by: K.V.B. Ravindra Babu

Associate Professor

Department of EoL

VFSTR (Deemed to be University)

Vadlamudi, Guntur.

Mail: kvbravindra@gmail.com

Abstract:

Listening is an essential skill required for information reception and conversational participation. Though it is a primary skill acquired by all of us at the early stages of life, it is not often verified to enhance its effectiveness in the learners. Effective listening involves a complex mental process which is not trainable easily.  Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) provides an opportunity to learners for real life language use. In the acquisition of second language learning, scaffolding techniques help the learners to accomplish the tasks with the help of ‘More Knowledgeable Others’(MKO) and thus extend their ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD). The present paper shares a part of doctoral research on ‘Using Scaffolding as a Technique to Enhance ESL Learners Language Proficiency at Tertiary Level: A Task-based Approach.  This paper presents the effectiveness of using scaffolding techniques to enhance the listening skills of the learners at graduate level in a private deemed to be university in the state of Andhra Pradesh.  The performance of the learners in this study is assessed as per the scales of Cambridge Assessment English and Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). 

INTRODUCTION

The language skills are broadly categorised into receptive and productive skills.  Reading and Listening are considered receptive skills as the learners receive information by reading a printed text or listening to sounds.  Some people consider that the receptive skills are passive as the learners are not engaged actively in any action and they read or listen to something silently.  But it is not true.  When the learners engage in reading or listening to a text, they immediately activate their previous knowledge to understand the meaning of the text effectively. Their cognitive processing would be busy in relating the new information to the existing knowledge and try to assimilate both to draw conclusions.  Hence, it is wrong to say that receptive skills are passive.  The learners are to be given training in using effective reading and listening strategies to comprehend the messages.  As the comprehension in receptive skills is a complex mental process and the teacher cannot monitor how it happens or where it has gone wrong, it is difficult for the teachers to correct the errors and give feedback to the learners so precisely and instantly.  As there are no structured attempts at various levels of education to know how effectively the learners listen to or read in a given context, the learning gaps are created in their knowledge acquisition and it is also resulted in their poor communication skills.  The present research focuses on enhancing the listening skills of the ESL learners at tertiary level by using scaffolding techniques in the Task-based Language Teaching. 

THEORITIAL BACKGROUND

In the socio-cultural theory, the development of a new skill is handled through the notion of ‘scaffolding’.  In the usual sense, scaffolding is a temporary structure that is often put up in the process of constructing a building.  When each new bit is constructed, the scaffolding is removed or taken down.  The use of scaffolding is temporary but it is essential for the construction of a building successfully.  

The term ‘scaffolding’ was first used in the educational sense by Wood, Bruner, and Ross in their examination of parent-child talk.  They defined scaffolding as a “process that enables a child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted efforts” (1976: 90).  Bruner described scaffolding in its metaphorical sense as “the steps taken to reduce the degree of freedom in carrying out some tasks so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill in the process of acquiring” (1978: 19).  Scaffolding is not another word for help, it is a special kind of help that assists learners to move towards learning new concepts, new skills and new levels of understanding.  Pauline Gibbons defined scaffolding as “temporary assistance by which a teacher helps a learner know how to do something, so that the learner will later be able to complete a similar task alone” (2002: 10).  

Rod Ellis presented his views on scaffolding in the context of social interaction as “scaffolding is the dialogic process by which one speaker assists another in performing a function that he or she cannot perform alone” (2003: 182).  He elaborated that when the students have the opportunity to perform tasks with skilled teachers, their opportunities for learning are maximized.  In the opinion of Jim Scrivener, “scaffolding refers to the way a competent language speaker helps a less competent one to communicate by both encouraging and providing possible elements of conversation” (2011: 227). Jeremy Harmer (2015) suggested scaffolding as one of the best ways for the teachers dealing with learners of mixed abilities.  He says,

Scaffolding is the name given to a particular concept of learners’ support which involves breaking tasks down into their component parts.  For students who have difficulty in understanding that they are supposed to do or find it difficult to ‘stay on task’ – we can try to identify a number of ‘do-able’ chunks so that they move from one ‘successes to another.  When they are involved in each of these mini-tasks, we can support them and help them move on to the next stage.  The best approach, therefore is go from stages that the students can do fairly easily to the next, slightly more difficult stage, and then from there to another more difficult stage etc. (2015: 151). 

In addition to breaking things into do-able parts, Harmer advised to support the learners to understand things through all possible means. In the recent publications, the term scaffolding has lost its flavour and the new terms ‘collaborative dialogue’ and ‘instructional conversation’ are used instead.  Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) identified the following features of scaffolding.

• Recruiting interest in the task
• Simplifying the task
• Maintaining pursuit of the goal
• Marking critical features and discrepancies between what has been produced and the ideal situation
• Controlling frustration during problem solving
• Demonstrating an idealized version of the act to be performed

These features characterise the effect of scaffolding on both cognitive demands of the task and the affective states of the person attempting the task. According to Wood, Bruner & Ross (1976), teachers share the perspective of the learners in Scaffolded teaching and it serves as a means for the teachers to make a high-level involvement of the learners in the process of learning and also make them feel responsible for their learning.  The teacher is a ‘scaffold’ or ‘more knowledgeable other’ who helps and engages the learner in the tasks that they are unable to accomplish on their own.  The teacher provides an initial support to the learners and enables them understand the procedure of accomplishing the task. When the learners have become capable of accomplishing the task on their own, the teacher gradually withdraws the support and assigns the responsibilities to the learners.  Scaffolding does not mean that the teacher provides everything the learner needs.  It is a systematic support given to the learner in the beginning of a task to enable him/her responsible for their learning.  Gallimore and Tharp (1990) have referred to the term ‘scaffolding’ as ‘assisted learning’ and suggested six ways of supporting the learners.  They are 

1. Modelling: The teacher may show a reading strategy to the learners by performing it in front of them.
2. Instructing: It does not mean just the teacher assigning the task.  It is directing the learners’ focus on to fulfilling a particular sub-task to begin a difficult task involving various level of accomplishment.  
3. Questioning: The teacher invokes mental operations of the learners by asking some questions to draw their attention towards the key elements of the text to understand it better. 
4. Cognitive Structuring: The teacher enables the learners to think and act in an organised way by making use of their background knowledge and relate it to the new conditions.  This helps them in giving explanations or making predictions.
5. Contingency Management: The teacher has to sustain the enthusiasm, involvement and interest of the learners in the tasks by encouraging them with praise and rewards. 
6. Feedback: The teacher gives feedback report by comparing the learners’ performance to certain standard norms. The feedback may also include suggestions on the areas of improvement. 

METHODOLOGY

The present study focuses largely on enhancing language proficiency of ESL Learners at Tertiary Level by using Scaffolding Techniques in TBLT.  This paper reports the performance of learners in listening skill, one of the four skills dealt in the main study.  The researcher has chosen an experimental study to find out the effectiveness of scaffolded instruction in enhancing the learners’ language skills. The study is conducted in a private deemed to be university in Andhra Pradesh.  A sample group of 120 learners are chosen for this study.  They are pursuing their first-year graduation in Computer Science Engineering.  These learners are offered an English Proficiency Course in the university and at the end of the course they appear for Cambridge Preliminary English Test, a B1 Level Language proficiency test as per Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).  Cambridge Preliminary English Test materials are used for both pre-test and post-test of this study. The learners are divided into experimental and control groups as per their performance in pre-test.  A twelve- week intervention with scaffolded instruction in TBLT is offered to the experimental group by the researcher and the control group is taught by using Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) method. A Post-test is conducted after the intervention for both the groups and their performance is analysed by using Software Programme for Social Sciences (SPSS).  Conclusions are drawn based on the finding of this study. 

            In the present study, the researcher has used several ways of scaffolding, called them techniques, to make the learning implicit and effective. Some of them are mentioned below. 

• Tasks are analysed on the basis of their linguistic complexity, cognitive complexity and communicative pressure.   Some of the tasks are broken down into smaller parts and presented to the learners in an increasing complexity.  The teacher ensured that the task presented are within the learners’ Zone of Proximal Development’ as suggested by Vygotsky (1935). 
• The teacher-researcher has used the task-based framework advocated by Willis (1996) in administering the tasks in the classroom.  Several Lead-in activities are conducted to revive the previous knowledge of the learners and some new linguistic information is provided in the priming stage to prepare the learners for doing the tasks. 
• The teacher-researcher has ensured at each stage of the task whether the students have understood the procedure of doing it and the goals to be reached at the end of it or not by using Instruction Check Questions (ICQs) and Comprehension Check Questions (CCQs).  
• The teacher provides enough time for the learners to complete the task and creates a collaborative learning environment by assigning pair and group work in tasks.
• The teacher explains the concepts with more examples and illustrations.  He uses multiple ways to make sure that the learners understand the process of approaching and solving problems. 
• The teacher gives a clear description about purpose, goals and sub-goals of learning activity that the learners are expected to reach.  
• Providing evaluation rubrics has also helped the learner to understand the key elements to be covered in the process of accomplishing a task. 

The teacher creates classroom conditions suitable for collaborative work and peer feedback.  The learners get the remarks and suggestions from the peers instantly on their writing and speaking performance. This also helps them learn from their peers’ performance.

Scaffolding for Listening Tasks

Teaching listening skills is considered to be one of the difficult areas in language skills development.  As both the teacher and the learner do not know how much language is acquired, it is difficult to fill the gap.  And listening to a foreign accent and comprehending it, is all new to many of the learners in the present study.   Most of the learners need strategy training in listening skills from the basics.  Scaffolding has begun with showing the distinction between hearing and listening. 

i)   Listening Task 1: The learners have to understand the key information from the short dialogues or monologues and identify the correct picture from three options. 

Scaffolding: T introduces a set of three pictures and elicit the learners’ explanation and guess about the situation of those pictures.  Ls are encouraged to predict in the pre-listening.  Ls are advised to be keen on the context and key words of the task to arrive at the correct answer.  T cautions about the distractors in all the options.  T encourages for peer check and repeated listening for accent practice with the support of audio script in the later stages.

ii)   Listening Task 2: The learners are expected to listen to a longer informative monologue or interview.  The learners have to listen for detailed understanding and should identify specific details about the listening text. 

Scaffolding: T introduces the task format.  It is choosing one from three option multiple choice questions.  T asks Ls some questions about the context of the task and directs them to see the instructions in the task sheet.  T points out certain strategies to be followed before starting the listening.  Ls are directed towards reading the task quickly before listening and predict what they are going to listen.  Ls are advised to follow the paraphrased options in the questions and to be careful about negatives, word spotting and distractors. This is a complex task involving the learners processing both receptive skills – listening and reading – simultaneously. 

iii)   Listening Task 3: The learners have to fill the gaps in the notes by following a longer monologue or speech.  They should listen to identity, understand and interpret the message. 

Scaffolding: T elicits important pieces of information about an event to explain what information is generally crucial.  T explains the structure of the task and genre of the audio.  Ls are asked to look at each gap and listen to the audio to find the information related to the given gap.  Ls are advised not to try for understanding the whole listening.  Ls focus is drawn towards the key information by predicting the listening text with the help of gaps in the task.  T reminds them of spelling and legibility of the answers. 

iv)   Listening Task 4: The task expects the learners to listen to and understand the opinions, attitudes, likes and dislikes of the speakers in a dialogue.  The learners have to decide whether the given statements are right or wrong. 

Scaffolding: T brainstorms Ls by encouraging the argument on any controversial statement.  This helps the learners to be familiar with the supporting and opposing reasons of arguments. T asks Ls to question about the context of the dialogue after playing the instructions part.  T reminds the Ls that the statements of the task are in the sequence of the listening text.  Ls are advised not to look for the exact language of the statement in the listening text.  Ls are trained to infer the meaning of paraphrased statements and compare them with the listening text.

RESULT ANALYSIS

In the collection of the demographic details and learning backgrounds of the sample group learners, a few interesting details are found in this study.  The learners have expressed their level of difficulty in dealing with various language skills and elements. 

Figure-1: Easy and difficult about English

Figure 1 shows the learners’ responses about what they feel difficult or easy about English.  The highest number of students (36%) have felt that reading is easy for them and 26 percent students express the same with writing.  The primary skills of the language, listening and speaking are considered easy by 14 percent and 19 percent students respectively and grammar and vocabulary are also not felt easier.  Only 4 percent say that grammar is easy for them and 1 percent have felt that vocabulary is easy.  A reversal of opinion is observed in what the students expressed very difficult for them about English.  31 percent have felt that vocabulary is a very difficult area for them to cope with the second language and it is followed by grammar which is felt difficult by 26 percent students. Listening and speaking skills are considered to be of moderate difficulty and 19 percent and 15 percent students have expressed their concern about them.   The academic skills reading and writing are not felt so difficult by majority of the students.  Seven percent students say that writing is difficult for them and 2 percent students say the same about reading.  They have felt that reading skill is the easiest for them and learning and using new vocabulary is the most difficult for them about English.

Figure-2: Difficulty in Listening

In finding the problems of listening comprehension in second language as shown in figure-2, 59 percent learners felt that the pace of the speakers is very difficult to follow.  Different accents used by the speakers (29%) and the speed of the speakers are the two major factors that influence the level of listening comprehension of the learners.  9 percent learners have felt that the unfamiliarity of the context which the speakers are talking about is hard to understand.  3% learners find some other problems in listening like the use of unfamiliar words, expressions and idioms by the speakers.

Listening Skills Data Analysis

Listening is one of the primary skills of a language.  Though no one denies its significance as a source of pronunciation, intonation, style etc. in the acquisition of second language, the learners are not provided any guided listening practice or the use of any strategies in listening.  When the researcher conducted the listening test as a part of pre-test, more than 90 percent students expressed that they have taken listening test for the first time in their 12 years of language learning process.  

The researcher adopted Cambridge Preliminary English Test Listening component for this study. This is a B1 level language test as per Common European Framework of Reference. There are four tasks in the listening test which focus on assessing the learners’ ability to listen and identify the key information from short conversations, monologues, interviews or longer informal dialogues.  There are different kinds of listening tasks used in pre- and post-tests.  Some of them are identifying the differences in the pictures by following the descriptions or short exchanges, understanding and interpreting the information to fill the gaps in the texts for note-taking, drawing the conclusions by identifying the opinions and attitudes of the people. 

There are multiple choice questions, gap-fills and true or false type of 25 objective questions in the listening test.  The test is conducted for 35 minutes after reading and writing components.  After the question papers are distributed to the learners, audio is played from the speakers to the whole group at once.  All possible precautions are taken to avoid any noise or disturbance from outside.  Each recording is played twice. The learners mark the answers in their question papers and transfer them later into the answer sheet.  The responses of the learners to the listening tasks are evaluated by using the answer key and the marks are normalised to the score of 170.  The results are mapped to CEFR levels of language proficiency. 

Listening Skills: Pre-test

The performance of the experimental and control group learners in the listening skills pre-test is given in Table-1.

Table-1: Students’ Performance in Listening Skills Pre-test

Listening: Pre-test	Experimental Group		Control Group
Scores (CEFR Levels)	No. of Learners	%	No. of Learners	%
80-99 (Pre-A1)	15	25	10	17
100-119 (A1)	19	32	34	57
120-139 (A2)	18	30	15	25
140-159 (B1)	7	12	1	2
160-170 (B2)	1	2	–	–

The performance of experimental group learners in listening skills is found more in the first three levels of language proficiency.  There are 15 learners who scored between 80 and 99, 19 learners scored between 100 and 119, while 18 learners scored between 120 and 139, 7 learners scored between 140 and 159 and only one learner scored above 160. The performance of control group learners is the highest in the score of 100 and 119 range as there are 34 learners who showed their proficiency at this level.  10 learners are at Pre-A1 level with the score between 80 and 99.  Another 15 students have scored between 120 and 139.  There is only one learner at the score range of 140 and 159.  

Figure-3: Listening Skills Performance in Pre-test

The performance of learners in both the groups in listening skills is shown lucidly with percentages in Figure-3. The lines in the figure show that one fourth (25%) of experimental group learners are at pre-A1 level in the listening skills pre-test while 17 percent of control group learners are at this level.  32 percent of experimental group learners score at A1 level, where as 57 percent of control group learners performed at this level.  There are 30 and 25 percent learners at A2 level from experimental and control groups respectively.  There are 12 percent learners from the experimental group at B1 level but only two percent control group learners have performed at this level. Only 2 percent of experimental group learners have shown their listening skills performance at B2 level where there is no performance from control group.

Listening Skills: Post-test

During the intervention, the researcher has paid more attention to alleviating the fears of learners about listening skills. The production of English sounds is explained to the learners with pictures and videos.  The learners are engaged in a lot of pair and group activities to practice the accent and to find the specific and detailed meaning of the speakers in monologues and dialogues.  The listening tasks have been done repeatedly with and without relying on audio scripts.  The following Table-2 illustrates the performance of the learners from both the groups in the post-test of listening skills.  

Table-2: Students’ Performance in Listening Skills Post-test

Listening: Post-test	Experimental Group		Control Group
Scores (CEFR Levels)	No. of Learners	%	No. of Learners	%
80-99 (Pre-A1)	–	–	–	–
100-119 (A1)	5	8	7	12
120-139 (A2)	37	62	49	82
140-159 (B1)	13	22	4	7
160-170 (B2)	5	8	–	–

It is good to observe that there are no learners at Pre-A1 level language proficiency in listening skills post-test.  There are only 5 learners from experimental group and 7 learners from control group who have scored between 100 and 119.  There are 37 learners from experimental group who have scored between 120 and 139, where as 49 learners of control group scored at this range.   Another 13 learners of experimental group have scored between 140 and 159 but only 4 learners of control group reached to this score.  There is no learner from the control group who scored above 160 but 5 learners from experimental group have performed at B2 level with the scores between 160 and 170.  The detailed graphical view of this performance is presented in Figure-4.

