Reports are structured forms of communication used to present facts, findings, analysis, and recommendations. They can vary significantly depending on the field, purpose, and audience. Among the most common are technical reports, scientific reports, legal reports, and other professional communications.

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1. Types of Reports

a) Technical Reports

• Present technical information, processes, or results of projects and experiments.
• Focus on accuracy, clarity, and usability of technical data.
• Common in engineering, IT, industry, and applied sciences.
• Example: A report on the performance of a new software system or a structural safety analysis.

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b) Scientific Reports

• Present findings of scientific research and experiments.
• Follow a standard structure: Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, References.
• Aim to advance knowledge and are written for other researchers, academicians, or journals.
• Example: A laboratory research paper on climate change impacts.

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c) Legal Reports

• Present information relevant to law, compliance, or legal disputes.
• Focus on facts, evidence, case precedents, and legal interpretations.
• Must be highly precise and conform to legal standards and formats.
• Example: Case briefs, investigation reports, or legal compliance documents.

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d) Business/Commercial Reports

• Used in organizations for decision-making, planning, and monitoring.
• Can be financial, market research, feasibility, or performance reports.
• Example: Annual business performance report, project feasibility study.

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e) Administrative/Government Reports

• Prepared by government or administrative bodies.
• Aim to inform policymakers, the public, or stakeholders.
• Example: Census reports, policy white papers.

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f) Educational/Academic Reports

• Used in universities and research institutions.
• Include dissertations, student project reports, and institutional evaluations.

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2. Differences Between Technical, Scientific, Legal, and Other Communications

Aspect	Technical Communication	Scientific Communication	Legal Communication	Business/Other Communication
Purpose	To explain technical processes, designs, or systems for practical use.	To present original research, findings, and theories for knowledge advancement.	To document facts, arguments, and interpretations for legal matters.	To provide information for decision-making, policy, or organizational activities.
Audience	Engineers, technicians, industry experts, clients.	Researchers, academicians, scientists, journals.	Judges, lawyers, clients, government bodies.	Managers, stakeholders, employees, public.
Content Focus	Data-driven, factual, application-oriented.	Hypothesis, experiments, results, theories.	Evidence, law interpretation, case references.	Market trends, finance, strategy, operations.
Language Style	Clear, precise, often with visuals (charts, diagrams).	Formal, academic, objective, structured.	Strict, formal, exact wording; legal terminology.	Professional, persuasive, may be descriptive or analytical.
Structure	Title, Abstract, Methodology, Results, Conclusion, Appendices.	Abstract, Literature Review, Methodology, Results, Discussion, References.	Case facts, issues, arguments, judgment, legal references.	Executive summary, findings, recommendations, conclusion.
Use of Evidence	Technical data, experimental results, design specs.	Experimental data, statistics, peer-reviewed references.	Legal precedents, witness statements, statutes.	Market data, financial statements, performance metrics.

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3. Key Distinctions

• Technical vs. Scientific:
  Technical reports are application-oriented (how to use knowledge), while scientific reports are knowledge-oriented (why and what happens).
• Technical vs. Legal:
  Technical reports emphasize usability and precision of technical data, while legal reports emphasize interpretation and compliance with law.
• Scientific vs. Legal:
  Scientific communication is exploratory and hypothesis-driven, while legal communication is fact-driven and bound by legal frameworks.
• Business vs. Others:
  Business communication often balances factual reporting with persuasive recommendations, unlike the strict objectivity of scientific or legal reports.

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✅ In summary:

• Technical communication = practical application of technical data.
• Scientific communication = contribution to academic knowledge.
• Legal communication = adherence to laws, facts, and legal reasoning.
• Other reports (business, administrative, educational) = decision-making, management, or public awareness.

by Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Reading research papers effectively is crucial for writing a comprehensive and insightful review paper. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you navigate through research papers and synthesize the information for your review:

1. Understand the Purpose of a Review Paper

• A review paper synthesizes existing research on a specific topic, identifies trends, gaps, and inconsistencies, and often suggests future research directions.
• Your goal is to provide a comprehensive summary and critical analysis of the literature, not just a list of findings.

2. Identify the Core Literature

• Search for Relevant Papers: Use academic databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science to find relevant papers. Keywords and citations from seminal papers can guide you.
• Select Core Papers: Focus on highly cited papers, recent studies, and seminal works that are central to your topic. These will form the backbone of your review.

3. Skim the Papers for Relevance

• Read the Abstract: Start with the abstract to get an overview of the paper’s objectives, methods, results, and conclusions. This helps determine if the paper is relevant to your review.
• Check the Introduction and Conclusion: The introduction provides context and background, while the conclusion summarizes the key findings. These sections help you quickly assess the paper’s significance.

