is a mirage, public healthcare is lagging behind, fuel/gas scarcity is incessant among others. Inequality and injustice in Nigeria has instigated provocations and led to violence many times. Violence has become an instrument to seek equality and justice (Olawale, 2016). In support of the above mentioned, Bomani (2016), argued that many of the people who take the route of radicalism are raised in marginalized and deprived regions. It must be pointed out that in most cases the terrorist groups face discrimination in the countries they live, leading to feelings of isolation. Growing sentiments of discrimination can lead groups to look to more conservative, and eventually, extremist ideologies.

Religious/ethic sentiments: Nigerians are overwhelmingly obsessed about religious and ethnic identities; sadly, religious and ethnic identities play more important roles in election, appointments, employment and admission into public institutions in Nigeria. The religious and ethnic sentiments have led to violence; this has brought global attention and scrutiny to Nigerians. Religious and ethnic sentiments have triggered major violence in Nigeria. Dempsey (2006) opined that the religious and ethnic differences between the Moslem and Christians cum government loopholes as part of the factors that causes terrorism in Nigeria. Similarly, a study has identified that different factors have rendered Nigeria ineffective to combat the rising wave of terrorism.  The factors include religious liberalization which resulted into the proliferation of different religious groups; emergence of sects with diverse beliefs and practices; and the inability of Nigeria government to censor these religious activities (Ali 2002).

Most religious teachings in Nigeria are all about hatred, in most places of worship today ‘Satan who used to be the traditional enemy of mankind is no longer the enemy, but the hatred inbuilt by the religious leaders and preachers, preaching against the basic tenets of religion to encourage violence among the major religious groups, against one another is the common feature in such places of worship whether you are a Christian or a Muslim’ (Ali, 2002). Also, radical Islamic ideologist believes that anything of western values is declared unhealthy and capable of destroying indigenous value systems and this is one of the main reasons of terrorist acts which threaten the country’s peace (Isyaku, 2013).

Political instability: Nigeria’s political terrain is characterized by clashes of interests, mismanagement, and corruption. Equally, Adeyemi (2012) argued that the contemporary terrorism in Nigeria is a latent function of prolonged failure of the government to deliver purposeful good governance. When the Federal, state and Local Governments steal all the money allocated for building schools, hospitals, industries, etc, the greater percentage of the citizenry especially the youths are denied good education, employment and good health. Consequently, these youths are affected socially, psychologically and economically. Also, frustrations, dejection and hopelessness remain a day to day occurrence in their lives. They can easily be brainwashed and indoctrinated with false doctrines and co-opted into illegal societies (Zumve, Ingyoroko & Akuya, 2013). Leadership failure is a big factor that put this country under the siege of terrorism.

Corruption: According to Ikejiaku (2009), corruption creates absolute poverty. Corruption also undermines democracy, rule of law, good governance and insecurity. It destroys the capacity of institutions to perform well. Corruption creates unemployment and other social vices, that is, corruption as perpetuated by public servants and political office holders. relatedly, Zumve, Ingyoroko and Akuva (2013) argued that terrorism and corruption are destructive, horrific and heinous. Both terrorism and corruption are qualified to be described as “monsters”. Most times, persons who are custodians of the government anti-corruption and anti-terrorist apparatus in Nigeria are variously accused of perpetuating corruption or assisting and sponsoring terrorism (Obuah, 2010).

1.4 Consequences of Terrorism in Nigeria

A lot of resources have been channeled towards countering the acts of terrorism by Boko-Haram. The resources that should be used in building the infrastructures, promoting the general welfare of Nigerians and providing a good platform for Nigerians to work is now being used for national security, rehabilitation and health care expenses. This has affected the socio-economic, political and security development of Nigeria. The worst undoing is that these acts of terror by Boko-Haram have made investors skeptical to invest in Nigeria and citizens are scared to go to work (Olawale, 2016). Obi (2015) argued that the activities of the Islamic sect (Boko Haram) had led to loss of lives and properties in the country especially in the Northern part of Nigeria. Some of these activities include bombing, suicide bomb attacks, sporadic shooting of unarmed and innocent citizens, burning of public places such as police stations, churches and kidnapping of school girls and women, etc.