Figure 4: Listening Skills Performance in Post-test

The listening skills post-test performance of the learners is relatively better than the pre-test performance.  There are no learners from both the groups at Pre-A1 level.  There are 8 percent learners from experimental group and 12 percent learners from control group who have scored at A1 level.  Majority of the learners from both the groups – 62 percent from experimental and 82 percent from control groups – are at A2 level, just below the targeted B1 level.  22 percent learners from experimental group have performed at B1 level and another 8 percent at B2 level.  No control group learner could reach B2 level and there is only 7 percent of learners of that group reached to B1 level.   

Listening Skills: Mean Scores of Pre- and post-tests

The statistically important data form the pre- and post-tests of listening is presented in Table-3.  The mean scores and standard deviation of both experimental and control group learners are presented. 

Table-3: Statistics of Listening Skills Pre & Post-tests

Listening: Pre & Post-tests		Mean	N	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Pre-test	Exp.Listening	113.33	60	22.904	2.9568
	Con.Listening	111.29	60	13.77	1.7777
Post-test	Exp.Listening	137.07	60	13.726	1.772
	Con.Listening	128.83	60	9.037	1.167

The mean scores of both experimental and control groups in both pre- and post-tests of listening skills show that there is a progress in the learners of both the groups form pre-test to post-test.    The mean score of experimental group has progressed from 113 to 137.  The mean score of control group has also improved from 111 to 129.  It is important to note that the pre-test performance is at A1 level for both the groups and it has improved to only A2 level in posts-test.  The table also shows the Standard Deviation and the Standard Error Mean of the results test-wise and group-wise. The mean scores of experimental and control groups in pre- and post-tests of listening skills are illustrated clearly in Figure 5.

Figure-5: Mean scores of Listening skills Test-wise and Group-wise

Listening: Paired Samples two tailed t-Test

As mentioned in the earlier section of this chapter, the P value shows whether the difference between the mean scores of both groups in pre-test and post-test is significant or not. The test-wise analysis of the learners’ performance in listening skills is shown in Table-4. 

Table-4: Statistics of Paired Samples t-test on Listening Skills

Listening: Paired Samples t-Test		Paired Differences					t	df	Sig.      (2-tailed)
		Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
					Lower	Upper			P
Pre-test	EG & CG	2.04	25.329	3.27	4.5032	8.5832	0.624	59	0.535
Post-test	EG &CG	8.233	17.786	2.296	3.639	12.828	3.586	59	0.001*
*  The Value of P is < 0.05.  Hence, the difference is significant.

The P value of paired groups in listening skills pre-test is 0.535.  This value is more than 0.05 (P > 0.05).  It means that there is no significant difference between the listening skills performance of control group learners and experimental group learners in the pre-test.  The P value of paired groups in listening skills post-test is 0.001.  This value is less than 0.05 (P < 0.05).  It means that there is a significant difference between the listening skills performance of experimental group learners and control group learners in the post-test.  It implies that the learners of experimental group have performed better in listening skills post-test than the learners of control group in the same test.

FINDINGS & CONCLUSION

Practising and testing of listening skill is an entirely new area for many learners.  The listening activity is scaffolded by making the learners expose the very small aspects of listening one after the other.  Showing the difference between hearing and listening, practice on minimal pairs to understand accent better, presenting the task before the audio, predicting or guessing the content before listening, guiding when to use and how to use audio scripts are some of the features of scaffolding used in listening.  The analysis of the data shows that the learners of experimental group performed better than the learners of control group in listening post-test.  

Learners could understand and respond positively to the strategies suggested for comprehending listening and reading texts.  Activating the learners’ previous knowledge and relating it to understand the new information, understanding the task before going to read or listen to it, predicting the context of the text with the help of task or pictures, focus on one thing at a time while using sub-skills etc., are a few strategies that the learners have used effectively in TBA. The study has revealed that ‘scaffolding’ techniques enable the learners to understand the process of learning a second language.  The learners are able to follow a systematic procedure for moving from simple to complex parts of the tasks.  The teacher’s support and guidance in the initial stages of accomplishing the tasks help the learners to expand their zones of proximal development. 

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By: Dr Kumar Mahabir, 

Chairman, Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC)

Don Miguel Road, San Juan, Trinidad and Tobago

Website: https://indocaribbeanpublications.com

On Sunday October 8, 2023, the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) hosted its 176^th edition of its ZOOM Public Meeting entitled “Interrogating the Declaration of CARICOM as the Sixth Region of Africa” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8SbUwZ4_9M0). The panellists included Professor Clinton Sutton, Dr. Adit Adityanjee, Professor Emeritus Patricia Mohammed, Dr. Indira Rampersad and Ms Omolora Wilson. 

The speakers referred to releases from UWI, CARICOM and articles in the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, and the CARICOM website which featured and acknowledged CARICOM as the “Sixth Region of Africa”. The release from the UWI Regional Headquarters dated September 13, 2023 stated: “Caricom has been designated as the sixth region of the African continent. The region commemorated the second annual Africa-CARICOM Day on September 7, signalling an ongoing commitment to strengthened relationships between the two populations” (https://sta.uwi.edu/news/releases/release.asp?id=22682).

The statement was echoed by the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday of September 20, 2023 which ran the headline, “CARICOM recognized as sixth region of Africa” and stated specifically that “CARICOM has been formallydesignated as the sixth region of the African continent. The declaration was made during the second annual Africa-Caricom Day on September 7^th, at the University of the West Indies (UWI) regional headquarters in Jamaica”  (https://newsday.co.tt/2023/09/20/caricom-recognised-as-sixth-region-of-africa/).

In a release issued on July 26, 2023 by CARICOM Today in its CARICOM website, the CARICOM Secretary-General, Dr Carla Barnett, announced: “I am pleased to join you today as part of the African Union’s sixth region for the Annual Global Africa People-to-People Forum 2023 and to reflect on the Inaugural CARICOM-Africa Summit, which was hosted by His Excellency Uhuru Kenyatta, then President of Kenya, on 7^th September2021. (https://today.caricom.org/2023/07/21/caricom-africa-partnership-making-progress-caricom-sg/).

In light of the above, panellists and members of the audience at the ICC ZOOM Public Meeting raised a number of concerns:

With regards to the release of the University of the West Indies (the UWI), of September 13, 2023: 

1. Who “designated” CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, and when and where was such a “designation” undertaken? 

1. Did the CARICOM Secretary General, Dr. Carla Barnett – who made remarks at the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations – endorse the “designation” of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”? 

1. To what extent does the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, at the Africa-CARICOM Day which was attended and celebrated by the CARICOM Secretary-General, blatantly contradict the description of CARICOM in its website as “a grouping of twenty countries: fifteen Member States  and five Associate Members. It is home to approximately sixteen million citizens, 60% of whom are under the age of 30, and from the main ethnic groups of Indigenous Peoples, Africans, Indians, Europeans, Chinese, Portuguese and Javanese. The Community is multi-lingual; with English as the major language complemented by French and Dutch and variations of these, as well as African and Asian expressions” (https://caricom.org/our-community/who-we-are/).

1. Does the P.J. Patterson Institute for Africa-Caribbean Public Advocacy, headed by the Most Honourable P. J. Patterson, and who also joined in the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations, recognise the presence of other ethnic groups in the Caribbean, given his statement: “The ethnic origins and commonality of our colonial experience are beyond dispute … it is in recognition of this irrefutable reality that the African Union declared the existence of six regions, and on this special occasion to unite in recognising our shared history and aspirations.”

• How can the UWI, which is a multi-ethnic regional institution which is publicly funded by contributing Caribbean territories with multi-cultural societies, with the Secretary General of CARICOM, annually celebrate on September 7^th, an Africa-Caribbean Day, but has made no overtures towards a complementary celebration of an India-Caribbean Day, a China-Caribbean Day, an European-Caribbean Day, a Latin American-Caribbean Day, and an Indigenous/First Peoples-Caribbean Day, inter alia? 

• Who funded the Africa-CARICOM Day cultural extravaganza at the UWI Regional Headquarters?

• Was the UWI community, including the various Campuses and their respective Principals consulted on this Africa-CARICOM Day extravaganza at Mona, and did they agree on the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa?”

• Is this part of a UWI and CARICOM agenda to promote African hegemony in the region to the exclusion of other ethnic populations and contributions?

With regards to the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday article of September 20, 2023, in addition to the questions in (1) above: 

1. How, where and when was CARICOM “formally” designated as the “sixth region of Africa”?

1. What formalities were observed, and what form did the “Declaration” take? 

1. Were there signatories to the “Declaration” including those of Heads of Governments, at the UWI Regional Headquarters in Jamaica on Sept 7^th?

1. Does the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday have a political and ethnic agenda in blasting the headline: “CARICOM recognised as “sixth region of Africa”, and then proceeding to deem it a “Declaration”?

With regards to the release from the CARICOM website on July 26, 2023, and the statement from the Secretary General, Dr. Carla Barnett: 

1. When was Dr. Barnett (or CARICOM), formally recognized as part of the African Union’s sixth region? Is she endorsing this “sixth region of Africa” as a personal celebration, or on CARICOM’s behalf?

1. Does the current Chair of CARICOM, the Honourable Roosevelt Skeritt, endorse this designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of the African Union”? Does his statement at the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations on Sept 7, 2023, suggest an acceptance of CARICOM as Africa’s sixth region. Skerrit stated: “I am confident that our relationship will continue to flourish in the years ahead. Our Community is home to many citizens of the African Diaspora, designated as Africa’s Sixth Region”? (https://today.caricom.org/2023/09/07/statement-from-caricom-chairman-pm-roosevelt-skerrit-on-africa-caricom-day-7-september-2023/)

1. Did the African Union endorse CARICOM as its sixth region? 

1. In as much as the African Union deems its diaspora as its sixth region, does CARICOM perceive itself as constituting the entire African diaspora, or part of the diaspora? If the latter is the case, then the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, is geopolitically incorrect. It is also ethnically incorrect as the African diaspora is dispersed throughout the world.

• Were any referenda conducted either by the UWI, the African Union or by CARICOM of their various populations on “designating” or “declaring” CARICOM its sixth region?

• On whose authority, was the “designation” or “declaration” made?

Some of the panellists also touched on the issue of reparations. Of particular concern to the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) are:

1. The complete lack of inclusion of the non-African communities, both in the CARICOM Reparations Commission headed by UWI’s Vice-Chancellor Professor Sir Hilary Beckles. Professor Beckles was appointed in 2013 as Chair of the CARICOM Reparations Commission by then Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago in her capacity as Chair of CARICOM, Mrs Kamla Persad-Bissessar. He has repeatedly stated that the Reparations Movement builds “upon the historic efforts of past organisations to bring justice to the victims of native genocide, chattel enslavement, and deceptive indentureship”. Yet, there is not one single person of East Indian or Chinese or indigenous descent in the CARICOM Reparations Commission which he heads. This brings into question the very notion of reparatory justice and its inherent ironies.  

1. The complete exclusion of persons of East Indian descent and all other races despite the fact (or possibly because of the fact) that Indians constitute more than half of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, from the Trinidad and Tobago National Commission on Reparations first constituted in 2015. Moreover, the Commission was reconstituted very recently as reported on October 3, 2023 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Trinidad and Tobago. According to the report, the entities represented in the reconstituted Commission are “the Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs; Ministry of Tourism, Culture and the Arts; Tobago House of Assembly (THA); Emancipation Support Committee; Orisha Elders; Santa Rosa First Peoples; All Mansions of Rastafari; Media and Youth. There is no mention of specific representation from the East Indian community, although the Santa Rosa First Peoples are now included (https://foreign.gov.tt/resources/news/appointment-of-trinidad-and-tobagos-reconstituted-national-committee-on-reparations/).

1. Whether these two Commissions (Regional and Trinidadian) are about genuine reparatory justice or about ensuring sustained African dominance and hegemony, given the exclusion of other groups in the composition of their membership, is a critical question.

Some of the panellists and members of the virtual audience raised the following questions about the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”. 

1. Is CARICOM, UWI and the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday employing the optics of branding, naming and framing to promote political and ethnic agendas?

• What message is this conveying to other non-Afro ethnic communities?  

• What message is this conveying to the African population in the Caribbean? 

• What does CARICOM – being the “sixth region of Africa” – mean, in particular, for the governments and peoples of Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname with considerably large Indo-Caribbean populations who believe that they have been excluded and marginalised for decades by an Afro-dominated political directorate?

• What does the “sixth region of Africa” mean for our culture and our identity now, and in the future? 

• Are we trading the European branding for an African one? 

• Is this conceptualisation and designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa” a deliberate policy or politics of exclusion, or an unintended consequence?

• Is this a response to the global competition for economic space and an initiative for Africa to dominate and/or recolonise the Caribbean?

1. Whose initiative was it to designate CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”? Was it the African Union, was it CARICOM or was it the University of the West Indies? Or was it some or all of these?

• Was there a signed Declaration or formal ratification by Heads of Government for CARICOM to be deemed and recognised as the “sixth region of Africa”? If not, then the legitimacy and relevance of this designation at the UWI Regional Headquarters, and the declaration is questionable. 

• Can this designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa” facilitate global problems like climate change? If so, how?

• To what extent does this designation stoke divisiveness among the various ethnic communities of the Caribbean?

• Is this declaration a return to the colonial policy of divide and rule?

• To what extent does this designation distract from other more critical issues facing the region such as economic challenges, climate change and crime?

• Given the timing of this designation, is there any truth to the contention that it is part of a UWI-Caribbean-CARICOM political agenda to mobilise the support of the fifty-five member states of the African Union with that of CARICOM states, to rally for the Prime Minister of Barbados Mia Mottley, who is allegedly a contender for the position of UN Secretary General?

• Is the designation consistent with CARICOM’s stated agenda of promoting regional integration and embracing diversity and multiculturalism in the region?

At the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) virtual forum held on October 8, 2023, Dr. Hilary Brown, Programme Manager for Culture and Community Development at the CARICOM Secretariat, as a member of the audience, categorically denied that there is any Declaration for CARCIOM to be designated the sixth region of the African Union. Her recorded words contradict the statement from the UWI release that “Caricom has been designated as the sixth region of the African continent” and the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday headline that “CARICOM recognised as sixth region of Africa” and which continues with the story that “CARICOM has been formally designated as the sixth region of the African continent. The declaration was made during the second annual Africa-Caricom Day on September 7^th, at the University of the West Indies (UWI) regional headquarters in Jamaica”. 

The firm denial by Dr. Hilary Brown at the ICC forum suggests that the statements in the UWI release and in the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday are false, misleading, reckless, ethnically biased and dangerous to the harmonious co-existence of the multicultural ethos of the peoples of CARICOM. In this vein, the ICC is hereby making a clarion call for clarification on these matters and a public verbal and written apology as well as a retraction of public statements, articles and news releases where necessary, in response to the issues, concerns and questions raised above. 

¹Mary Callistus Valentina Okweji

Department of Business Education

Faculty of Education

Delta State University Abraka, calyvalii@yahoo.com

^2*Ekwere A. Umoeshiet*, PhD

Delta State University, Abraka, eaumoeshiet@gmail.com

Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

The study examined impact of utilization of e-learning technologies on academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States.  The aspects of e-learning technologies examined were:  availability of e-learning technologies, utilization of e-learning technologies, impact of e-learning technologies, commitment to online activities and social media technologies and strategies for improving the utilization of e-learning technologies. Correspondingly, the moderating influence of gender, age, educational qualification in view and academic level were examined.  Five research questions were raised and answered and five hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.  The survey research method was used for the study.  The stratified random sampling technique was adopted and the sample size was 100 business education students.  The instrument used for the study was a structured questionnaire and it was validated by three experts.  The test-retest method was used to ascertain the reliability of the instrument and the PPMC reliability of 0.86 was obtained.  Data collected were analyzed using Mean, Standard Deviation, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).  The findings of the study revealed that e-learning technologies have a great impact on the academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States to a great extent.  Also, that there was no significant difference between the mean rating of male and female business education students on the strategies for improving utilization of e-learning technologies in business education programmes in universities Delta and Edo States among others.  It was concluded that utilization of e-learning technologies has great impact on academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo State.  Based on the findings, it was recommended that curriculum planners of the universities should make deliberate efforts to provide curriculum that will accommodate the utilization of e-learning software and technology, since the e-learning technologies enhance the academic performance of students.

INTRODUCTION:

Modern technology is one of the factors sharpening the global economy and producing rapid changes in contemporary society.  This technology enabled instructional method to aim at improving the quality of education and student academic performance.  The modern technology is a tool used to remove geographical barriers as it aids everybody to learn anytime and anywhere even without the presence of the lecturer.   One of the technologies which have greatly influenced education is the Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The use of information and communication technology as a means of improving the efficiency and effectiveness in business education is not in doubt.  With the introduction of information and communication technology (ICT), there have been changes in pedagogical delivery system.

Business education has been described as education for and about business (Okwuanaso & Nwazor, 2000; Nwosu, 2003).  In other words, business education teaches knowledge and competencies required in business.  According to Umoeshiet (2015), Business Education is an aspect of learning that prepares individuals for roles in business and offers them knowledge about business.  Business education is considered as the pedagogical knowledge and business competencies necessary for teaching business attitude, concept, skills and knowledge.  Business education is seen as a programme that has promoted skills which enable an individual to function effectively and efficiently, as an employee, or employer.   

Akudolu (2012) believed that the advent of information communication technology has given rise to the formulation of new educational objectives which requires innovation and modification in the content, method and evaluation strategies. 

Electronic Learning (EL) is an integral part of information and communication technology which it’s principle is connectivity, a process by which computers and electronic devices are networked to connect people to share information and knowledge for personal, academic or professional growth and development.  E-learning has become an increasingly popular learning approach in higher educational institutions due to vast growth of internet technology and so it’s expected to influence positively the academic performance of the business education students in universities in the globe especially in Nigeria.