4. Read the Paper in Detail

• Introduction: Understand the research question, objectives, and hypothesis. This will help you frame your review within the existing literature.
• Methods: Review the methodology to understand how the research was conducted. This is crucial for assessing the validity of the results.
• Results: Focus on the data presented, tables, and figures. Take notes on key findings, but be cautious about drawing conclusions based solely on this section.
• Discussion/Conclusion: This section provides the authors’ interpretation of the results, their significance, and how they fit into the broader context of the field.
• References: Scan the references for additional papers that might be relevant to your review.

5. Take Structured Notes

• Summarize Key Points: For each paper, note down the research question, methods, key findings, strengths, weaknesses, and how it contributes to the field.
• Identify Themes: Look for recurring themes, theories, methods, or findings across multiple papers. These will help you structure your review.
• Highlight Gaps: Identify areas where research is lacking or where findings are contradictory. These gaps often suggest opportunities for future research.

6. Organize Your Notes and Synthesize Information

• Create a Thematic Outline: Organize your notes into themes or subtopics. This will form the structure of your review paper.
• Synthesize, Don’t Summarize: Instead of simply summarizing each paper, synthesize the information by discussing how different studies relate to each other. Compare and contrast their findings, methods, and implications.
• Develop a Critical Perspective: Assess the strengths and weaknesses of the studies you’ve reviewed. Consider the robustness of the methodologies, the significance of the findings, and the reliability of the conclusions.

7. Write the Review Paper

• Introduction: Introduce the topic, explain its significance, and outline the scope of your review. Mention the key themes or issues you’ll address.
• Main Body: Organize this section according to themes, methodologies, or chronological order. For each theme, discuss the relevant literature, highlight key findings, and provide critical analysis.
• Conclusion: Summarize the main insights from the review, highlight the gaps in the literature, and suggest directions for future research.
• References: Include a comprehensive list of all the papers you’ve cited in your review.

8. Revise and Proofread

• Check for Coherence: Ensure that your review flows logically from one section to the next and that your analysis is cohesive.
• Edit for Clarity and Conciseness: Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and free of jargon.
• Verify References: Double-check that all citations are accurate and that your reference list is complete.

9. Seek Feedback

• Peer Review: Share your draft with colleagues or mentors for feedback. They can provide valuable insights on the clarity, coherence, and comprehensiveness of your review.
• Revise Based on Feedback: Incorporate the feedback and refine your paper before final submission.

Conclusion

Reading research papers for writing a review requires a systematic approach to identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing information. By carefully selecting relevant literature, taking structured notes, and critically engaging with the content, you can produce a review paper that provides valuable insights into the current state of research on your chosen topic.

References

Adler, M. J., & Van Doren, C. (1972). How to read a book. Simon and Schuster.

Dehaene, S. (2010). Reading in the brain: The new science of how we read. Penguin.

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2023). Fundamentals of Research Writing and Uses of Research Methodologies. Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd.

Eagleton, T. (2011). How to read a poem. John Wiley & Sons.

Ellet, W. (2007). The case study handbook: How to read, discuss, and write persuasively about cases. Harvard Business Press.

Rolston, D. L. (Ed.). (1990). How to read the Chinese novel. Princeton University Press.

Sharma, S. N. Techniques of Meta-Analysis for Unlocking Knowledge.

Sharma, S. N. How to Write a Grant Proposal in an Effective Manner to get Projects.

By Kavita Dehalwar

India is undergoing one of the world’s fastest urban transitions. By 2030, nearly 600 million Indians are expected to live in urban areas, contributing around 70% of the national GDP. This transformation brings both opportunities and challenges: rapid economic growth, innovation, and cultural vibrancy, but also rising inequality, housing shortages, pollution, congestion, and inadequate infrastructure.

Recognizing the need for a coherent national approach, the National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) 2018 was introduced as a guiding document for cities to become sustainable engines of growth, aligned with the goals of inclusive development, improved quality of life, and economic competitiveness.

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2. Vision of NUPF

The vision of the NUPF 2018 is to create “Sustainable, Inclusive, Productive, and Resilient Urban Development” in India.
It seeks to reimagine Indian cities as:

• Engines of economic growth
• Inclusive hubs that provide opportunities for all, especially marginalized communities
• Resilient spaces capable of addressing climate change and disaster risks
• Livable cities that improve the quality of life for residents

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3. Guiding Principles

The framework rests on certain guiding principles:

1. Sustainability: Promoting environmentally responsible urbanization.
2. Inclusiveness: Ensuring equitable access to housing, services, and opportunities.
3. Integration: Coordinating across sectors and levels of governance.
4. Participation: Engaging citizens, communities, and stakeholders in planning.
5. Resilience: Building adaptive capacity to handle shocks and stresses.