Olawale (2016) and Udama (2013) identified the following as the consequences of Boko-Haram attacks in Nigeria:

• Loss of Lives and Properties: Over 2 million Nigerians in the North East have been displaced by Boko Haram attacks. This includes over 800,000 children while thousands of lives have been lost, government, corporate and private properties lost in billions of Naira. This has come with the task of rebuilding the affected communities in a post Boko Haram era. Relatedly, Udama (2013) asserts that the human costs in terms of lives and properties can hardly be valued and quantified since the upsurge of the violence began.  
• Socio-Economic Stagnation: For states affected by Boko Haram attacks in North Eastern Nigeria, social and economic activities were paralyzed for several months; schools were shut down and pupils withdrawn, businesses were shut down and economic movement in the region became extremely difficult. The violence has stagnated socio-economic activities, since peace is paramount to economic growth. Also, Boko-Haram attacks breed tension in Nigeria, state of emergency/curfew is often declared in the affected areas of the nation (Olawale, 2016). Relatedly, Udama (2013) asserts that Boko-Haram has disrupted and offset the normal social life and number of  lives have been lost. Terrorists’ activities have displaced people from their usual bases to different unintended locations. The mass movement of people creates refugee problems with substantial costs to the individual, host communities and the government. Also, extreme violence repels rather than attract business investors. Boko-Haram attacks have paralyzed the economic activities especially in the northern parts of the country where these incidents are prevalent, thereby worsening the already bad situation. 
•  Political Effect: Since the rise of Boko Haram, the Islamic sect is spreading terror for years, spreading clouds of fear across the country, and especially in many parts of the north where law and order has collapsed.  Different murderous gangs roam the cities, streets and villages day and night exploding bombs, shooting and killing innocent people. They set homes and business premises on fire, destroying places of worship, and attacking security agents and institutions. The process has promoted anarchy by causing confusion and widespread panic among people in Nigeria. The civil rights of individuals and even their more basic civil liberties as guaranteed by the constitution has been jeopardized. While the Islamic sects unleash terror on the people, the activities of the security agents have become deplorable as well hence the abuses of people’s liberty have become rampant. They have deployed an unconventional and extra-judicial method of shoot at sight which is usually adopted by the government to tackle widespread public disturbances and terrible crimes. The security agents stop people at will, restrict people’s movement by the day and especially at night and kill anyone at the least suspicion. The sects’ activities have spread fear across the length and breadth of not only northern Nigeria but the entire country especially among the political elites. Given the ethnic sensitivity of the country, it has pushed further its political polarization and raised the existing suspicion and distrust especially between the north and south.    

1.5 Theoretical Framework

Frustration- aggression theory of Leonard Berkowitz (1969) was used to explain the phenomenon under discourse.  The theory is a socio-psychological. This theory states that aggression is the result of blocking or frustrating a person’s efforts to attain a goal. This theory has implications in this study because an observation of the Nigerian society, particularly the 20^th century and the dawn of the 21^st century shows that the Nigeria is pervaded with frustrating events and frustrating circumstances, one in which it could be said that frustration is endemic. Since 1980s, oppression and injustice have been rife, poverty has spread like wild fire, and frustration of the basic needs and aspirations of the vast majority of citizens, including the children and the youth, has been a cardinal feature of decadent society. One result of widespread and severe frustration of the legitimate needs and aspirations of the masses of Nigerians has been the development in the personalities of ordinary Nigerians of varying degrees of hostile and destructive traits, which manifest, in certain cases, in terrorist acts and crises orchestrated by frustrated youths in our societies. Thus, it may defensibly be asserted that a common denominator shared by the phenomena of terrorism, crime and crises in our societies is the existence of hostile and destructive urges in our youths due to frustration. As we have seen, this personality trait, characterized by hostility, and destructiveness, can be traced back to early experiences of frustration, and such experiences come from the environment. It is also interesting to note that, the specific events that trigger violent crises in societies are usually the particular environment of a given society, and can often be seen to involve the frustration or denial of some basic needs. Frustration and denial of basic needs  trigger off terrorism.  Egbue, Nwankwo and Alichie (2015) confirmed that Mohammed Yusuf and his Boko Haram ideology found an echo and appeal within the rank of frustrated members of the peasant class in Northern Nigeria. He capitalized on their dwindling economic situation and the ‘Almajiri’ system to attract large followership especially amongst the commoners (peasant class).