Electronic learning (EL) is the use of Information and Communication Technology e.g. Internet, Computer, Mobile phone, Learning Management System (LMS), Televisions, Radios and others to enhance teaching and learning activities. E-learning is a unifying term used to describe the fields of online learning, web-based training and technology delivered instructions (Oye, Salleh, & Iahad, 2010). E-learning has become an increasingly popular learning approach in higher educational institutions due to vast growth of internet technology and so it’s expected to influence positively the academic performance of the business education students in tertiary institutions in the globe especially in Universities in Nigeria.  In the opinion of Oluwalola (2006) the internet is a global collection of many different types of computers, computer operators and computer networks that are linked together through telephone lines, satellites, microphones, and all other possible devices.

University education just like Business Education is concerned with the development and acquisition of skills and knowledge necessary for economic survival and development.  University education and e-learning are interrelated. More also both lay emphasis on competency skill acquisition and knowledge that are required in the 21^st century world of work. E-learning is widely used in many universities in the world today, but the researcher observed that  there is rising dissatisfaction among employers of labour on the poor performance,  lack of competencies and skills of business education graduates in the use of modern technologies in the new world of work.   There were series of  arguments that in  some universities, their E-learning does not add any value to the teaching and learning activities of the institutions and that they do not investigate the impact of E-learning on students’ academic performance, that much research has not been done on the new technologies and application software available for E-learning, that students commitment to online activities negatively affects the academic performance of undergraduates of Business education Students in universities in Delta and Edo States. 

Okoro and Umoeshiet  (2021), opined that e-learning is an essential structural tool that is required for effective and efficient instructional delivery for University programme in Nigerian Universities.

Most of the existing research reports in this regard are suggesting ways and means of addressing the problem of poor academic performance among business education students in universities and they appear rather to dwell more on teacher/government effectiveness factors rather than student/teacher factors and that is the gap this work has come to fill.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of the utilization of e-learning technologies on academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States.  

Research Questions

            Specifically, the study will determine:

1. The extent to which the e-learning technologies are available for undergraduate students for business education programme in universities in Delta and Edo States?
2. The extent to which the E-learning technologies have impact on the academic performance of undergraduate Business Education Students in universities in Delta and Edo States?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance

1. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the Business Education students on the availability of E-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students’ programme in universities in Delta and Edo States based on gender.
2. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of Business Education students on the impact of utilization of e-learning technologies on the academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States based on qualification in view.

The scope of the study covers      “the impact of the utilization of E-learning technologies on the academic performance of undergraduate business education students in Universities’’ and it is delimited to Delta and Edo States.

Rosenshine’s Learning Theory

Barak Rosenshine is an educational psychologist who propounded a theory of learning in 1982, with ten (10) guiding principles, which in summary emphasizes the importance of giving students sufficient time to practice retrieval, ask questions, and get the desired help.  The students must not stop after learning the information once, they must continue to rehearse it by summarizing, analysing or applying their knowledge.    

On the theoretical framework about e-learning the authors/psychologists believed that the work in constructivism and student involvement provided the bedrock. In the theories of Seymour Papert 1980 and Rosenshine 1982, they emphasized on E-learner-centred and skill acquisition and development.  These theories argue that for a particular curriculum to achieve the effects intended, it must illicit sufficient student effort and investment of energy to bring about the desired learning and development .

Historical Overview of E-learning

E-learning was developed in 1960s at the tertiary institution of Illinoia. Where students were made to have access to recorded lecture resources via the computers terminal that have link with television or audio device.  Later in the year two psychology Professors Patrick, Supposeand Richard C. Atkinson of Tertiary institution of Standford carried out an experiment.  They used the computer to teach young children, reading and mathematics in elementary school in East Palo Alto in California.

In 1963, the first computer for instruction was installed by Bernard Luskin in a community college, which has connection with Stanford Tertiary institution. As at 1970 Luskin took an appointment with Kand Corporation where he engaged in analysing obstacles to computer assisted instructions. This development provided opportunity for distance learning courses using the computer in some educational institutions.

Further developments in e-learning include computer based learning, which was developed by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hilz in 1970 at the New Jersey Institute of Technology and at Tertiary institution of Guelph in Canada.  By 1980 it was recorded that access to course contents became possible in college Libraries.  Cassandra B. Whyte played a great role on e-learning in higher education; the advent of collaborative learning gave rise to open part of Europe and America. 1990 saw the advent of World Wide Web, (www).

E-learning as a Concept

E-Learning simply means electronic learning. It is an aspect of information and communication technology which can be described as an innovative means of impacting knowledge electronically.  According to Obikaeze and Onyechi (2011) defined e-learning as forms and non-formal education that uses electronic delivery method such as internet based learning delivery packages, CD-Rom, online video conferencing, website or e-mail to manage the relationship between teachers and learners.  E-learning involves certain skills and knowledge.  E-learning is also seen as the acquisition of knowledge and skills using electronic technology such as computers and the internet based software and local and wide area networks.  In the same vain Azih and Nwosu (2011) agree that e-learning is a pertinent tool for effective teaching and learning. E-learning is commonly associated with higher education and corporate training, e-learning encompasses learning at all levels both formal and non-formal education that has an information network – the internet, and intranet (LAN) or extranet (WAN), whether wholly or in part for course delivery, interaction and/or facilitation of online learning.

The views of Okoli and Ifeakor (2011) stated that e-learning is essentially the computer and network that enable the transfer of skills and knowledge. They further asserted that the use of electronic applications and processes to learn include web based learning, computer based learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaborations, content is delivered via the internet/extranet, audio or video tape.

In his contribution, Azih (2003) further described e-learning as a kind of learning that is possible using the computer. This learning on the computer simply means online knowledge acquisition through CD-Rom. He also emphasized that online teaching and learning method needs the use of browsers such as internet explorer or Netscape navigator. The e-learning facilities can be in the form of audio, visual and audio/visual.

This was reaffirmed by Ong and Lai (2006) saying that e-learning is instruction delivered via all electronic media including the internet, intranet, extranet, satellite broadcast, audio/video tape, interactive television and CD-Rom.  While Back, Jung and Kim believed that e-learning should be understood in a wide sense, including the use of electronic means of teaching and learning in classrooms.  Face to face and outside – a distance, both individually or in a collaborative way as well as in a blended format of classroom and distance studies. They maintained that e-learning is not an end itself but rather a wide concept which can be used for various forms of teaching and learning ranging from formal education to informal learning. In their opinion, it may start with audio-visual tools used in the classrooms and go far as interactive internet based collaboration of students and teacher. Finally, Onowor (2011) summarized that e-learning comprises:

• All forms of electronically supported learning and teaching
• The use of technology to enable people to learn anytime and anywhere.
• The use of information communication technology (ICT) in developing skills as well as concepts based knowledge.
• The use of instructional media in form of texts image, animation video and audio devices
• Computer and network to enabled the transfer of skills and knowledge.

tance teaching), but also in various teaching philosophies (for instance behaviourism or constructivism).

Benefits of Utilization of E-Learning Technologies in University Education Programme

There are a lot of benefits in the utilization of e-learning technologies in university education programme.     Lhi (1997) in Nwosu (2017) identified the following as benefits of e-learning.

1. Convenience and portability: E-Learning accords the student the advantage of learning anywhere and anytime. It does not mostly require fixed class rooms where the student attends daily as it also allows students to fix and listen to lectures anytime more so, learning materials can be carried about and lectures administered even on the move. This allows student’s easier understanding since the pace is determined exclusively by the student and pressure is dissipated on the student to scheme of work.
2. Cost and Selection: The student can choose from a wide range of courses to meet need.  It offers degree, vocational and certificate programmes provides continuing education, provide individuals courses for selection, wide range of prices are set to fit the students budget.
3. Flexibility: E-learning accommodates learner’s preference and needs. It is mainly student centred. One can study through chosen instructors or self-study. There is opportunity to slipover materials /topics that one already know and focus on those one would like to know and use the tool best suitable to the student for learning.
4. Higher Retention: E-learningor online learning will draw the students’ attention to topics of internet. Studies show that because of this and the variety of delivery method used to reach different types of learners.  Retention is frequently better than in traditional classroom.
5. Greater Collaboration: Technology tools make collaboration among students much easier since many projects involve collaborative learning.  The online environment is easier and often more comfortable to work in since learners do not have meet face to face.
6. Global opportunities:           Global learning communities are at the student’s finger tips with online learning.  The e-learning technology used, gives on-line instructional designers the ability to build in tools that take you to resources that may not be seen in a traditional classroom.
7. Improved Performance:  Lhi (1997) in Nwosu (2017) also revealed that researchers have shown that students in online learning generally perform better than those in normal classroom. According to a 12 years research conducted by the US department of education, there is a massive influx of students into online education, a greater percent.
8. Increased access to instructor of the highest quality. E-learning offers students opportunity to have access to instructors of the highest calibre who can share their knowledge with students, allowing students to attend courses across physical political and economic boundaries. It also allows student’s access to their fellow students who will share their experiences and solutions as well as allow greater communication among students across different geographical zones making studying wonderful.
9. Cost Reduction: There is a generally reduced expense since cost of daily transportation is eliminated.
10. Skill Development: To develop the skills and competencies needed in the 21^st century and enable learners cope with new trends in their chosen profession and career. E-learning transforms and develops students to meet the present requirements of graduates needed to undertake specific tasks at different areas, sectors, offices in global market. Bates (2009), states that a major argument for e-learning is that it enables learners to develop essential skills for knowledge based workers by embedding the use of information and communication technology within the curriculum.

Constraints to Utilization of E-learning Technologies in University Education Programme

There are a lot of constraints militating against the effective utilization of e-learning technologies in University education programme at the tertiary level. Muilenburg and Berge (2001) in Ezeugbor and Nwachukwu (2011) identified the following as constraint or challenges of e-learning implementation in Nigerian higher institutions.

1.         Unwillingness to adopt new technological innovation: Getting a new idea adopted even when it has advantages is difficult.  Accordingly innovation such as e-learning system, in higher education requires faculty to change their ways of teaching, such change does not come easily. However reluctance is major on the part of teacher’s factor hindering the use of e-learning in Nigerian higher institutions.

2.         Lack of awareness of the effectiveness of e-learning:  Generally, there is still lack of awareness amongst the population (educators and students) especially parents about the effectiveness of e-learning.  Many still feel the traditional learning mode is better.

3.         Bandwidth use and connectivity:  Engaging content requires a rich combination of multimedia and connectivity limitations downloading of engaging content to the learners will be slow.  This creates frustration and boredom among learners and affects the ease of learning.

4.         Lack of computer literacy:  In Nigeria, there is a large segment of the population that is computer illiterate. This is especially true in rural areas. This hinders the introduction and implementation of e-learning.

5.         Lack of technically experienced lecturers: Most of the lecturers in Nigerian universities do not have competence in the use of e-learning in their institutions. Majority of lecturers who had taken leading jobs were taught without ICTs (e-learning) and they have not developed competence in the use of ICTs (e-learning), thus they cannot model good use of technology (Idowu, Adagunod & Popoola, 2003).

6.         Limited (e-learning) facilities: Limited fund available to higher institutions have hindered the provision if needed facilities and infrastructure to promote e-learning usage. Most facilities of education and schools of education in Nigeria do not have dedicated laboratory for e-learning training. Classroom for e-learning are equally not equipped for usage. Thus, educators and trainee educators do not have access to e-learning technologies within their schools. The few available ones are well used mostly for administrative purposes.

7.         Inadequate course content for e-learning: The curriculum for teacher education is centralized based on NUC draft benchmark and academic minimum standard. The content and strategy are based on single course model.  It is meant to teach trainee teachers about how to learn or teach through the computer.  While this is good for introductory stage its outcomes are very limited. They cannot furnish educators with the needed skills and knowledge of e-learning usage in their institution.

8.         Problem of electricity: E-learning equipment are electrical equipment that requires electricity for operation.  Most rural areas of Nigeria do not have electricity facility and in urban area electricity supply is epileptic, and this reduces the life span of hardware also militates against effective usage,  even enthusiastic educators and students who have access to computer may be debarred from using them as a result of power outage.                                                                                                  

Review of Empirical Studies                                                                                               

Yuning, Saxin and Cheng (2022) conducted a research on effect of e-learning on academic performance of undergraduate students at Nankai University, China.  The study have hypothesis which were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of e-learning on the academic performance of undergraduate students at Nankai University in china. The descriptive survey research was used for the study. The purposive sampling technique was adopted and sample size was 361 students. The questionnaire was used in obtaining data. The descriptive and inferential statistics of mean, standard deviation and t-test were used to analyze the data. The findings of the study revealed that e-learning is positively and significance related to academic performance.   E-learning enhance accessibility to effective learning and therefore boosts the performance of learners. The study also found that students can interact anytime and from anywhere with various educational material like messages, audio, picture video and more via the internet. The study also found that e-learning is positively and significance related to academic performance.  Both studies are related in both the dependent and independent variables of the studies.  The reviewed study used the purposive sampling technique while the current study used the simple random sampling technique.  They differ in terms of geographical scope.  The reviewed study was done in China while the current study was done in Nigeria.

Cai-Yu, Yuan-Yuan and Shih-Chih (2021). Carried out an investigation on the empirical study of college students’ e-learning effectiveness and its antecedents towards the COVID-19 epidemic environment.  Fourteen alternate hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.  The purpose of the study was to determine the effectiveness of e-learning and its antecedents towards the covid-19 epidemic environment on college students.  The research design adopted for the study was the survey design.  The population of the study was the entire medical students from first-to the fifth-year undergraduate students.  The stratified sampling technique was adopted for the study and the sample size was 519 students.  The multi-group analysis was used in analysing the data.  The findings of the study revealed that college students’ e-learning self-efficacy has a significant positive influence on e-learning effectiveness through e-learning strategies.  Also, the study found that e-learning monitoring has a significant influence on e-learning strategies and offers indirect influence on e-learning effectiveness through e-learning strategies.  Also, that e-learning attitude has a significant positive impact on e-learning motivations, and e-learning effectiveness is positively affected by e-learning attitude through e-learning motivations and e-learning strategies.  The reviewed study is related to the current study in terms of the independent variable.  The studies differ in terms of the dependent variable, population and geographical location.  The reviewed study used medical students while the current study used business education students.  The reviewed study was done in Taiwan while the current study was done in Nigeria.

Ejubovic and Puska (2019) examined impact of self-regulated learning on academic performance and satisfaction of students in the online environment.  Two main hypotheses and ten alternate hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.  The purpose of the study was to determine the impact of self-regulated learning on academic performance and satisfaction of students in online environment.  The survey research design was adopted and the population was students of 46 higher education institutions in B &H which were public and private universities.  The simple random sampling technique was applied and the sample size was 1651 students.  The questionnaire was used to obtain data for the study.  The data collected were analyzed using the multiple regression analysis and the correlational analysis.  The findings revealed that self-regulated learning influenced satisfaction and academic performance.  Also, that environment structuring has a positive and significant influence on academic performance.  The reviewed study is related to the current study in terms of the dependent variable.  They both have hypotheses.  Both studies differ in terms of the independent variables, geographical location.  Also, the current study has research questions while the reviewed study does not have.  The current study was done in Nigeria while the reviewed study was carried out in Germany.

Balakamakshi, and Savithri, (2021) investigated the effect of e-learning on students’ academic performance at college level. Two null and two alternate hypotheses was formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.  The purpose of the study was to determine the impact of e-learning on students’ academic performance.  It was a survey design study.  The convenient sampling technique was adopted for the study.  The sample size was 250 female students from colleges in Chennai.  A 3-point rating scale was used in collecting data with the use of structured questionnaire.  The collected data was analysed with the use of SPSS to obtain the percentage analysis and chi square.  The findings of the study reviewed that e-learning enhances the quality of teaching and learning process.  The study also showed that there was significant association between age and academic performance of students.  Also that the association between flexible time and academic performance is highly significant.  The reviewed study is related to the current study in terms of the independent and dependent variables.  Both studies have hypotheses.  Also, both studies have moderating variables.  The reviewed study considered age and flexible time while the current study considered gender, age, educational qualification in view and academic level.  They differ in terms of geographical location.  The reviewed study used 3-point rating scale of Agreed, Neutral and Disagreed while the current study used 4-point rating scale of Very Great Extent, Great Extent, Little Extent and Very Little Extent with 4, 3, 2, and 1 point respectively.  The current study used both male and female students but the reviewed study only made use of female students.

Elena, Svetlana, Natalia, and Yana (2021) carried out a study on Education policy:  The Impact of E-Learning on Academic Performance. The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of e-learning on academic achievement and the magnitude of its impact on academic achievement.  The research design adopted was the meta-analysis.  Data were collected from 150 authors’ observational studies carried out in Russia.  The surveys of distant and partly-distant students were used to collect data.  While the Cohen Model was used in analysing the result.  The findings of the study revealed that e-learning has a significant beneficial impact on the academic success of students.  Also, those sufficient ICT facilities can contribute to better learning and students’ academic performance. The study is related to the current study in terms of the independent variables.  Both studies differ in terms of the research method.  The reviewed study is a meta-analytical study while the current study is a descriptive survey study.  Both studies also differ in terms of geographical location.  The reviewed study was conducted in Russia while the current study was done in Nigeria.