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4. The Ten Sutras (Core Pillars) of NUPF

The NUPF identifies 10 sutras (thematic pillars) that define the scope of urban transformation in India:

1. Sustainable & Inclusive Cities – Cities that balance growth with equity and environment.
2. Cities as Engines of Growth – Leveraging urban areas to drive national economic progress.
3. Housing & Inclusiveness – Affordable, adequate, and safe housing for all sections of society.
4. Productivity & Prosperity – Enhancing economic efficiency and competitiveness of cities.
5. Urban Infrastructure & Resilience – Strengthening transport, water, sanitation, energy, and resilience to climate risks.
6. Urban Governance & Institutional Framework – Clear roles, empowered institutions, and capacity-building at city level.
7. Smart Cities & Technology – Harnessing ICT for better service delivery, transparency, and citizen engagement.
8. Urban Planning & Design – Compact, transit-oriented, and livable urban forms.
9. Housing for All & Slum-Free Cities – Integration of slum redevelopment and affordable housing programs.
10. Implementation & Performance Management – Strong monitoring, evaluation, and outcome-based governance.

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5. Key Areas of Intervention

To operationalize the framework, NUPF suggests interventions in the following areas:

• Urban Housing Policy: Expand rental housing, cooperative housing, and slum redevelopment.
• Infrastructure Development: Public transport, water supply, sanitation, energy efficiency.
• Climate & Environment: Green spaces, renewable energy, disaster risk management.
• Urban Economy: Skill development, local economic zones, entrepreneurship.
• Social Inclusion: Gender-sensitive urban planning, welfare for migrants and informal workers.
• Governance: Empowered municipal governments, financial autonomy, and capacity building.

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6. Alignment with Global Agendas

The NUPF 2018 aligns with:

• UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities)
• Paris Climate Agreement (low-carbon pathways for cities)
• New Urban Agenda (Habitat III) by UN-Habitat
  This ensures India’s urban development policies resonate with global commitments.

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7. Implementation Strategy

The framework emphasizes multi-level governance and partnerships:

• Central Government: Provides broad policy directions, funding, and coordination.
• State Governments: Adapt the framework to regional contexts.
• Urban Local Bodies (ULBs): Implement policies on the ground with autonomy and accountability.
• Private Sector & Civil Society: Collaborate in infrastructure, housing, and innovation.

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8. Expected Outcomes

If effectively implemented, the NUPF 2018 aims to achieve:

• Affordable housing and improved living standards.
• Efficient and sustainable urban infrastructure.
• Economic vibrancy through strong urban economies.
• Cleaner, greener, and resilient cities.
• Strong local governments capable of leading urban transformation.

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9. Challenges in Implementation

• Inadequate capacity of ULBs in planning and finance.
• Lack of coordination between government departments.
• Resistance to land and housing reforms.
• Financing constraints for large-scale infrastructure.
• Growing inequality and informal settlements.

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10. Conclusion

The National Urban Policy Framework (2018) is a landmark step towards a holistic and integrated approach to urbanization in India. By focusing on inclusivity, sustainability, and resilience, it provides a roadmap for Indian cities to transform into dynamic centers of growth and innovation. However, its success depends on effective governance, strong local institutions, and continuous citizen participation.

References

Asibey, M. O., Mintah, F., Adutwum, I. O., Wireko-Gyebi, R. S., Tagnan, J. N., Yevugah, L. L., … & Abdul-Salam, A. J. (2022). Beyond rhetoric: urban planning-climate change resilience conundrum in Accra, Ghana. Cities, 131, 103950.

Adjei-Boadi, D., Agyei-Mensah, S., Adamkiewicz, G., Rodriguez, J. I., Gemmell, E., Ezzati, M., … & Owusu, G. (2022). Neighbourhood, built environment and children’s outdoor play spaces in urban Ghana: Review of policies and challenges. Landscape and urban planning, 218, 104288.

Acharya, P., Gupta, A. K., Singh, S., Mani, N., & Wajih, S. (2023). Mainstreaming peri-urban ecosystems for urban resilience through policy-planning framework: an opportunity analysis for Indian cities. In Ecosystem Restoration: Towards Sustainability and Resilient Development (pp. 57-74). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.

Kundu, D. (2020). Urbanisation in India: Towards a national urban policy framework and smart cities. In Developing National Urban Policies: Ways Forward to Green and Smart Cities (pp. 89-119). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.

Sharma, S. N. (2018). Review of National Urban Policy Framework 2018. Think India Journal, 21(3), 74-81.

Sharma, S. N. (2019). Review of most used urban growth models. International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET), 10(3), 397-405.

Sharma, S. N. (2014). Urban forms in planning and design. International Journal of Research, 1(1), 7-16.

Sharma, S. N. (2014). Participatory Planning in Plan Preparation. BookCountry.

Sharma, S. N., Dehalwar, K., Yadav, K., & Verma, D. (2025). Urban Street Canyon Turbulence and Vehicular Pollution Dispersion. Applied Journal of Earth and Environmental Research, 14-19.