1.6 Conclusion

Boko-Haram has become an intrinsic challenge in Nigeria. This challenge has led to serious infrastructural damage in the areas of education, health and social welfare facilities, poor economy particularly in affected areas, while millions are left homeless.  Egbue, Nwankwo and Alichie (2015) claimed that Boko Haram group has done much harm in the past six years in Nigeria. The loss of lives, loss of government owned and private property, failure of sustainable development initiatives by  Nigerians and government, loss of prospective foreign investments are a few of the fallouts of  Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria.

1.7 Recommendation 

1. Boko-Haram in Nigeria did not develop from a vacuum; there are some social and political factors that gave birth to it that is why all hands must be on deck in the fight against Boko Haram irrespective of diverse social, political, ethnic, religious or cultural inclination of Nigerians.
2. There is need to review the current techniques of fighting terrorism by the security agencies and improve its counter-terrorism approaches.
3. Since current governmental programmes have not met the employment need of the society, there is need to review the current programmes in a way that they can create sustainable jobs and encourage economic empowerment. Since economic deprivation and frustration leads to radicalism.
4. Our present political structure needs to be reviewed because instability in our political system and bad governance encourages radicalism and terrorism.
5. There is need for the government to effectively censor the activities of religious activities. Since the inability of the government to censor religious activities in the country has rendered the authority ineffective to combat the rising wave of terrorism.
6. There is need to engage all the stakeholders and the youth to negotiate ethnic and cultural differences, this will help restructure the country in a way rancour and acrimony can reduce among the people. It is important to note that growing sentiments of discrimination among the people can lead groups to look to more conservative, and eventually, extremist ideologies.
7. Since there is still a slow pace of literacy level in the present laws and practices guiding the education system, the present laws and practices should be reviewed in a way that literacy level in Nigeria can be improved. In particular, there is the need to explore the extant laws and the extent to which they are being enforced with a view to establishing their efficacy.
8. There is a need to start the fight against corruption from the institutional level, since corruption encourages terrorism. Fighting corruption from the institutional level allows the understanding of the root causes of corruption and the machineries that breed corruption. By doing so, we will be able to know the best ways to manage and block the loopholes that breed about corruption.

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¹Ikegbunam, Uchenna Lilian

Department of Educational Foundations and Administration, 

Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe, Anambra State

Email: ucikegbunam1@gmail.com

²Chijioke A. C. Okoye

Department of History and International Studies,

Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State

Email: ca.okoye@coou.edu.ng  

^3*Chukwuemeka Dominic Onyejegbu*

Social Sciences Unit, School of General Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu State

Email: onyejegbudominic@gmail.com

Corresponding author*

⁴Kingsley Obumunaeme Ilo

Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State

Email: kingsley.ilo@unn.edu.ng

Abstract 

Recent cybersecurity reports suggest that cyber-attacks are on the increase, especially as they are mostly deployed innovatively by cyber-criminals to steal personal data, conduct espionage, harm business operations, or deny user access to information and services. In Nigeria, cyber-attacks remain the most notable strategies employed by highly sophisticated cybercrime syndicates in attacking and stealing information from large corporations and Internet users. This study explores how cyber-attacks impinge business operations in Nigeria. Data for the study were gathered from newspapers, e-books, magazines, journals, textbooks and online articles. At the end, the study calls for businesses to strengthen their network of security, engage in aggressive cyber-security awareness training for staff, leverage advanced detection and response technologies, and use mobile protection solutions or corporate internet traffic protection to avoid the damaging effects of malware on their finances and reputation.  It is equally recommended by the study for corporate organisations to spread their data across smaller sub-networks to help contain attacks to only a few endpoints instead of the entire ICT infrastructure.

Keyword: Cybercrime, Cyber-attack, Internet, Business operations, Corporate organizations.