Okoli (2012) examined assessment of strategies for optimizing ICT usage among undergraduate Students.  The study was a decipher survey which was carried out with undergraduates in two universities and a college of education. Purposive sample of 35 undergraduates were drawn from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Kwara State University, Ilorin and Nsugbe College of Education. 35 copies of structured questionnaires were distributed out of which 25 copies were returned and all were found usable. The findings of the study showed that when these ICT facilities are made available and maintained, the undergraduates will develop courses online to be accessed by teachers and student, using video conferencing for groups outside the institutions, it also revealed that students use the PC’s in discussion in class and outside classroom using internet, chatting, mentoring and use of CD-Rom instead of printing materials will be facilitated.  Another finding is that all the administrative and instructional related strategies were perceived as necessary but the strategy of making a policy on compulsory possession of private computers by students on admission and the use of video conferencing were least rated. Both studies are related as they both examined the usage of ICTs (computer and e-learning technologies) in the teaching and learning of Tertiary education programme in Nigerian tertiary institution and further to determine the impact on academic performance of undergraduates of business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States precisely. The study differ in terms of geographical location.

Ezenwafor (2012), investigated adequacy of exposure to information and communication technology in business.  The study sought to ascertain the adequacy of exposure received by graduating university education students and tertiary institutions in manipulating and utilizing various ICT equipment and software resources. The study is a descriptive survey which was carried out in Anambra State in four tertiary institutions. Two universities and two colleges of education, 418 graduating tertiary education students were used in the study. A structured questionnaire was used, the findings showed that the respondents were not very adequately exposed in utilizing any of the ICT (e-learning) software resources. The study however showed that, business educator in south-east universities possesses internet skills to great extent, this help in exposing their students in utilizing the resources. In addition to this is a revelation that respondent’s exposure in manipulating ICT equipment and tools is inadequate.  The study is related to the present study which is on utilization of e-learning in universities and tertiary institutions.  The studies differ in terms of the geographical location.  The reviewed study was done in Anambra State while the current study was done in Delta and Edo States.

Azih and Nwosu (2012) carried out a study to ascertain the extent of availability and utilization of e-learning facilities in tertiary institutions offering business courses in Ebonyi state. The population was all the undergraduates in the three tertiary institutions in Ebonyi State, comprising 8 lecturers from Ebonyi State Tertiary institution, 12 lecturers from Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic and 11 lecturers from Ebonyi State College of Education Ikwo. Out of the 31 copies of the questionnaire 30 copies were returned. The questionnaire had 46 Items which were used in the study.  The findings revealed that the tertiary institutions do not have the necessary E-learning facilities needed for teaching and learning Tertiary education. The study also revealed non utilization of e-learning facilities and identified high cost of procurement and installation of e-learning centre, poor maintenance of existing communication and poor power supply as some challenges found to inhibit the availability and utilization of e-learning in tertiary institution in Ebonyi State. The reviewed study is related to the current study in terms of the independent variable. Both studies differ in terms of population, the reviewed study used university in one state while the current study used universities in two states.  They also differ in terms of location.  The reviewed study was done in Ebonyi State while the current state was done in Delta and Edo States.

Galy, Downey and Johnson (2011) conducted a study on the effect of using e-learning tools in online and campus-based classrooms on students’ performance.  Two hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of using e-learning tools in online ad campus-based classroom on students’ performance.  The survey research design was adopted.  The population of the study comprised of students pursuing a Bachelors of business Administration, who were given the choice of enrolling in either online section or campus-based section of the same course during the Fall semester of 2009.  The moderating variables of gender, age and city of residence was used in the study.  The sampling technique adopted was purposive sampling and the sample size was students in Information Systems in organizations (IS), Human Resource Management (HRM), and I International Management (INTL).  The questionnaire was used as a means for data collection.  Method of data analysis was mean, standard deviation, t-test, correlation and regression analysis.  Findings of the study revealed that e-learning tools as well as work, do play an important role in performance in both online and campus-based courses.  Also, that there is a statistically significant number of students who do not believe that online courses are equal in value compared to those delivered on campus.  Also, there was no significant difference between the final grades of the online and campus-based students. The reviewed study is related to the current study in terms of the independent and dependent variables. They both have hypotheses and moderating variables.  They differ in terms of geographical scope.  The reviewed study was carried out in USA while the current study was done in Nigeria.                   

Umoru and Zakka (2019) conducted a study on interactive technology competencies required by teachers of office technology and management for improved secretarial outcomes in polytechnics in North-Central Nigeria.  The study have hypotheses.  The purpose of the study was to investigate the interactive technology competencies required by teachers of office technology and management for improved secretarial outcome in polytechnics in North-Central Nigeria. The study revealed the following as interactive technology competencies required by Teachers of Office Technology and Management to improve secretarial performance in polytechnics in North-Central Nigeria; ability to use interactive white boards, electronic board for teaching, ability to use interactive forms on the web to create feedback or ask questions, ability to organize video conferencing or internet phone chat (Skype, Team Speak), ability to use interactive on-line survey tools (Survey Monkey, Zoomerang), ability to use student response systems (clickers, wireless learning calculator systems, etc.), ability to use instant messaging/chat room for content delivery, ability to use interactive multimedia and presentation application for teaching, ability to use simulations, or virtual worlds (Ayiti, Elemental, Second Life, Civilization), ability to use interactive collaborative editing software (Wikis, Google Docs), ability to use online student video projects (using YouTube, Google Video), ability to use Web 2.0 tools to interact and collaborate for teaching and learning purposes, ability to use interactive E-book, ability to use educational cloud services to store, manage and process data, ability to use audience response pads, ability to create online interactive audio and video instructions.  The reviewed study is related to the present study in terms of the e-learning technologies.  Both studies differ in terms of the geographical scope.  The reviewed study was carried out in North-Central Nigeria while the current study was done in Delta and Edo States in South-South Nigeria.

      Methodology

The survey research method was used for the study.  The stratified random sampling technique was adopted and the sample size was 100 business education students from the selected Universities in Delta and Edo States.  The instrument was a self-developed questionnaire titled, “Impact of E-learning technologies Questionnaire (IUELTQ)”.  Which was divided into two parts namely (Section A and Section B) Section A contained the demographic variables of the respondents, while Section B dealt with the research questions.  The items in the Section B of the questionnaire was rated with a 4-point rating scale of Very Great Extent (VGE), Great Extent (GE), Little Extent (LE), and Very Little Extent(VLE), which was weighed 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. (See Appendix C, p. 84)

The instrument was face and content validated by the research supervisor, one expert from the Department of Business Education and one expert from the Department of Measurement and Evaluation all from Delta State University, Abraka. 

Data collected was analysed with the use of mean, standard deviation, t-test, and One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used for testing the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. 

Any mean that is less than 2.50 means little extent of utilization of e-learning technologies while any mean that is 2.50 -3.49 means Great Extent of utilization of e-learning technologies, while any mean at 3.50 and above means Very Great Extent of utilization of e-learning technologies. 

Results:

Table 1:  Mean and Standard Deviation responses on availability of e-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students

S/N	To what extent are the following E – Learning Software Technologies available for teaching and learning business Education courses in your institution?	X	SD	REMARK
1.	Word Processing Software	3.31	0.83	GE
2.	Typing Software (Marvis Beacon, Ultrakey)	2.89	0.85	GE
3.	Data Base Software	2.62	0.95	GE
4.	Design and Graphic Software	2.62	1.07	GE
5.	Desktop Publishing Software	2.62	0.98	GE
6.	Internet Browsing Software	2.71	0.95	GE
7.	Statistical Analysis and Forecasting Software	2.52	0.96	GE
8.	E-mail Facilities	2.63	1.04	GE
9.	Interactive Websites	2.65	1.07	GE
10.	Intranet/Extranet	2.49	0.93	LE
11.	Online Tutorial in Zoom	2.45	1.01	LE
12	Power point for Lecture Presentation	2.55	1.00	GE
13.	Spread Sheet (Excel) Software	2.85	1.07	GE
14.	Search Engine (eg. google.com firefox.com etc.)	2.57	1.03	GE
15.	Chat rooms (Facebook, Youtube, twitter and 2go)	2.68	1.11	GE
	GRAND MEAN/SD	2.68	0.99	GE

Data presented in Table 1 revealed that the mean responses of respondents on availability of e-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students ranged from 2.45 to 3.31, while the standard deviation ranged from 0.83 to 1.11.  Similarly, the grand mean of 2.68 depicted that availability of e-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students in in universities in Delta and Edo States was to a Great extent.  Also, the standard deviation showed that the respondents were not far apart in their responses.  Although, Table 1 showed that the availability of intranet/extranet and online tutorial in zoom for undergraduate business education students was to a little extent.  Which implied that these technologies were rarely available for use by the students.

Table 2:  Mean and Standard Deviation responses on impact of e-learning technologies on academic performance of undergraduate business education students

S/N	To what extent does the following E-learning software technologies has positive impact on the academic performance of undergraduate business Education students	X	SD	REMARK
1.	Word Processing Software	3.29	0.98	GE
2.	Typing Software (Marvis Beacon, Ultrakey)	2.85	0.77	GE
3.	Data Base Software	2.73	0.99	GE
4.	Internet Browsing Software	2.47	1.06	LE
5.	E-Electronic Books Software	2.66	0.92	GE
6.	Statistical Analysis and Forecasting Software	2.56	1.08	GE
7.	E-mail Facilities	2.58	1.04	GE
8.	Motion Films	2.53	1.06	GE
9.	Interactive Websites	2.62	1.01	GE
10.	Intranet/Extranet	2.33	1.01	LE
11.	Online Tutorials in CD and DVD	2.58	1.06	GE
12.	Power point for Lecture Presentation Software	2.53	1.04	GE
13.	Spread Sheet (Excel) Software	2.63	1.02	GE
14.	Search Engine (eg. google.com firefox.com)	2.72	0.99	GE
15.	Chat rooms (Facebook, Youtube, twitter  2go)	2.70	0.99	GE
	GRAND MEAN/SD	2.65	1.00	GE

Data presented in Table 2 revealed that the mean responses of respondents on impact of e-learning technologies on academic performance of undergraduate business education students ranged from 2.33 to 3.29, while the standard deviation ranged from 0.77 to 1.06.  Similarly, the grand mean of 2.65 depicts that impact of e-learning technologies on academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States was to a Great extent.  Also, the standard deviation showed that the respondents were not far apart in their responses.  Although, Table 3 showed that impact of e-learning technologies on academic performance of undergraduate business education students with regards to Internet Browsing Software and Intranet/Extranet was to a little extent.

For the hypotheses, any calculated p-value that is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis was rejected and any calculated p-value that was greater than 0.05 the null hypotheses was retained.

Table 3: t-test Analysis of Business Education students’ Mean Ratings on the availability of E-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students’ programme in universities in Delta and Edo States based on gender.

Gender           N         Mean              SD       df        α          p-value           Decision

98        0.05         0.39                 NS

Male                37        3.22                 0.92

Female            63        3.37                 0.77

Data presented in Table 3 indicates that the p-value on the availability of E-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students’ programme is 0.39.  This implies that there is no significant difference in the mean rating of business education students on the availability of E-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students’ programme in universities in Delta and Edo States based on gender.

Table 4: t-test Analysis of Business Education students’ Mean Ratings on the impact of utilization of e-learning technologies on the academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States based on qualification in view.

Qualification             N         Mean              SD       df        α          p-value           Decision

98        0.05         0.85                 NS

B.Sc (Ed.)                   59        3.31                 1.02

B.Ed.                           41        3.27                 0.92

Data presented in Table 4 indicated that the p-value on the impact of utilization of e-learning technologies on the academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities is 0.85.  This implies that there is no significant difference in the mean rating of business education students on the impact of utilization of e-learning technologies on the academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States based on qualification in view.

Discussion of Findings

The study found in research question one that the following e-learning technologies are available for undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States to a great extent.  These e-learning technologies include Word Processing Software, Typing Software (Marvis Beacon, Ultrakey), Data Base Software, Design and Graphic Software, Desktop Publishing Software, Internet Browsing Software, Statistical Analysis and Forecasting Software.  Others include E-mail Facilities, Interactive Websites, Power point for Lecture Presentation, Spread Sheet (Excel) Software, Search Engine (eg. google.com firefox.com etc.), and Chat rooms (Facebook, Youtube, twitter and 2go).   This finding corroborate the findings of  Yuning, et al. (2022)  who found that  students can interact anytime and from anywhere with various educational material like messages, audio, picture video and more via the internet. It contradicts the findings of Azih and Nwosu (2012) who discovered in their study that tertiary institutions do not have the necessary E-learning facilities needed for teaching and learning Tertiary education. However, it was observed from the results of data analysis that intranet/extranet and online tutorial in zoom for undergraduate business education students was barely available for the students use. These findings collaborate Elena, et al. (2021) who found that sufficient ICT facilities can contribute to better learning and students’ academic performance.

The result of data analysis for research question three indicted that E-learning technologies have great impact on the academic performance of undergraduate Business Education Students in universities in Delta and Edo States. E-learning technologies have impact on the academic performance of undergraduate Business Education Students in universities in Delta and Edo States.  The e-learning technologies that have great impact on academic performance of undergraduate business education students are, Word Processing Software, Typing Software (Marvis Beacon, Ultrakey), Data Base Software, E-Electronic Books Software, Statistical Analysis and Forecasting Software, E-mail Facilities, Motion Films, Online Tutorials in CD and DVD, Power point for Lecture Presentation Software, Spread Sheet (Excel) Software, Search Engine (eg. google.com firefox.com) and Chat rooms (Facebook, Youtube, twitter  2go). 

The findings of the present study agreed with that of Galy, et al. (2011) that e-learning tools as well as work, do play an important role in performance in both online and campus-based courses.  Also, it agreed with Yuning, et al. (2022) who found that e-learning is positively and significance related to academic performance. These findings corroborate with Elena, et al. (2021) who discovered that e-learning has a significant beneficial impact on the academic success of students. The findings of Ejubovic and Puska (2019) also support the findings of the present study that self-regulated learning influenced satisfaction and academic performance. The findings of the present study collaborates Yousef, and Basem, (2020) who uphold in their study that, the implementation of e-learning strategy has a positive impact and statistically significant differences on the students’ GPA.

Conclusion.

The main purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of the utilization of e-learning technologies on academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States. The content variables covered in this study include:  E-learning technologies, software and academic performance.

The theoretical framework of the study was based on Constructivism Learning Theory propounded by Seymour Papert in 1980. 

The findings of the study revealed that e-learning technologies have a great impact on the academic performance of undergraduate business education students in universities in Delta and Edo States to a great extent.  Also, there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the Business Education students on the availability of E-learning technologies for undergraduate business education students’ programme in universities in Delta and Edo States based on gender, gender, age, educational qualification in view and academic level.

Recommendations:

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:

1. The management of university administration should ensure that the institution should make available intranet/extranet and also make provision for online tutorial in zoom for undergraduate business education students.
2. The lecturers should ensure that students make use of Desktop Publishing Software, Chat rooms (Facebook, Youtube, twitter 2go), Interactive Websites, Intranet/Extranet, and Online Tutorials in CD and DVD as they will enhance their academic performance.
3. Curriculum planners of the universities should make deliberate efforts to provide curriculum that will accommodate the utilization of e-learning software and technology, since the e-learning technologies enhance the academic performance of students.

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by G. Sai Sravanthi | Publication date: Oct. 20, 2023 | Publication: International Journal of Research

ICSSR-Project Director, Assistant Professor, Department of Business Management

Vikrama Simhapuri University, Kakutur-524324,

Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh

Abstract:

Entrepreneurs are people who create businesses to take advantage of new opportunities. Women entrepreneurs as that of male entrepreneurs play a crucial to the economic development of a Nation. The Government of India defines a female entrepreneur as a company owned and controlled by women, with at least 51% of capital owned by women and at least 51% of employment created by the company. The COVID-19 virus began spreading on November 2019 in China and within a very short period of time, it wide spread almost every Nation. On March 11, 2020, WHO (World Health Organization) announced the disease as a pandemic. Women entrepreneurs have been facing various challenges in the sustenance of their enterprises during the pandemic. This paper focused on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on women entrepreneurs in INDIA with the review of literature.

Keywords: Women entrepreneurs, COVID-19, entrepreneurship

Introduction:

Women Entrepreneur:

Entrepreneurship is a formidable engine of economic growth.Entrepreneurship refers to the act of setting up a new business to capture new opportunities. The act of setting up a new business or reviving an existing business so as to take advantage of new opportunities.” Women’s entrepreneurship makes women economically independent International Liberation Organization defined the women‘s enterprise as a small unit where one or more women entrepreneurs have not less than 50 per cent financial holdings .The word-Entrepreneurship is derived from the French word‘’entreprendre’’meaning’ ’undertake’’, The German word ‘’Unternehmen’’mean ‘’to undertake’’ means an Entrepreneur is “one who undertakes or manages. The Oxford English Dictionary (of 1897) defines the term ―Entrepreneur in a similar way as the director or a manager of a public musical institution, one who gets-up entertainment arranged, especially musical performance. Initially, it was applied to those who were engaged in military expeditions in the early 16^th century and later extended to cover engineering activities and construction in the 17th century.

Entrepreneur:

According to E.E. Hagen, “an entrepreneur is an economic man who by his innovative ideas, problem-solving skills and better utilization of his skills tries to maximize profits.

 M.M.P. Akhouri (former Executive Director, NIESBUD) defined an entrepreneur as “a one, who combines risk bearing, innovativeness, able to analyse opportunities and capture resources and persistent in reaching the objective.’’

 Entrepreneurship:

According to A.H. Cole “  The purposeful activity of an individual or a group involved to start ,maintain or maximize profits by production and distribution of goods and services

Government of India – “A woman entrepreneur is defined as an enterprise owned and controlled by a woman having a minimum financial interest of 51 percent of the capital and giving at least 51 percent of the employment generated in the enterprise to women.”

Women entrepreneurs may be defined as a woman or a group of women who initiate, organize, and run a business concern. Women or groups of women who initiate, organize, and run a business enterprise are called as women entrepreneurs.

Schumpeter – “Women entrepreneurs are those women who innovate, initiate or adopt a business activity”.

The outbreak of COVID-19 has badly affected global economics. Several businesses suffered due to this crisis. The death pool has reached 6,514,397 deaths while the number of cases is 612,236,677 worldwide till 2022 (WHO COVID Dashboard) In India, the first case of COVID-19 was confirmed on 30 January 2020 and then civic infection is increased. The MSME sector in India comprises 69 million enterprises that approximately employ 110 million of the national workforce and is considered the second largest employment generation after agriculture. Women entrepreneurs make a tremendous contribution to the Indian Economy and own 20 percent of microenterprises, nearly 3 percent of medium-sized enterprises, and 5 percent of small enterprises. COVID-19 has made a negative impact on the global economy and the micro. small and medium sectors (MSME) IN Particular. Over the decade, the percentage of women-owned enterprises has increased. India has a greater percentage of women-owned enterprises when compared to many other countries. As per the Udyam report as of June 2021,81 % of MSMEs are owned by males,17% are owned by females and 1% are unrecognized in India. Specific women-related special provisions have also been taken by the government. The Government of India also allocated 80% of the fund to help women entrepreneurs associations to create marketing hubs (MSME,2021).

As per the findings of the report, Micro Save under the Research Scheme (RSNA – 2021) of NITI Aayog following are found:

 India could boost its GDP by USD 0.7 trillion by bringing 68 million more women into India’s workforce by 2025 according to reports of McKinsey Global Institute (MGI). India could increase GDP growth by 1.5 percentage points by inclusion of 50% of the women in the workforce as per the World Bank report. However, A Sharp fall in India’s female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) from 32% in 2005 to 19% in 2021. Constant fall 1 in FLFPR is because of several factors like reduced child labor, sectoral shift from agriculture post, and increased girls’ enrolment in higher education. Etc. India’s women’s economic contribution accounts for 17% of the GDP and the pandemic COVID-19 exacerbated the situation when women’s employment and decreased profits business. Only 20% of enterprises in India are owned by India. The majority 82% of the enterprises owned by women are micro units and run as sole proprietorships. Livestock, manufacturing, and retail trade constitute about 6.36 million enterprises of the total 8.05 million. Studies reveal that 10% to 30% of registered enterprises are not often run by women.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

1) Bhardwaj G.N , Parashar, S. Pandey. B and Sahu. P. (2012):

The researchers have examined several motivating and de-motivating factors affecting women’s Entrepreneurship and found out that there exist multiple crucial factors related to women’s entrepreneurial opportunities that differ from one place to another place but women’s entrepreneurship is very important for the development of any country economy.

2) Roohangiz Namdari, Shahin Raz, Hajar Aramoon (2012) :

The study was conducted in Khoozesta Province to determine the socio-cultural and economic factors affecting women’s entrepreneurship. Women entrepreneurs were considered from Ahwaz, Dezfol, Khorramshar and Abadan, 100 entrepreneurs were selected based on simple random sampling. The research instrument used was a questionnaire and descriptive and analytic procedures were employed. The research shown that social Factors had more effect on women’s entrepreneurship in Khouzestan than other factors.

3) Irene Fafaliou, Ioannis Salamouris (2014): The research was done to identify the profile of female entrepreneurs in Greece, their main characteristics by conducting an online survey from November 2012 to January 2013, with a sample of 300 women entrepreneurs. The major findings show entrepreneurs are successful but some imbalance exists between personal and professional life.

4) Janet Rajakumari, Mrs. Angel Beulah Gracelia (2015) :

The researchers highlighted the concept of women entrepreneurship in India. The major outcome of the research study was lack of balance between job and family, male-dominated society, illiteracy, lack of technical skills, entrepreneurial skills, and marketing skills.

5) Unnikrishnan. P and S. Bhuvaneswari (2016):

The study analyzed various problems faced by women Entrepreneurs in Malappuram District of Kerala. The results reveal that the Government should provide financial assistance and training to women entrepreneurs. District Women industrial estate shall be set up for wide extension of activities of women entrepreneurs.

6) Sonal Sharma (2018):

The researchers have conducted an investigation to analyze the impact of ICT on entrepreneurship and ICT initiatives taken for women entrepreneurs and explore the challenges of women entrepreneurship.

7) R. Vijayalakshmi, V. Palanisingh, G. Lingavel, T. R. Gurumurthy (2019):

The Investigators have analyzed the issues faced by women entrepreneurs by taking a sample size of 200 and convenience sampling was used. The results reveal that women entrepreneurs are affected more by the pandemic which resulted in a huge loss of their business.

8) Ritwik Saraswat (2020):

The study attempted to understand the concept, and meaning of women’s entrepreneurship and how important role played by women entrepreneurs for the development of the economy, for which an in-depth literature review was reviewed. In addition, the research was focused on the evaluation of the effectiveness of various Government schemes employed and framed for women entrepreneurs, assessing the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs. For the study, data collection was collected through primary collection through surveys, questionnaires and secondary data collected from reports of NABARD, RBI, various journals were used respectively.

9) Ika Nur Putriantini & Yoshi Takahashi (2020):

The study conducted an examination of women entrepreneurs in rural areas of a developing country to know the perspectives on demographic characteristics, barriers, and the non-economic outcomes of women entrepreneurs. The results demonstrate that there exists a significant relationship between demographic characteristics.

10) Govind Dewan and Fedric Kujur (2021):

The study highlighted the challenges and opportunities of women’s entrepreneurship in the present world. The research was confined to Kolkata during the period of December 2020 to January 2021 with 35 women respondents as a sample representing the real information. Results show that focus should be emphasized on women with family, and friends support to compete with male entrepreneurs.

11) Hiren Rana and Ninad Jhala (2021):

The research was conducted by secondary data collected through published reports, journals, websites, media, etc to understand the issues faced by women entrepreneurs and the impact of COVID-19 in India. They have suggested training programs, technical assistance and funding to women entrepreneurs and the formation of Government policies to encourage women’s participation. .

12) Faisal Mustafa, Ambreen Khursheed, Maham Fatima, Marriam Rao(2021) :

The study was done to explore the impact of COVID-19 lockdown on micro-businesses owned by women borrowers of microfinance institutions and in managing crisis situations. The results provide valuable insights on life style, household income, business sales

13) Jesica Tosses, Franklin Maduko, ISIS Gaddis, Leonardo Iacoven and Kathleen Beegle (2021):

The investigators chosen 40,000 from five countries including informal firm in the sample, predominant businesses from 49 countries during the months of April and September 2020. Findings show that digital payments were widely used by micro firms.

14) Nishtha Nayyar (2021):

The researchers aimed to analyze the success and pitfalls of women entrepreneurs during the pandemic COVID-19 with a sample size of 36 women entrepreneurs from Chandigarh, India. Results reveal that there is a relationship between self-efficacy and resilience and the Government’s role in encouraging women entrepreneurs.

15) Shefali Nandan and Anjali Kushwaha (2021):

The researchers have explored the various challenges faced by women entrepreneurs during COVID-19 Pandemic and the opportunities, they perceived. The approach used was exploratory case study and purposive sampling method. First-generation women entrepreneurs were selected and findings show that a rapid fall in sales and demand of the product and service during the early period of the pandemic four challenges such as operational disruptions, new skill development, work-life fusion and declining sales were identified.

16) Sanjeev Kumar and Neha Singh(2021) :

The researchers have analyzed the hindering factors along with the role of the state experienced by the Delhi-based women entrepreneurs in setting up enterprises amidst the challenges posed by COVID -19 pandemic. Recommended gender concerns in policy initiatives

17) Silvia De Simone, Jessica Pileri, Max Rapp-Ricciardi& Barbara Barbieri(2021)

The researcher’s study reveals the major role of family-work conflict on the success of entrepreneurs in Italy. Recommended Italian Government on implementing child care supply and specific family-friendly policies designed for women entrepreneurs.

18) Rizwan Ullah Khan, Yashar Salamzadeh , Syed Zulfiqar Ali Shah and Mazhar Hussain (2021):

The researchers have investigated to identify the factors that affect women entrepreneurs’ success in Pakistan 181 registered SMEs operating in Pakistan were considered for the study. The results indicate that internal factors like risk bearer,, being self-confident, desire to achieve high and external factors like socio-cultural, market economic factors have a positive impact on the success of enterprises. Small and Medium Enterprises Development Authority (SMEDA), has to be set up to support women entrepreneurs.

19) Bathula Srinivasau, Shilpa Bhatia and Ankita Gupta (2022):

The study was focused on the analysis of direct and indirect impact via forward and backward linkages of women entrepreneurs during the Pandemic. A sample of 50 women entrepreneurs was considered and data was collected using a questionnaire during the August and September months of 2020. Tools used for the study are Chi-square, Mann-Whitney, U-test, Kruskal-Wallis H-test and the sampling technique adopted was convenience sampling. Results of the study show that rapid decline in revenues by 96% and customers by 94% an increase in transportation costs by 78% and 48% of women entrepreneurs have relied on personal savings to meet expenses instead of the Atma Nirbhar package by the Government.

20) Shabya Singh and John Britto.M.(2022):

The research was conducted to identify various challenges, conflicts, and opportunities faced by female entrepreneurs. Primary and secondary data collection were collected by surveys and reports. The area of study considered was NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh and findings show that the majority of female entrepreneurs faced domestic and professional life challenges in balancing work –life. They have suggested Government to organize training programs.

21) Ritu Yadav (2022):

The researchers have explored drivers of entrepreneurial intention among women entrepreneurs during the pandemic and a sample of 52 were considered and the research was confined to Haryana’s rural and urban areas. Because of the COVID-19 Pandemic, online responses were collected by generation of Google forms to collect the data. The results reveal that, financial motivation, family responsibility, knowledge, and underemployment have been the four motivators to women in India to become entrepreneurs.

22) Amrita Nandy , Mohona Biswas (2022):

They have tried to identify Bangladeshi women entrepreneurs amid the Covid-19. The study laid focuses on women entrepreneurs conducting business mostly (99%) in Bangladesh’s micro, and small. medium enterprises. Findings indicate 20% of women entrepreneurs in Bangladesh have been severely impacted and 90% have faced mental agony, and socio-economic stress.

23) Zhengda Xu and Heqi Jia (2022):

The study focused on the influence of Covid-19 on the well-being of entrepreneurs in China.303 entrepreneurs were selected for study and suggested measures to maintain well-being during pandemic and post-pa

24) Sonja Franzke , Jie Wu ·Fabian Jintae Froese Zi Xuan Chan (2022):

The researchers have reviewed female entrepreneurs in Asia, emphasizing on how they vary from entrepreneurs in the West, with four dimensions: Special characteristics of female entrepreneurs, their special intentions, resource constraints, and their management styles. The analysis reveals predominant differences between developing Asian female entrepreneurs often have a low level of education and developed Asian female entrepreneurs have a high –level of education.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1)Amrita Nandy , Mohona Biswas, Impact of covid-19 on women entrepreneurs’ survival in Bangladesh’’, BLM2-ICAM4 AN INTERNATIONAL JOINT E -CONFERENCE (ICAM 2020) organized by Taylor’s University and University of Kelaniya , September, 2021.

2) Bhardwaj G. N, Parashar, S. Pandey. B., and Sahu. P, ’’Women entrepreneurship in India: opportunities and challenges ’’.Volume 2, Issue 1,2012.

3) Bathula Srinivasau, Shilpa Bhatia and Ankita Gupta, Collision of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Women Entrepreneurship in Uttarakhand: A Microlevel Analysis’’, Journal of Economic Theory and Practice,pp:1–16, 2022.

4) Govind Dewan and Fedric Kujur, ‘’Challenges and Opportunities of Women Entrepreneurs during Pandemic Period: An Empirical Study in Kolkata’’, International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Volume. 2, no 12, pp: 646-653, December 2021.

5) Faisal Mustafa, Ambreen Khursheed, Maham Fatima, Marriam Rao,’’ Exploring the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on women entrepreneurs in Pakistan’’, International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, Volume.13 No. 2, pp. 187-203, 2021.

6) Hiren Rana and Ninad Jhala, Impact of Covid-19 on women entrepreneurship in India, BSSS Journal of Social Work: ISSN (Print) -0975-251X, E-ISSN-2582-4864, Volume. XIII, Issue-I.pp-127-135, 2021.

7) Janet Rajakumari ,Mrs. Angel Beulah Gracelia,’’ Challenges Faced by Women Entrepreneurship in Tamilnadu’’, Global Journal for Research Analysis, Volume-4, Issue-6, June-2015, ISSN No 2277 – 8160,pp:1-14.

8) Ika Nur Putriantini & Yoshi Takahashi,’’ Demographic Characteristics and Non-economic Outcomes of Women Entrepreneurs with Moderation of Barriers: The Case of Small Enterprises in Rural Coastal Area of Indonesia’’, Jurnal Perikanan Universitas Gadjah Mada,22(1), pp: 43-54,2020.

9) Irene Fafaliou , Ioannis Salamouris,’’Analyze Female Entrepreneurship :Evidence from Greece’’, International Journal of Economics & Business Administration (IJEBA), volume II, issue 1, pp:21-38,2014.

10) Rizwan Ullah Khan, Yashar Salamzadeh, Syed Zulfiqar Ali Shah and Mazhar Hussain, Factors affecting women entrepreneurs’ success: a study of small- and medium-sized enterprises in emerging market of Pakistan ‘’, Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship ,pp:1-21,2021.

11) Roohangiz Namdari , Shahin Raz, Hajar Aramoon , ‘’A Survey on socio-cultural and economic factors affecting  women entrepreneurs in Khouzestan Province’’, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 6(13):pp:11-17, ISSN 1991-8178,2012.

12) Shabya Singh, Dr. John Britto M,‘’ Challenges and opportunities faced by women entrepreneurs with special reference to NOIDA (UP), International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology, 2022 Vol. 6, Issue 11, ISSN No. 2455-2143, Pages 120-129,2022.

13) Shefali Nandan and Anjali Kushwaha, ‘’Interventions of non-governmental organizations for women’s empowerment through micro-entrepreneurship: evidence from India’’, International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management Volume. 29, No. 1, pp 96-113, May 2023.

14) Silvia De Simone, Jessica Pileri, Max Rapp-Ricciardi& Barbara Barbieri’’ Mea Culpa! The Role of Guilt in the Work-Life Interface and Satisfaction of Women Entrepreneurs’’, International Journal of Environmental Research public Health,2030;19(17):10781, August.2022.

15) Sonal Sharma, Emerging Dimensions of Women Entrepreneurship: Developments & Obstructions, Economic Affairs, Volume 63, No. 2, pp. 337-346, June 2018

16) Sonja Franzke, Jie Wu ·Fabian Jintae Froese Zi Xuan Chan, ‘’Female entrepreneurship in Asia:a critical review and future directions’’, Asian Business & Management,pp:343-373,2022.

17) Unnikrishnan. P and S.Bhuvaneswari, ‘’A Study on the Issues and Problems of women entrepreneurs in Kerala with special reference to Malapurram District’’ ,International Journal of Research-GRANTHAALAYAH, ISSN-2350-0530(O)ISSN-2394-3629(P), Volume 4, Issue 6,pp:105-112, September,2016.

18) Zhengda Xu and Heqi Jia,’’ The Influence of COVID-19 on Entrepreneur’s Psychological Well-Being’’, Front Psychology, 2022.

19)https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/women/women-entrepreneurship/women-entrepreneurship.