Introduction

In 2017, African economies lost US$3.5 billion to cyber-attacks with Nigeria holding the biggest loss of US$649 million (Eze, Okpa, Onyejegbu & Ajah, 2022; Africa’s Pulse, 2019; Abdi, 2018). This is seconded by Kenya with a loss of US$210 million. For Nigeria, the US$649 million was about 3.3% of its total national budget for that year 2017 which is bigger than 3.1% of the budget that was allocated to Defense and 1.9% of the budget that was allocated to Health (Punch, 2016).  Despite popular metrics, Nigeria is not particularly a wealthy country as it houses a good percentage of the poorest population in the world (Okpa, Ajah, Eze & Enweonwu, 2022; Kazeem, 2018; Saharareporters, 2018). With 3.2% of the national economic activities lost to cybercrime in 2017, a great number of people and businesses were affected and pushed below poverty line (Ukwayi & Okpa, 2018).   Prince (2019) and Jumoke (2019) affirmed that 60% of Nigerian firms experienced cyber-attacks in 2018 and 43% of these attacks went to small and medium scale enterprises. These financial losses meant that some businesses were shut down while others outrightly downsized their workforce to maintain viability, hence causing more unemployment, poverty and hunger across the country (Eze, Ajah, Okpa & Ngwu, 2022). Approximately one in every eleven Nigerians is unemployed and about 50% of the 180million population live in extreme poverty (Yomi, 2018; Timothy, 2018). These metrics raise more concern with the fact that cybercrime steals about 3.3% of national economic activities per year and is responsible for many businesses shutting down and downsizing, resulting to the tremendous unemployment and poverty that troubles the nation.

            These threats are perpetrated by employing the most intelligent methods by either stealing from people without their knowing or deliberately ensnaring people into parting with their resources . In using deliberate methods, cybercriminals tell cascades of stories to their prospective victims either to win their sympathies or interests. Once this step is achieved, they proceed to lure their victims into parting with their savings (Frank, 2019). This use of deliberate method is the popularly known ‘Yahoo-Yahoo’ in Nigeria. Their deliberate methods can come in the forms of love and romance like the case of Jan Marshall who was defrauded $350,000 by a fake Nigerian lover or in the forms of business opportunities like the case of Emmanuel Nwude who sold a nonexistent airport to Brazilian bankers for $242 million (Ajah, Ajah, Ajah, Onwe, Ozumba, Iyoke & Nwankwo, 2022; Frank, 2019; Farida, 2018). In using deliberate methods, they cajole, ensnare and deceive victims into willingly parting with their resources. This does not only happen from Nigerian fraudsters to foreign victims but also from Nigerian fraudsters to Nigerian victims – but Nigerian victims have continuously failed to tell their stories, likely because of shame, stigma or fear of being condemned as weak or stupid. 

Cybercrime in Nigeria

            In earlier Nigeria as well as earlier Africa, crimes existed but they were highly unsophisticated. Stealing was almost horizontal and people simply walked into crimes. There were no fixed definitions of what comprised crime and what did not; people were merely guided by indigenous laws and definitions of crime. Ani (2019) and Solanke (2011) described indigenous legal system as local elders and chiefs sitting under an Iroko tree to discuss a peculiar behavior and determine whether it is right or wrong. The legal system at the time was both not structurally formed and unsophisticated. Sophistication came with the foreigners when people saw different ways to live – and different ways to also commit diverse crimes. By the time of independence, a few Nigerians had acquired education and sharpened their skills in thinking and sophistication. Fraud and embezzlement among educated public officials kicked-in.  Officials were silently stealing from the people without public’s knowledge. People gradually gained consciousness on the crimes of officials; others also discovered criminal patterns of their own. Cybercrime came with the internet. As the world developed technologically for businesses and social interactions, criminal minded individuals also saw opportunities to expand their methods and reach more people. 

Cybercrime connotes crimes committed on the internet. This may exist in different forms like cyber-fraud, cyber espionage, cyber stalking, hacking, etc. The most common among Nigerian cybercriminals is cyber fraud. Cyber fraud, unlike hacking, requires less technological skills but much social skills. It is the act of relating with other people on the internet with the sole purpose of defrauding them. It usually involves other sub-criminal activities like impersonation and forgery and is more emotionally exhausting than hacking  (Bentina & Ajah, 2017). In cyber-fraud, the perpetrators usually approach their victims with business opportunities, romance gestures or unfortunate stories to win their victims’ pity. Once a prospective victim listens and accepts the gestures of the cybercriminal, the victim is made to part with his/her monies to the cybercriminal  (Bentina & Ajah, 2017). These monies are usually victims’ life-savings or borrowed funds. In some cases, the romance method is used and victims also get emotionally affected as well.