20) https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/reviews/defining-woman-entrepreneurship

In Hyderabad and Secunderabad, there are lakhs of Bengali population. Exact data is not available, but as per Deccan Chronicle, October 12, 2021, over the decades, the number of Durga Puja mandaps has increased to around 60 in Hyderabad and Secunderabad, with about 6.5 lakh Bengalis in the twin cities celebrating the festival. It is noteworthy to mention that as of October 2021, around 6.5 lakh Bengalis were living in the twin cities, so naturally, the number has gone up.
Generally, Durga Puja is celebrated for four days- Maha Saptami, Maha Astami, Maha Navami, and Vijayadashami (immersion of Devi idols). Sometimes, one day before the celebration started, which is known as Maha Shasthi. In this article, four Durga Puja celebrations that I enjoyed in 2023 are presented. Of these, one was the Golden Jubilee celebration, and the other three were comparatively nascent.
1) Bengalee Cultural Association, Masab Tank, Hyderabad, started its Puja with some residents in 1947. Over the period, the Durga Puja celebration has become popular among the Bengalis and other communities such as Telugu, Hindi-speaking people, and others. In 2023, the Durga Puja committee members celebrated 50 years, i.e. Golden Jubilee. Since I have been in Hyderabad for the last three decades, I have been going with my family members for at least one day and offering Pushpanjali (Prayer with flowers)and sweets from my side. As usual, this year, 2023, I also visited with my family members and learned that members have increased to more than 1000. And over a period of time, its budget has also increased. This year’s budget was hovering around Rs. 35 lakh. The celebration started on October 20, Friday (Maha Sasthi Day), and with the Vijayadashami, i.e., Devi immersion/Visarjan, on October 24, the celebration was completed. Among the Committee Members – President Sri M.K. Mitra, Vice President Smt. Anita Das Gupta, the General Secretary Sri Ranjit Paul, and other members informed that Bhog as Prosadam (different rice items, vegetable curry, sweets, etc.) were served on October 21, 22, 23, and 24.
Every day, thousands of people joined the Bhog Prosadam, i.e., lunch, and each day, different rice-based preparations (such as Kichri, Polao/Fried rice, general rice, etc.) were prepared, in addition to vegetable curry and sweets, etc. Also, on a rent basis, there were some food stalls. In addition, there were cultural programmes from October 20 to October 23, 2023.
2) Uttaran Bangiya Samiti, Narsingi, Hyderabad, is a relatively new celebration of Durga Puja as it was started in the year 2018. By interacting with General Secretary Dr Chiranjit Ghosh on October 22, 2023, a young person of around 37 years old informed that around 600 families were associated with the puja committee. Based on their donation and some sponsors, their budget was around Rs 25 lakh. They also offer Bhog to all visitors from October 21 to 24. On different days, different rice items were served along with vegetable curry, dal sweets, etc. And evening cultural programmes were organised, including singing, dancing, drama, etc. The local people performed all these. He further informed that 16 stalls in the premises on a rent basis were allowed. These stalls were food plus non-food items. All the members, with hope, hype, and hoopla, supported it to make it a grand success. The President, Vice-president, Treasurer, and Joint Secretary of the committee were Sri Santanu Ghosal, Sri Somnath Pal, Smt Kasturi Pal, and Sri Saikat Karmakar, respectively. According to General Secretary Dr Chiranjit Ghosh, all these people and all other members dedicatedly and sincerely worked.
Since there were 16 stalls, to get an idea about the economic importance of earning income, I contacted one business family. Sri Argya Kumar Sanyal, with his wife and one young relative, set up a food stall where tea and different veg and non-veg snacks were available. I interviewed him on October 22, and he informed that for four days, he had to pay a sum of Rs. 14,000 as rent. According to him, he expected a profit of around Rs. 15,000 after incurring all expenditures. In this context, he further informed that he and his relatives managed the business, so there was no cost for incurring wages.
3) Attapur Bengali Association, Attapur, Hyderabad, was a nascent Durga Puja, as 45 families staying near the area started the celebration in 2018. The President of the Puja Committee, Sri Kuntal Purkait, and the General Secretary, Sri Tuhin Basu, informed that the budget was around Rs. 10 lakh because the members only pay the amount; of course, one organisation of the Government of India, viz National Mineral Development Corporation, NMDC, Hyderabad contributed some amount. And 18 food and non-food stalls were set up on the premises, and thus some amount was generated. They further informed that Bhog Prosadam as rice items were offered to all on October 21, 22, 23, and 24. And all three days there were cultural programmes. According to both of them, all the members sincerely and dedicatedly worked to make the celebration a great success.
4) This celebration is from Suncity Durga Puja, Bandlaguda Jagir, Hyderabad; around 100 families of Bandlaguda Jagir (Suncity), Hyderabad, established “Udjapan Sanskritik Samiti” and for the first time organised Durga Puja celebration with lots of enthusiasm vis-à-vis organised cultural events and Bhog Prosadam as mentioned already in other cases at K.K. Garden, Bandlaguda Jagir, Hyderabad. The President of the Samiti, Sri Nilay Kumar Mondal, the General Secretary, Sri Mridul Chakraborty, Treasurer Sri Arnab Saha, and other members were excited as the celebration was completed with full gaiety. On October 23 in the evening, during cultural programmes, Smt. Chandana Khan, I.A.S. (1979 Batch IAS of Andhra Pradesh cadre, retired in the rank of Chef Secretary ) graced the occasion as Chief Guest. She congratulated the organisers for meticulously organising the Durga Puja celebration for the first time. And wished with the pace of time, the same would be a popular celebration in the area and its vicinity. Smt. Chandana Khan also distributed the prizes who participated in different competitions.
Here, out of many stalls, I interacted with Syed Ashraf, who was the owner of a portal great.indian.wedding event management company. He set up a stall, and many non-neg and veg items were available. He informed (23/10/23) that after the completion of the celebration, he expected profit from this place. Although, such a stall was his first experience.
By visiting the four Durga Puja celebrations on different days, I observed that there were a few things in common. These inter alia were offering Bhog Prasadam in the form of different rice items, etc., (as mentioned already), then sharing with all the people within stipulated lunch time were common. Different competitions, such as quizzes, dances, dramas, recitations, blowing of shanks, etc, were also noteworthy. All the children, ladies, gents, and others, irrespective of age, enthusiastically participated. Another important feature was that for beating drums in Bengali, known as Dhak, two persons (in noun known as Dhaki) were brought, and all were from West Bengal. Another splendid performance was Aarati (priest dance with incense, a substance slowly burns for its sweet smell). And almost all places of Durga Puja, stalls were set up for food and non-food items. It is heartening that a few Muslim people also set up their stalls in some puja premises. This is a great phenomenon that I observe every year as I have been in Hyderabad last three decades.
Prof Shankar Chatterjee, Hyderabad

Smt. Chandana Khan, I.A.S. (R) at Suncity Durga Puja, Bandlaguda Jagir, Hyderabad, with the author Shankar Chatterjee and President Sri Nilay Kumar Mondal.

By Shashikant Nishant Sharma | Oct. 17, 2023  | Publication: Track2Training

The Institute of Town Planners India (ITPI) is a professional body and learned society in India dedicated to urban planning and regional planning. Established in 1951, ITPI is the apex body of town planners in the country and plays a vital role in shaping urban development policies, promoting sustainable planning practices, and fostering professional growth and knowledge sharing among its members.

Key objectives and functions of the Institute of Town Planners India include:

1. Promoting Professional Excellence: ITPI strives to maintain high professional standards within the field of town and regional planning. It provides a platform for planners to enhance their skills, knowledge, and expertise through continuous professional development programs, workshops, seminars, and conferences.
2. Advocacy and Policy Development: ITPI actively engages with government bodies, policymakers, and stakeholders to advocate for policies and regulations that promote sustainable and equitable urban development. It works to influence decision-making processes to ensure that urban planning aligns with the best interests of communities and the environment.
3. Research and Publications: The institute encourages research and academic endeavors related to urban and regional planning. It publishes journals, papers, reports, and books that contribute to the knowledge base in the field, disseminating research findings and innovative planning approaches.
4. Capacity Building and Education: ITPI is involved in providing educational programs and training to aspiring and practicing urban planners. It offers courses, workshops, and seminars to build the capacity and capabilities of planners, fostering the development of a skilled and competent workforce.
5. Networking and Collaboration: The institute facilitates networking among town planners, professionals, and academics, both within India and internationally. Collaboration and exchange of ideas help in fostering innovative solutions to urban challenges and building a broader understanding of planning practices across different regions.
6. Ethics and Professional Conduct: ITPI establishes and upholds ethical standards and a code of conduct for town planners to ensure integrity, transparency, and accountability in their professional activities. It encourages adherence to these principles for the betterment of society and the urban environment.
7. Public Awareness and Community Engagement: ITPI strives to raise public awareness about the importance of urban planning and its impact on society. It engages with communities, educating them about sustainable urban development, community involvement, and the benefits of well-planned cities.

Overall, the Institute of Town Planners India plays a crucial role in shaping urban development policies and practices, promoting sustainability, and advancing the profession of town planning in India.

References

Jain, A. K. “Regeneration and Renewal of Old Delhi (Shahjahanabad).” ITPI journal 1.2 (2004): 29-38.

Kumar, A. “Inclusive planning and development in the national capital territory of Delhi.” ITPI Journal 5.4 (2008): 12-20.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Council of Planning for Promoting Planning Education and Planning Professionals.” Journal of Planning Education and Research (2023)

By: Kavita Dehalwar | Publication date: Oct. 20, 2023 | Source: Track2Training

Bhopal, the capital city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, is known for its rich history, vibrant culture, and thriving industries. However, like many cities in India, Bhopal also grapples with the challenge of urban poverty, leading to the development of slums. The slums of Bhopal are a complex and multifaceted issue that sheds light on the broader challenges faced by urban areas in the country.

Bhopal, the capital city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, is a city of stark contrasts. Its history is a tapestry of ancient traditions and modern progress, its culture a vibrant mosaic of diversity, and its industries a testament to the city’s economic dynamism. However, beneath the veneer of this bustling metropolis lies a poignant and pressing challenge: urban poverty, which has given rise to the development of sprawling slums within the city. The slums of Bhopal, like similar settlements across India, are emblematic of a complex and multifaceted issue that not only impacts the lives of those residing within their narrow lanes but also illuminates the broader challenges faced by urban areas across the nation.

Bhopal’s Rich History and Culture

Bhopal’s history is steeped in rich tradition and historical significance. It served as the capital of the erstwhile princely state of Bhopal and was ruled by a succession of dynamic Begums (queens), who played a pivotal role in the city’s socio-cultural development. Their legacy is still evident today, as Bhopal boasts a unique amalgamation of Hindu and Muslim influences, resulting in a harmonious blend of art, music, and cuisine.

The city’s cultural landscape is as diverse as its history, with numerous festivals, art exhibitions, and music and dance performances taking place throughout the year. This rich tapestry of culture has made Bhopal a dynamic and cosmopolitan hub in the heart of India.

Thriving Industries and Economic Growth

In recent decades, Bhopal has experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth. The city’s industrial sector encompasses manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and education. This economic dynamism has attracted a steady influx of migrants seeking job opportunities and a better life for their families. However, this wave of urbanization has also exacerbated the challenges associated with urban poverty, resulting in the proliferation of slums within Bhopal.

The Pervasive Issue of Urban Poverty

Urban poverty is a harsh reality in Bhopal, as it is in many Indian cities. The convergence of factors such as rural-to-urban migration, a lack of affordable housing, high levels of poverty, and unemployment has led to the rapid growth of slum settlements. These marginalized communities grapple with a multitude of challenges that affect the lives and well-being of their residents.

Challenges Faced by Bhopal’s Slum Dwellers

The slums of Bhopal are home to thousands of families struggling to make ends meet in substandard living conditions. These challenges include:

1. Poor Living Conditions: Slum dwellers often live in cramped, unhygienic conditions, residing in makeshift shanties constructed from corrugated metal, wood, or even discarded materials. Such living conditions expose them to diseases, respiratory problems, and other health issues.
2. Lack of Basic Services: Many slum areas lack access to clean water, proper sanitation facilities, and healthcare services. The absence of these fundamental amenities significantly impacts the health and well-being of residents.
3. Education Barriers: Slum children often face obstacles in accessing quality education. Schools may be located far from their homes, and their families may not have the financial means to support their schooling. This educational disadvantage perpetuates a cycle of poverty.
4. Vulnerability to Disasters: Slum dwellings are often haphazardly constructed and located in areas prone to natural disasters such as floods and fires. This puts residents at heightened risk in times of emergencies.

Initiatives to Improve Slum Conditions

Efforts are being made to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers in Bhopal. These initiatives include:

1. Habitat for Humanity’s Work: Non-governmental organizations like Habitat for Humanity are actively engaged in improving living conditions in Bhopal’s slums. They are providing affordable housing solutions and promoting community development.
2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Indian government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, or Clean India Mission, is aimed at addressing sanitation issues in both urban and rural areas, including the slums of Bhopal.
3. Resettlement Projects: The Bhopal Municipal Corporation has launched resettlement projects to provide slum dwellers with proper housing and essential services.
4. Community Engagement: Engaging the community in decision-making processes and development projects is proving to be an effective way to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers. Empowering the residents themselves to be a part of the solution is a crucial step in improving their living conditions.

Defining the Slums

Slums are densely populated, low-income neighborhoods that lack basic amenities and infrastructure, such as proper housing, clean water, sanitation facilities, and healthcare access. Bhopal, like many other Indian cities, has a substantial population living in slum areas.

Causes of Slums in Bhopal

1. Rapid Urbanization: Bhopal has experienced rapid urbanization over the years, driven by factors like industrialization, job opportunities, and better education facilities. As a result, rural-to-urban migration has led to the unplanned growth of slum settlements.
2. Lack of Affordable Housing: The city has struggled to provide affordable housing for its growing population, leading to the proliferation of slums as a coping mechanism.
3. Poverty and Unemployment: High levels of poverty and unemployment contribute to the growth of slums. Many residents of these areas work in the informal sector, which often lacks job security and fair wages.
4. Lack of Land Tenure: Many slum dwellers lack legal land tenure, which makes them vulnerable to eviction and limits their access to essential services.

Challenges Faced by Bhopal’s Slum Dwellers

1. Poor Living Conditions: Slum residents live in cramped, unhygienic conditions, often without proper shelter. These living conditions make them vulnerable to diseases and other health issues.
2. Lack of Basic Services: Many slums lack access to clean water, proper sanitation, and healthcare services, which are essential for a healthy and dignified life.
3. Education Barriers: Slum children often face challenges in accessing quality education, as schools may be located far from their homes, and their families may not have the resources to support their schooling.
4. Vulnerability to Disasters: Slum dwellings are often poorly constructed and located in areas prone to natural disasters like floods or fires, leaving residents at risk.

Initiatives to Improve Slum Conditions

1. Habitat for Humanity’s Work: NGOs like Habitat for Humanity are actively working to improve the living conditions in Bhopal’s slums by providing affordable housing solutions and promoting community development.
2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Indian government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) aims to address sanitation issues in urban and rural areas, including the slums of Bhopal.
3. Resettlement Projects: The Bhopal Municipal Corporation has initiated resettlement projects to provide slum dwellers with proper housing and essential services.
4. Community Engagement: Involving the community in decision-making processes and development projects has proven to be an effective way to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers.

Conclusion

The slums of Bhopal represent a complex issue that intertwines urbanization, poverty, and lack of basic amenities. However, it’s important to recognize the resilience and strength of the residents who, despite facing numerous challenges, contribute to the city’s growth and development. To address the issue of slums effectively, a multi-pronged approach is needed, combining urban planning, affordable housing, and community engagement. With the right strategies and support, Bhopal can work towards transforming its slum areas into thriving and sustainable communities. The slums of Bhopal represent a microcosm of the broader challenges that urban India faces concerning poverty, inadequate housing, and essential service deficiencies. However, it’s important to recognize the strength and resilience of the slum residents, who, in the face of numerous hardships, continue to contribute to the city’s growth and development. To address this complex issue, a multi-pronged approach is essential, involving urban planning, affordable housing solutions, and community engagement. With the right strategies and support, Bhopal can work towards transforming its slum areas into thriving and sustainable communities, embodying the true spirit of “Incredible India.”

References

Agarwal, Sarika, and Shashikant Nishant Sharma. “Universal Design to Ensure Equitable Society.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 1.

Choudhary, A. K., et al. “Factors associated with low birth weight among newborns in an urban slum community in Bhopal.” Indian journal of public health 57.1 (2013): 20-23.

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Jagdish Singh. “Current State of Water Management System: Case Review of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.” International Journal of Civil, Structural, Environmental and Infrastructure Engineering Research and Development (IJCSEIERD) 5.6 (2015): 35-40.

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Jagdish Singh. “Challenges and strategies for the improvement of water management in Bhopal.” European Scientific Journal 12.2 (2016).

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Jagdish Singh. “A Critical Evaluation of the main Causes of Water Management Problems in Indian Urban Areas.”

Hughes, Robert C., et al. “Who actually cares for children in slums? Why we need to think, and do, more about paid childcare in urbanizing sub-Saharan Africa.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 376.1827 (2021): 20200430.

Lall, Somik V., Ajay Suri, and Uwe Deichmann. “Household savings and residential mobility in informal settlements in Bhopal, India.” Urban Studies 43.7 (2006): 1025-1039.

Laughlin, Kim, and George Marcus. “Representing ‘Bhopal’.” Connected: Engagements with media (1996): 221-46.

Melwani, Veena, et al. “A study to assess the prevalence of anaemia amongst adolescent girls residing in selected slum of Bhopal city.” Int J Community Med Public Health 5.3 (2018): 1096-1099.

Saxena, Prem Narayan, and Rajesh Joshi. “Eradication of slums in Bhopal City.” Int J Sci Technol Eng 2.6 (2015): 104-112.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Urban forms in planning and design.” International Journal of Research 1.1 (2014): 7-16.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Sustainable development strategies and approaches.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 2 (2013).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. Participatory Planning in Plan Preparation. BookCountry, 2014.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Review of most used urban growth models.” International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET) 10.3 (2019): 397-405.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Introduction to Sociology.” New Perspectives in Sociology and Allied Fields (2016): 1.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Fate of Rural Sanitation Scheme.” International Journal of Research (IJR) 1.2 (2014).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, and Arindam Biswas. “Best practices for ensuring total sanitation.” International Journal for Social Studies, ISSN (2016): 2455-3220.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “A Review of Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana.” Think India Journal 23.1 (2020): 26-32.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Evaluation of the JnNURM Programme of Government of India for Urban Renewal.” Think India Journal 8.2 (2005): 1-7.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Evaluation of Implementation of Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban).” Think India Journal23.1 (2020): 1-13.

Singh, Bhupendra Pratap. Community participation framework for slum improvement-a case study of Bhopal slums. Diss. SPA, BHOPAL, 2017.

Yadav, Manju, K. K. Dhote, and Praveen Yadav. “Impact of urban floods on slum redevelopment case of Bhopal.” Available at SSRN 3334401 (2018).

By: Kavita Dehalwar | Publication date: Oct. 20, 2023 | Source: Track2Training

The Institute of Town Planners India (ITPI) is a professional organization that primarily focuses on promoting and advancing the field of urban and regional planning in India. ITPI plays a significant role in promoting planning education in India through various means, including:

1. Accreditation and Recognition: ITPI provides accreditation and recognition to planning education programs in India. They evaluate and approve planning schools and courses to ensure that they meet the necessary standards and guidelines.
2. Professional Development: The institute organizes various workshops, seminars, and training programs for planners and planning students to enhance their knowledge and skills. These events help bridge the gap between academic education and practical application.
3. Research and Publications: ITPI supports and publishes research on urban and regional planning, making valuable resources available to both students and practitioners. This research can contribute to the development of planning education.
4. Student Chapters: ITPI encourages the formation of student chapters at planning schools. These chapters provide a platform for students to engage in planning-related activities, network, and learn from each other.
5. Advocacy: ITPI advocates for the importance of planning education and the role of planners in shaping sustainable and livable cities. They work with government bodies and other stakeholders to promote the value of planning education.
6. Continuing Education: The institute offers continuing education programs for planning professionals, allowing them to stay updated with the latest developments in the field.
7. Annual Conferences: ITPI hosts annual conferences that bring together professionals, academics, and students to discuss emerging trends and share knowledge and experiences in the field of urban and regional planning.
8. Certification and Professional Development: ITPI provides a platform for planners to obtain professional certifications. This certification process helps planners gain recognition for their expertise and further emphasizes the importance of planning education.

Please note that ITPI’s initiatives and activities may have evolved or expanded since its inception and there is a need to have a Planning Council like the Council of Architecture so that more authority can be handled by it in ensuring the planned development of Indian cities (Sharma & Dehalwar, 2023). I recommend central government consider the the proposal of setting up of Planning Council of India to empower planners and give urban planning a more central stage in the development of Indian cities.

References

Hoselitz, Bert F. “Urbanization and Town Planning in India.” Confluence 7 (1958): 115.

Khan, Naveeda. “Geddes in India: town planning, plant sentience, and cooperative evolution.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 29.5 (2011): 840-856.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Council of Planning for Promoting Planning Education and Planning Professionals.” Journal of Planning Education and Research (2023): 0739456X231204568.

Shaw, Annapurna. “Town Planning in Postcolonial India, 1947-1965: Chandigarh Re-Examined1.” Urban Geography 30.8 (2009): 857-878.

By: Vishal Pandya | Publication date: July 30, 2023 | Journal: International Journal of Research | Volume: 10 | Issue: 7 | Pages: 389-401

Abstract:

In India, Ministry of Human Resource Development of Government has formulated and elaborated all encompassing National Educational Policy (NEP 2020). The National Education Policy-2020 is aiming to develop creative potential, skill and analytical thinking which the need in the global job market is. One of the significant elements that have been identified from the draft is the importance of mother tongue in teaching learning process. Thus present study focuses on to find the Awareness and importance of mother tongue in New Education Policy (2020) among the students from higher educational institutions in Bhavnagar District. Descriptive research design has been adopted and total 100 sample size has been drawn using non probability convenience sampling method. Necessary secondary data collected from websites, past studies and NEP draft 2020. Further primary data collected from the survey method for the present study through structured questionnaire which tried to measure the awareness and importance of mother tongue in NEP among college students. The study may be useful to students, teachers, principals, policy makers etc. for further decision making.   

Key Words: New Education Policy 2020, Mother Tongue, College Students

INTRODUCTION:

The term education in the broad sense is not only a pedagogical one punctuating down to the basic meaning of the term, it means to elunge a man’s body, mind and soul of ignorance. It enhances an individual’s personality and provides him confidence to reach out the world. Education is important not merely as means to other end but it is an attribute that is valued in itself by the most individuals. Education is to complete the socialization process though family is great source of socialization yet in modern times it leaves much in done in the socialization process. A sociologist explains the failure of the family to develop attitudes of responsibility in children in the following words.

The situation has arisen partly because of our shift to urban life and to what the sociologist called secondary group organization of the society that is society marked by the disappearance of home and garden, the predominance of specialization of occupation, individualization of choice as to friends religious life and forms of Recreation and a general touch and go impersonal kind of social contact. Education should transmission of cultural heritage, by culture heritage we mean that knowledge of the past its art literature, philosophy, religion and music. Through history textbook and indirectly through celebration of patriotic holiday the child is acquainted with his culture heritage. However it is only the higher level of education that any serious attempt is made to realize.

A National Education policy is a comprehensive structure to guide the development of education in India. The need for a policy was initiated in 1964 when Congress MP Siddheshwar Prasad disparaged the then government for requiring a vision and philosophy for the reform in education. During the same period, a 17 member Education Commission, led by the UGC Chairperson D S Kothari, was founded to draft a national and harmonized policy on education. Based on the proposals of the Commission, Parliament approved the first education policy in 1968.

General Factors to Successfully Implement the NEP

• To implement NEP effectively at all levels the government will be required to create stakeholder incentives so that the execution is smooth and uniform
• Formulate gadgets in the form of institutional mechanisms, legal, policy and regulatory authority.
• Build reliable information repositories.
• Develop flexibility across HEIs, regulatory bodies and also government agencies.
• Develop reliability through transparent actions and contribution of all stakeholders.
• Develop sound moralities of management.

LITERATURE REVIEW:

Kaur, Sonpreet (2021). World-class ancient Indian institutions like Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, and Vallabhi established the highest standards of transdisciplinary teaching and research and attracted academics and students from all over the world to study and teach there. Here, you’ll find an outline of what the 2020 education strategy will look like. It emphasized the reasons for the necessity for a new policy and the arguments put up by the administration in support of NEP 2020’s adoption. The majority of the chapter was devoted to schooling.

The two of, Kalyani and Pawan (2020) worked on the future of a country and the fate of its people are largely determined by the quality of its educational system. It will have a long-term effect on the nation’s and citizens’ growth and development. In today’s world, education’s significance and relevance are indisputable. There has been a lot of progress and development since the country gained independence. This is the third time in 34 years that the Indian government is changing the way we learn. The new National Education Policy 2020 proposes a wide range of measures that will have an impact on all stakeholders. National Education Policy 2020 and its consequences on stakeholders are examined in this study, as well as an attempt to raise awareness of the policy’s long-term impact by asking a series of questions on social media and evaluating the responses.

Maruthavanan, M. M. (2019). Teachers, teacher educators, administrators, and policymakers were given two months by the Government of India to submit their thoughts on the National Education Policy (2019) draught. Secondary school teachers in Madurai District are being asked to participate in a survey on the National Education Policy (2019). As a result of his research, he concludes that the degree of awareness is below average.

P. S. Aithal & Shuhrajyotsna Aithal (2019) Systematic education policy is essential for offering school and college education in a country due to the reason that education leads to progress in society. Different countries use different education systems with different stages during its life cycle of school and college education levels. Recently, the Government of India received a draft Education policy suggested by an expert committee headed by Dr. K. Kasturirangan, former chairman of India Space Research Organization (ISRO).

Deep Kumar ( Assistant Prof. Research Scholar Aryabhatta knowledge University Patna 2020, analyzed all the key point of the New Education Policy that should be known by a teacher a student and higher educators. He focused on every aspect of the policy. He said that the policy is nothing new but is centered on the basic concept of Gandhiji who talked of education that helps a person to earn his livelihood. He analyzed that his policy focuses on the skill development of a person so that he is eligible to earn his bread and butter.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

The present study focuses on to find the Awareness and importance of mother tongue in New Education Policy (2020) among the students from higher educational institutions in Bhavnagar District. Descriptive research design has been adopted and total 100 sample size has been drawn using non probability convenience sampling method. Necessary secondary data collected from websites, past studies and NEP draft 2020. Further primary data collected from the survey method for the present study through structured questionnaire which tried to measure the awareness and importance of mother tongue in NEP among college students. Questionnaire consisted of total 11 questions including demographic profile of the students such as age, gender, stream, type of college, medium of college, their current mother tongue, mother tongue proficiency, and improvement importance. Further instrument was extended towards awareness for National Education Policy and their opinion towards importance of mother tongue. The employed frequency distribution and one sample non-parametric chi-square test to fulfill the aforesaid objectives.

DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATIONS:

Frequency Distribution:

Table 1 Frequency Distribution for General Profile of Students

Gender				Mother Tongue
		Frequency	Percent			Frequency	Percent
Gender	Male	36	36.0	Mother Tongue	Gujarati	99	99.0
	Female	64	64.0		Punjabi	1	1.0
	Total	100	100.0		Total	100	100.0
Stream				College Type
		Frequency	Percent			Frequency	Percent
Stream	Commerce	15	15.0	College Type	Government	57	57.0
	Science	1	1.0		Grant-in-aid	3	3.0
	Arts	79	79.0		Self-Financed	33	33.0
	Other	5	5.0		Other	7	7.0
	Total	100	100.0		Total	100	100.0
Medium of Instruction
		Frequency	Percent
Medium Instruction	Gujarati	66	66.0
	English	34	34.0
	Total	100	100.0

(Source: SPSS Output)

The above table number 1 indicates the general profile of students who have responded to the research questions regarding National Education Policy. The study consists more of female students i.e. 64 while remaining 36 are male students out of total 100 respondents. Further maximum number of students are from Arts faculty i.e. 79 followed by commerce faculty which are 15. There is only 1 student from science stream and 5 from other stream such engineering or medical students.

Moreover, medium of instructions was asked to students and surprisingly 66 students are from Gujarati medium colleges while remaining 34 are from English medium colleges where their courses are running on different languages. However, Hindi medium was also asked but no one was found studying in Hindi medium colleges. Very obvious results found for mother tongue of a student asked and 99 students out of 100 responded to Gujarati as their mother tongue. Being in Gujarat, Gujarati mother tongue is expected results for the study.

Furthermore, type of college was also asked because mother importance of tongue plays vital role amongst type of colleges such as government, granted and self financed institutions. 57 students found from government colleges while 33 students are from self financed and only 3 students found from granted colleges. Others are 7 which may be from private universities or university department students.

Awareness Level:

Table 2 Frequency Distribution for Awareness towards NEP 2020

	Basic Structure	Purpose	Flexibility to students in choosing subjects	Skills enhancements Curriculum	Ability enhancements curriculum
Not at all Aware	23	17	14	17	17
Slightly Aware	31	28	27	24	24
Moderately Aware	20	17	20	19	23
Very Aware	17	22	24	24	23
Extremely Aware	9	16	15	16	13
Total	100	100	100	100	100

            (Source: SPSS Output)

Basic Structure:

Not at all aware (17%) respondents are there and a notable portion of respondents reported any awareness of the basic structure of the curriculum. This indicates that a significant number of individuals may lack information about the overall framework or organization of the curriculum. Slightly Aware are found to be 28%. A higher percentage of respondents have some level of awareness of the basic structure, but it is still relatively low.

Purpose:

Further there are 14% not at all Aware and a considerable percentage of respondents stated that they are not at all aware of the purpose of the curriculum. This suggests that many individuals may not have a clear understanding of the overarching goals or an intention of the curriculum.There is Slightly Aware students 27%. A larger portion of respondents have some level of awareness regarding the purpose of the curriculum, but it still falls into the category of relatively low awareness.

Flexibility to Students in Choosing Subjects:

A substantial number of respondents i.e. 17% are not at all Aware and expressed any awareness of the flexibility offered to students in choosing subjects within the curriculum. This indicates that many individuals may not be informed about the options available to students in selecting their coursework. Further Slightly Aware (24%).

Skills Enhancement Curriculum and Ability Enhancement Curriculum:

Awareness levels for these two aspects appear to be somewhat higher compared to the previous categories. However, the majority of respondents still fall into the categories of “slightly aware” or “moderately aware.”

Table 3 Frequency Distribution for Awareness towards NEP 2020

	Bharatiya Knowledge System	Multiple entry and exit	Multilingualism	Overall awareness of NEP 2020
Not at all Aware	18	21	23	21
Slightly Aware	23	26	26	17
Moderately Aware	16	21	12	20
Very Aware	25	20	25	26
Extremely Aware	18	12	14	16
Total	100	100	100	100

            (Source: SPPS Output)

Bharatiya Knowledge System:

Further there are 18% of respondents are not at all Aware. A significant portion of respondents reported having no awareness of the Bharatiya Knowledge System as outlined in NEP 2020. This suggests that a notable number of individuals may not be familiar with this concept. Slightly Aware (23%): While more respondents are slightly aware of the Bharatiya Knowledge System, it still falls into the category of relatively low awareness.

Multiple Entry and Exit:

Not at all Aware (21%): A notable percentage of respondents indicated that they have no awareness of the concept of multiple entry and exit points in education, as per NEP 2020. Slightly Aware (26%): A slightly higher percentage of respondents have some level of awareness regarding multiple entry and exit points, but it remains in the category of relatively low awareness.

Multilingualism:

Moreover, there are 23% of students who are not at all Aware and a significant number of respondents reported having no awareness of the concept of multilingualism in education, which is a part of NEP 2020. Slightly Aware (26%): A slightly higher percentage of respondents have some level of awareness regarding multilingualism, but it still falls into the category of relatively low awareness.

Overall Awareness of NEP 2020:

Moderately Aware (20%): The highest percentage of respondents falls into the category of “moderately aware” of the overall awareness of NEP 2020. This indicates that a significant portion of respondents has a moderate level of knowledge about the policy. Very Aware (26%): The second-highest percentage of respondents falls into the category of “very aware” of NEP 2020. This suggests that a substantial number of individuals are well-informed about the policy. Extremely Aware (16%): While a lower percentage, a significant number of respondents are extremely aware of NEP 2020, indicating a high level of knowledge and awareness.

Opinion towards Importance of Mother Tongue:

Table 4 Opinion of Students towards Importance of Language in NEP 2020

	Provide equal opportunity	Learner-centered	Training in language lab	More lectures of mother tongue
Strongly Agree	58	47	39	36
Agree	36	40	41	39
Neutral	3	8	10	14
Disagree	1	3	7	7
Strongly Disagree	2	2	3	4
Total	100	100	100	100

            (Source: SPSS Output)

The above table number 4 shows the opinion of students towards importance of languages in National Education Policy 2020.

Provide Equal Opportunity:

Strongly Agree with providing equal opportunity is 58% and the majority of respondents strongly agree that there should be an emphasis on providing equal opportunities. This suggests a high level of support for policies or practices that promote fairness and equity. Agree (36%): A significant portion also agrees with the notion of equal opportunity. This reinforces the positive sentiment toward ensuring fairness in various contexts.

Learner-Centered:

Strongly Agree (47%): A substantial percentage of respondents strongly agree with the idea of a learner-centered approach. This indicates a strong preference for educational or training methods that prioritize individual learning needs and preferences. Agree (40%): Additionally, a considerable number of respondents agree with the concept of a learner-centered approach. This highlights the widespread support for tailoring educational experiences to the learner.

Training in Language Lab:

There are 39% of respondents who are Strongly Agree. A notable portion of respondents strongly agrees with the inclusion of training in a language lab. This suggests that many see the value in utilizing language labs for language acquisition and improvement. Agree (41%): An almost equal percentage agrees with the idea of training in a language lab. This indicates broad agreement on the benefits of this educational approach.

More Lectures in Mother Tongue:

39% of respondents are aware and a similar percentage agrees with the preference for lectures in their mother tongue. This underscores the preference for native language use in educational settings. Strongly Agree (36%): A significant proportion of respondents strongly agrees with the preference for more lectures in their mother tongue. This suggests a strong attachment to their native language as a medium of instruction or communication.

Table 5 Opinion of Students towards Importance of Language in NEP 2020

	Functional and business correspondence	Focus on Unique Skills	More practical knowledge	More business jargons
Strongly Agree	34	38	41	45
Agree	42	41	41	41
Neutral	11	12	10	9
Disagree	5	4	5	2
Strongly Disagree	8	5	3	3
Total	100	100	100	100

             (Source: SPSS Output)

The above table number 5 indicates the opinion of students towards importance of languages in National Education Policy 2020.

Functional and Business Correspondence:

Functional and business correspondence importance created by 34% students and is strongly agree with the statement. A significant portion of respondents strongly agrees that there should be an emphasis on functional and business correspondence.

This suggests that clear and effective communication in a business context is highly valued by this group. Agree (42%): Additionally, a substantial number of respondents agree with the importance of functional and business correspondence. This further highlights the consensus on the significance of this aspect of business.

Focus on Unique Skills:

There are 38% of students who are Strongly Agree and a notable percentage of respondents strongly agree that unique skills should be prioritized. This indicates that they believe fostering individual talents and expertise is crucial in a business context. Agree (41%): A similar percentage agrees with the focus on unique skills. This suggests that most respondents believe in the value of nurturing and utilizing distinct abilities within a business environment.

More Practical Knowledge:

Furthermore, Strongly Agree students are 41%. A considerable portion of respondents strongly agrees that practical knowledge should be emphasized. This signifies a strong preference for hands-on, applicable knowledge and skills. Agree (41%): An equal percentage agrees with the importance of practical knowledge. This indicates a widespread consensus that practicality is highly valued in a business setting.

More Business Jargon:

Finally talking about more business jargon i.e. use of technical terms, Strongly Agree 45% students. The majority of respondents strongly agree that the use of more business jargon is favorable. This suggests that many respondents believe that incorporating specialized terminology into business communication is beneficial. Agree (41%): A substantial number of respondents also agree with the idea of using more business jargon. This underscores the prevalence of a positive attitude toward the inclusion of industry-specific language.Top of Form

CONCLUSION:

The National Education Policy-2020 is aiming to develop creative potential, skill and analytical thinking which the need in the global job market is. One of the significant elements that have been identified from the draft is the importance of mother tongue in teaching learning process. Thus present study focuses on to find the Awareness and importance of mother tongue in New Education Policy (2020) among the students from higher educational institutions in Bhavnagar District.

The study concludes that National Education Policy is making more skillful and enhancing the ability of students and making them for bright future. The survey results indicate that respondents, in general, have varying levels of awareness about the different aspects of the curriculum, with many falling into the categories of “not at all aware” or “slightly aware.” This suggests that there may be room for improving communication and transparency regarding curriculum components, their purposes, and the options available to students. Educators and institutions might consider efforts to enhance awareness and understanding of these aspects among their stakeholders. Further the levels of awareness among respondents regarding specific aspects of NEP 2020. While awareness levels are relatively low for certain components like the Bharatiya Knowledge System, multiple entry and exit points, and multilingualism, respondents generally have higher awareness of the overall NEP 2020. This suggests the need for targeted efforts to increase awareness and understanding of the individual components of the policy among stakeholders and the public.