            Whether it is cyber-stalking, espionage, cybersquatting, cyber-bullying, identity theft, cyber child pornography or cyber fraud, Nigerian constitution abhors them and finds perpetrators guilty with jail terms and/or fines (Das & Nayak, 2013). An example of identity theft is the imposter of Bola Tinubu on Facebook who was later discovered and arrested (Lawpadi, 2019). Such Identity theft crime on the internet is punishable with no less than 3years imprisonment or ₦7 million fine or both (Cybercrime Act, 2015). 

Cybercrime and Businesses

The cyberspace is driving business innovations and growths globally, and at the same time, exposing corporate organisations to new and emerging internet-assisted crimes (Makeri, 2017; Longe, Ngwa, Wada, Mbarika, & Kvasny, 2009; Quarshie and Martin-Odoom, 2012). Today, the negative frontiers of the cyberspace that corporate organisations are contending with include: hacking, malware attacks, cyber-terrorism, spoofing, phishing, spam, virus attacks, child pornography, cyber vandalism, cyberstalking, data modification, email bombing and cybersquatting (Fanawopo, 2004). The alarming increase in “incidents of cyber-attacks and the resultant economic implications have made the management and security of the cyberspace a paramount concern to multi-stakeholders, driving the process, from the public to the private corporate institutions” (Agugoesi, 2014:8).

Hacking is a complicated technical activity aimed at exploiting systems’ vulnerabilities to subvert security checks, geared towards compromising digital devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets, and networks of organisations for financial gains, corporate espionage and for fun. Hackers are broadly classified into the Black Hat, White Hat and Gray Hat hackers. The Black-hatters are the malicious hackers who hack for economic reasons. The White hatters are the ‘good guys’ in the cyberspace who hack for ethical reasons, while, the Gray hatters hack for ideological reasons (Manne, 2020). The Black-hat hackers sometimes known as crackers are criminals, who use their skills to modify computer hardware or software for malicious intents. These group of individuals use their programming skills, to exploit target systems’ weaknesses and invade the networks of organisations, steal personal and corporate data for personal aggrandisement. Black-hat hacking is committed by a diverse spectrum of actors (lone actors and organized crime syndicate), with different motivations and affiliations (Peters & Jordan, 2019).

 Their motivation ranges from economic gains to stealing and damaging sensitive data, disabling networks, establishing a command and control server, or using the system as a base to wreak future havoc. “Attacks can be active such as a brute-force attack that determines a user’s password, or passive, such as a web-based attack that waits for a user to visit a malicious webpage in an attempt to infect the user’s computer with malicious codes through which they gain access into the target organisations’ networks” (Peters & Jordan, 2019:6). These group of digital opportunists usually cause mayhem in organisations by engaging in DDoS, identity theft, vandalizing networks and creating worms to damage institutional and personal files. Studies have shown that fraudulent emails remain the most widely used strategy by black hatters to attack corporate organisations. Most of such attacks begin with phishing emails, which exploit staff vulnerabilities in order to infect computers with malware. Once the malware is downloaded into the network, black-hat hackers through this medium gain access to the user’s database to forge personal data with which they exploit an organisation. The malware ignorantly downloaded into the network by staff could maliciously delete or transfer information, download destructive programs, providing hackers with unauthorized access to the computer, and more. Black-hat hackers also use psychology to trick staff into clicking on a malicious attachment or providing personal data. Despite differences in hackers’ profile and drive, majority of the attacks by these group of cybercriminals have been found to be trans-national in nature (Peters & Jordan, 2019). This suggests that a single hacking attack can hit countless victims in different countries independent of the location of the attack.

Estimating the global economic impact of black-hat hacking is difficult since most organisations do not report or publish their financial losses. However, The Council of Economic Advisers (2018:8) estimated that “malicious cyber activities cost the U.S. economy between $57 billion and $109 billion in 2016”. “In Kenya, several government websites came under hackers’ attacks, putting huge amounts of citizens’ data and even government revenue collection systems at risk. In 2012, over one hundred (100) Kenyan government websites were defaced by an Indonesian hacker with an estimated loss of $22.4 million. In South Africa, ATMs were massively compromised and huge sums of funds lost to the activities of the hackers in South Africa” (Tobiko, 2014:7).  

Similarly, every successful attack, no matter how insignificant, attracts disastrous consequences for corporate organisations. The abuses of the cyberspace by black hatters portend danger and have stalled the developmental contributions accruable from a well-harnessed ICT adoption, diffusion and utilisation by corporate organisations in Nigeria. This development has widened the digital divide, crumbled the information infrastructure and affected consumer’s confidence in online transactions in Nigeria.

Reporting on the dynamic nature of malware attacks, Jennings, Johnson and Sood (2019) state that malicious actors leverage on automated software and other ICT tools to target small businesses and large corporations. This shows that no organisation whether big or small, production companies or service providers are immune to malware attacks. More recently, scholars such as Lévesque, Chiasson, Somayaji and Fernandez (2018) have employed quantitative approach to explore the interactions between users, antivirus (AV) software, and malware as they occur on deployed systems. Another form of malware known as ransomware in a bid to avoid being traced, it demands that its ransom be paid through bitcoin, this makes their in-put low and their profit very high in addition to their operational anonymity (Jennings, Johnson & Sood, 2019).  

Literature from both developed and developing nations have highlighted operational methods deplored by malware writers to include “code obfuscation and modification as well as inclusion of new behaviour in the malware to improve strength and viability” (Gounder & Farik, 2017). For example, Gounder and Farik’s (2017) research on new ways to fight malware suggests “code obfuscation makes malware code obscure and unintelligible by malware detectors, reduces the size of codes making malware download time and deployment shorter and easier”. This technique can be grouped into “polymorphic or metamorphic”. “Polymorphic virus hides its decryption loops using code insertion and transposition to bypass detection while metamorphic virus evades detection by hiding itself from detectors” (Shah, 2014). 

The corporate organisations ICT components are often the major victims of malware attacks due to failure to secure their operating system designs and other related software vulnerabilities (OECD, 2008). Software vulnerabilities according to OECD (2008) is a function of faulty coding, software not properly configured, or used in a manner not compatible with the suggested uses or improperly configured with other software. These factors allow for loopholes that exposes corporate entities to malware attacks. In the event that internet fraudsters find these flaws, malicious software is created to take advantage of them (Oyelere & Oyelere, 2015). Non-technological factors, such as bad user behaviours and ineffective security policies and processes, may put a company at risk of malware infection. Malwares such as viruses or trojans must be triggered by some kind of user activity, such as clicking on a seemingly trustworthy file or link, opening a phishing e-mail or visiting a compromised website as well as through physical media such as external drives. According to Danchev (2006) “once the system security has been compromised by the initial infection, some forms of malware automatically install additional functionality such as spyware (e.g. keylogger), backdoor, rootkit or any other type of malware, known as the payload”.

Conclusion and recommendations

In Nigeria today, different forms of cybercrimes are committed on a daily basis ranging from phishing, Business Email Compromise, hacking, cyber vandalism, cyber espionage and malware attacks. These cybercrimes are increasing in frequency, dimension and sophistication, thus posing  serious threats to the socio-economic development of businesses, internet users, and national security. The destructive intention of these cybercrimes are to overwhelm, manipulate and damage computers whether personal or corporate without the knowledge of the users. For this reason, countries like “Kenya, Angola, Nigeria, Rwanda, Botswana, Uganda, Tanzania, and South Africa” lost billions of dollars annually to cyber related offences. However, to stem the tide of cyber-attacks, the study calls for businesses to strengthen their network of security, engage in aggressive cyber-security awareness training for staff, leverage advanced detection and response technologies, and use mobile protection solutions or corporate internet traffic protection to avoid the damaging effects of malware on their finances and reputation.  It is equally recommended by the study for corporate organisations tospread their data across smaller sub-networks to help contain attacks to only a few endpoints instead of the entire ICT infrastructure. 

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