Overall, the survey results indicate strong support for equal opportunity and a learner-centered approach in education or training. There is also substantial agreement on the value of training in a language lab. In the context of language preference, respondents generally express a preference for lectures delivered in their mother tongue, highlighting the importance of linguistic familiarity in the learning process. These findings can inform decisions in educational institutions and training programs, particularly regarding language instruction and learner-centric approaches. Further the survey participants generally favor a strong emphasis on effective communication, unique skills development, practical knowledge, and the use of business jargon within the business context. These insights can inform decisions related to training, communication strategies, and skill development in a business or organizational setting.

REFERENCES:

1. Aithal P.S & Shubhrajyotsna Aithal (July 2020). Analysis of the Indian National Education policy 2020 towards Achieving its objectives, International Journal of Management, Technology, and Social Sciences (IJMTS), 5(2), 19-41. (2020). ISSN: 2581-6012.
2. Aithal P.S, (2019). “Analysis of Higher Education in Indian National Educational Policy Proposal 2019 and its Implementation Challenges.” International Journal of Applied Engineering and Management Letters, Vol. 3, No 2, 2019, pp. 1-35.
3. Aithal, Sreeramana &Aithal, Shubhrajyotsna. (2019). Analysis of Higher Education in Indian National Education Policy Proposal 2019 and its Implementation Challenges, International Journal of Applied Engineering and Management Letters (IJAEML) 3(2) 1-35.
4. Kalyani, Pawan. (2020). An Empirical Study on NEP 2020 [National Education Policy] with Special Reference to the Future of Indian Education System and Its effects on the Stakeholders: JMEIT. 7. ISSN: 2394-8124. 10.5281/zenodo.4159546.
5. Kaur, Sonpreet. (2021). A Note on-National Education Policy 2020: With Special Reference of School Education.
6. Ms. Sujatha Ramesh & Dr. K. Natarajan 2019. New Educational Policy of India, A comparative study with the Education System with the Education System of USA. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science invention (IJHSSI) ISSN (Online): 2319-7722, ISSN (print): 2319-7714, Vol. 8 issue 06 Ser. III, 2019, P 01-09.
7. Maruthavanan, M. “A Study on the Awareness on New Education Policy (2019) among the Secondary School Teachers in Madurai District.” Shanlax International Journal of Education, vol. 8, no. 3, 2020, pp. 67–71.
8. Deep Kumar ,Assistant Professor Research Scholar, Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Patna ” A Critical Analysis and a Glimpse of New Education Policy -2020″

LINK to DOWNLOAD PDF

By: Shankar Chatterjee | Publication date: Oct. 30, 2023 | Source: Track2Training

India is a country with a rich cultural heritage. Since Indian civilisation is an ancient one, many old temples of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, Churches, Mosques, and Dargahs, Gurudwaras can be found here. From UNESCO’s World Heritage List, I am presenting the items for the benefit of readers – 1) Agra Fort 2)Ajanta Caves 3)Ellora Caves 4)Taj Mahale 5)Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram 6)Sun Temple, Konârak 7)Kaziranga National Park 8)Keoladeo National Park 9)Manas Wildlife Sanctuary 10)Churches and Convents of Goa 11)Fatehpur Sikri 12) Group of Monuments at Hampi 13)Khajuraho Group of Monuments 14)Elephanta Caves 15)Great Living Chola Temples 16) 13 Group of Monuments at Pattadakal 17)Sundarbans National Park 18) Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks 19) Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi 20) Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi 21)Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi 22) Mountain Railways of India 23) Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya 24) Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka 25) Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park 26)Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) 27) Red Fort Complex 28) The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur 29) Western Ghats 30)Hill Forts of Rajasthan 31)Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area 32)Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat, 33)Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar 34)Khangchendzonga National Park 35) The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement 36) Historic City of Ahmadabad 37) Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai 38)Jaipur City, Rajasthan 39)Dholavira: a Harappan City 40) Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple, Telangana 41)Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 42)Santiniketan.
In addition to the above, many places across the country have historical importance. In this section, I am presenting the case of Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple of Nellore. This Temple was built in the 7th century by the Pallava Kings. It is believed that King Raja Mahendra Varma later shaped the Temple in the 12th century. Anyway, the Temple is situated on the bank of the river Penna. A huge tower called Gaaligopuram, which means “wind tower,” is just before the primary door to the temple. I visited in the first week of October 2023 and was mesmerized to watch the Temple, both sanctum sanctorum and outside and its vicinity. Everywhere, I observed neat and clean and disciplined vis-a-vis the meticulous way activities were performed. Since I visited in the late evening delighted to get Pongal as Prosadam. Without hesitation, I wish to mention that Pongal was very tasty and warm. Although I tasted Pongal in many places across India, particularly in South India but taste of Pongal at Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple I will remember till my death. Undoubtedly, the Prosadam had the blessings of Bhagawan. For the benefit of readers, I wish to mention that Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is devoted to Bhagawan Ranganatha, which is Bhagawan Vishnu’s sleeping mood. This temple is one of the oldest in Nellore, also called the Talpagiri Ranganathaswamy Temple or the Ranganayakaswamy Temple. It is noteworthy to mention that on the sanctum sanctorum walls are displayed Sri Vishnu Sahasranamavali, that is, 1,000 distinct names of Bhagawan Vishnu. The Ranganayaka Swamy Temple also has a mirror house that is the devotees‘ main attraction.
I suggest my Indian friends, if not visited Nellore, please plan your visit as some temples, one famous Dargah, and a few attractive churches are located in the historical district of Nellore. Also, beaches, particularly Mypadu Beach, mesmerized me because of neat and clean and less crowded. As usual, hot fish fries were also available so fish-eaters could enjoy sumptuous fish fry.
Before conclusion, I wish to mention that the local people are cordial, helpful and amicable towards guests. My only suggestion is that April, May and June months are better to avoid as in these months the temperature is very hot and humid.

(The author expresses his gratitude to Dr. Kalidasu Purushotham Garu, Retired Principal of Sarvodaya College, Nellore, for his excellent cooperation in visiting the places and explaining the background.)
Prof Shankar Chatterjee, Hyderabad

By Shashikant Nishant Sharma | Oct. 17, 2023 | Source: Track2Training

ITPI, or Information Technology and Process Integration, is a term that encompasses the seamless integration of information technology solutions with business processes to enhance efficiency, productivity, and overall organizational performance. This integration involves aligning technology with the specific needs and goals of a business or organization, ensuring that IT systems support and optimize their operational workflows.

The key objectives of ITPI include:

1. Efficiency and Productivity: ITPI aims to streamline business processes by leveraging technology, automating routine tasks, and reducing manual efforts. This efficiency translates into improved productivity and resource utilization.
2. Cost Optimization: By integrating technology strategically, organizations can often reduce operational costs, such as labor expenses, time wastage, and unnecessary resource allocation. This cost-effectiveness is a significant benefit of ITPI.
3. Data Accuracy and Consistency: ITPI helps in ensuring that data is accurate, consistent, and easily accessible across various systems and departments. This leads to informed decision-making based on reliable information.
4. Enhanced Communication and Collaboration: Integration of IT systems fosters better communication and collaboration within an organization. Employees can share information more effectively, leading to increased teamwork and innovation.
5. Business Agility and Flexibility: Adapting to changes in the market and business environment becomes more manageable through ITPI. Agile IT systems allow organizations to respond quickly and effectively to evolving customer demands and industry trends.
6. Customer Experience Improvement: By integrating IT solutions that enhance customer interactions and services, organizations can provide an improved and seamless experience to their customers, thereby increasing satisfaction and loyalty.
7. Risk Management and Compliance: ITPI assists in managing risks associated with data security, regulatory compliance, and other business aspects. Implementing robust IT systems ensures that the organization meets legal and industry-specific requirements.

To implement ITPI effectively, organizations typically follow a structured approach that includes assessing current processes and IT infrastructure, identifying areas for improvement, designing and integrating appropriate IT solutions, and continually monitoring and optimizing the integrated systems to ensure they align with the evolving needs of the organization.

Successful ITPI requires collaboration between IT professionals and business stakeholders to bridge the gap between technology and business requirements, ensuring that IT initiatives directly contribute to the achievement of organizational goals and objectives.

References

Benitez, Jose, Gautam Ray, and Jörg Henseler. “Impact of information technology infrastructure flexibility on mergers and acquisitions.” MIS Quarterly: Management Information Systems 42.1 (2018): 25-43.

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Jagdish Singh. “A Critical Evaluation of the main Causes of Water Management Problems in Indian Urban Areas.”

Krey, Mike. “Information technology governance, risk and compliance in health care-a management approach.” 2010 Developments in E-systems Engineering. IEEE, 2010.

Moore, Andrew P., and Rohit S. Antao. “Improving management of information technology: System dynamics analysis of IT controls in context.” Proceedings of the 24th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society. 2006.

Moore, Andrew P., and Rohit S. Antao. Modeling and analysis of information technology change and access controls in the business context. Carnegie Mellon University, Software Engineering Institute, 2006.

By Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as indispensable tools in the field of urban and regional planning. GIS leverages spatial data to analyze, visualize, and interpret patterns and trends that inform decision-making processes. In the realm of planning education, integrating GIS technology into curricula transforms how students learn about and engage with the planning of cities, regions, and the environment.

1. Real-World Data Visualization:

GIS allows students to interact with real-world data by visualizing geographic features and their attributes. Maps created using GIS display diverse information, from population densities to land use patterns, enabling students to comprehend complex spatial relationships and patterns. These visualizations bring theoretical concepts to life, making learning more engaging and effective.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) play a pivotal role in planning education by offering a dynamic platform for students to interact with real-world data and visualize geographical features and their associated attributes. GIS technology enables the creation of informative and visually captivating maps that convey a wealth of information, ranging from population densities to land use patterns and beyond.

Through GIS-generated maps, students can explore and interpret complex spatial relationships and patterns that are fundamental to understanding the dynamics of urban and regional planning. For instance, they can visually represent the distribution of residential, commercial, and industrial zones within a city, gaining insights into urban sprawl, segregation, or potential areas for revitalization. These visualizations provide a tangible representation of theoretical concepts, making learning more engaging, memorable, and effective.

The ability to visualize real-world data in GIS empowers students to observe trends and patterns over time. By overlaying historical data onto current maps, students can discern trends in urban growth, land use changes, or environmental degradation. This historical perspective is vital in forecasting future trends and planning sustainable urban development strategies.

Moreover, GIS allows students to integrate various data layers, enabling a comprehensive understanding of multifaceted issues. For instance, they can overlay population data with transportation networks, identifying areas with high population density and inadequate transportation infrastructure. This spatial integration fosters a holistic understanding of the interdependencies between different elements in the urban landscape, a crucial aspect of modern planning.

By immersing themselves in GIS-generated visualizations, students not only understand the theoretical principles of planning but also develop a keen eye for patterns and trends that inform effective decision-making. This hands-on experience enhances their spatial analytical skills, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities, preparing them for the challenges and complexities of planning in the real world.

The power of GIS in real-world data visualization transforms planning education by bridging the gap between theoretical concepts and practical application. The ability to create visually appealing and informative maps empowers students to delve deeper into the intricacies of urban and regional planning, setting the stage for a generation of planners well-equipped to tackle the pressing issues of our cities and regions.

2. Data Analysis and Spatial Modeling:

One of the key benefits of GIS in planning education is its ability to perform sophisticated spatial analysis. Students can analyze data to derive meaningful insights, such as identifying optimal locations for facilities, assessing environmental impacts, or predicting future growth. This fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills crucial for effective planning.

In the realm of planning education, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) offer a transformative edge by facilitating advanced spatial analysis, a cornerstone of effective planning. GIS equips students with the ability to dissect complex data sets, extract meaningful insights, and model spatial relationships. These analytical capabilities are pivotal for addressing contemporary urban and regional planning challenges.

GIS provides a robust toolkit for students to conduct intricate data analyses. For instance, they can determine optimal locations for facilities like schools, hospitals, or public transportation hubs by considering factors such as population density, accessibility, and proximity to other essential amenities. Through spatial analysis, students can unravel intricate patterns in data, aiding in informed decision-making regarding infrastructure placement and resource allocation.

Furthermore, GIS enables the assessment of environmental impacts, an integral aspect of sustainable planning. Students can model potential effects of urbanization or industrial activities on the environment, predicting outcomes and suggesting mitigation strategies. This hands-on experience fosters an understanding of the intricate interplay between human activities and the environment, promoting environmentally conscious planning practices.

Predicting future growth and development is another critical application of GIS in planning education. By analyzing historical data and current trends, students can model and forecast urban expansion, enabling proactive planning for infrastructure, housing, and public services. This forward-thinking approach helps in devising strategies to accommodate population growth and prevent potential urban sprawl issues.

The process of analyzing data and creating spatial models using GIS encourages critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Students learn to approach planning challenges systematically, evaluate various factors, and develop evidence-based solutions. They develop the ability to weigh multiple variables and consider their spatial implications, enhancing their analytical prowess.

By immersing students in data analysis and spatial modeling, GIS facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of urban and regional planning. It prepares them to navigate the data-rich environment of modern planning, empowering them to make informed decisions that account for diverse factors, from social equity to environmental sustainability. Ultimately, this capability ensures that future planners are well-prepared to shape vibrant, resilient, and sustainable communities.

3. Scenario Planning and Simulation:

GIS facilitates scenario planning, enabling students to explore multiple planning alternatives and their potential outcomes. By altering parameters like zoning regulations or transportation networks, students can simulate and evaluate the impact on communities and the environment. This practical experimentation enhances their understanding of the consequences of various planning decisions.

In the realm of urban and regional planning education, the integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) introduces students to the transformative practice of scenario planning and simulation. GIS empowers students to envision and analyze multiple planning scenarios, allowing them to experiment with various parameters such as zoning regulations, transportation networks, or land use patterns. This interactive experimentation facilitates a deeper understanding of the potential outcomes and consequences of diverse planning decisions.

Scenario planning involves creating plausible future scenarios based on different assumptions and variables. GIS acts as a dynamic canvas for students to craft these scenarios by altering key planning parameters. For instance, they can modify zoning regulations to encourage mixed-use developments or adjust transportation networks to prioritize sustainable modes of transport. These changes can then be simulated using GIS, generating visual representations of how the modifications might impact communities and the environment.

The ability to visualize and simulate these scenarios enhances the learning experience by providing a glimpse into the complex dynamics of urban planning. Students can observe how alterations in urban design affect accessibility, congestion, environmental quality, and community well-being. This practical experimentation bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and its practical application, equipping students with a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted nature of planning decisions.

Moreover, GIS-based scenario planning encourages students to think critically and foresee potential challenges and opportunities associated with different planning strategies. By envisioning diverse futures, they learn to anticipate the implications of their decisions and adapt plans to mitigate negative consequences. This cultivates a proactive mindset, essential for effective planning in an ever-changing urban landscape.

Scenario planning also fosters interdisciplinary thinking, encouraging students to collaborate and integrate insights from various domains such as transportation, environment, and social equity. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of urban systems, instilling an appreciation for the importance of holistic and inclusive planning approaches.

The scenario planning and simulation with GIS enrich planning education by transforming theoretical concepts into practical, interactive learning experiences. Through this process, students gain valuable insights into the complexities of planning decisions and are better prepared to navigate the uncertainties of urban and regional development. GIS emerges as a powerful tool, empowering future planners to envision resilient and sustainable communities by considering a multitude of scenarios and making informed choices.

4. Community Engagement and Participation:

GIS offers a platform for collaborative planning by incorporating community input. Students can utilize GIS to create interactive maps for public engagement, soliciting feedback and integrating community preferences into planning proposals. In doing so, students learn the importance of inclusivity and the role of public participation in the planning process.

5. Interdisciplinary Learning:

GIS is inherently interdisciplinary, incorporating elements of geography, environmental science, sociology, and more. Planning education enhanced by GIS exposes students to this interdisciplinary nature, providing a holistic understanding of urban systems and fostering a collaborative approach to problem-solving.

6. Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS):

Integrating GIS into planning education allows students to engage with SDSS, assisting in complex decision-making. SDSS combines GIS capabilities with decision models, enabling students to evaluate various criteria and constraints when proposing solutions to planning challenges.

7. Career Readiness:

Proficiency in GIS is highly valued in the job market for planners. Incorporating GIS into planning education ensures students are equipped with practical skills sought after by employers. It enhances their employability and prepares them to contribute effectively in the field upon graduation.

Conclusion:

GIS has revolutionized planning education by offering a dynamic platform for students to explore, analyze, and understand the complexities of urban and regional systems. By integrating GIS into curricula, academic institutions empower students to develop a nuanced understanding of spatial data analysis, fostering a new generation of planners equipped with innovative tools and approaches to tackle contemporary urban challenges. The future of planning education lies in leveraging GIS to create sustainable, resilient, and inclusive communities.

References:

Bansal, V. K. “Use of GIS and topology in the identification and resolution of space conflicts.” Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering 25.2 (2011): 159-171.

Charlton, Martin, and Simon Ellis. “GIS in planning.” Planning Outlook 34.1 (1991): 20-26.

Göçmen, Z. Aslıgül, and Stephen J. Ventura. “Barriers to GIS use in planning.” Journal of the American Planning Association 76.2 (2010): 172-183.

Innes, Judith E., and David M. Simpson. “Implementing GIS for planning lessons from the history of technological innovation.” Journal of the American Planning Association 59.2 (1993): 230-236.

Resch, Bernd, et al. “GIS-based planning and modeling for renewable energy: Challenges and future research avenues.” ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 3.2 (2014): 662-692.

Sharma, Shashikant N., and Dungar Singh. “Understanding mid-block traffic analysis: A crucial tool for road safety.” Think India Journal 26.3 (2023): 5-9.

Yeh, Anthony GO. “Urban planning and GIS.” Geographical information systems 2.877-888 (1999): 1.

BY

¹Kingsley Obumunaeme Ilo, PhD

Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: kingsley.ilo@unn.edu.ng

²*Uchenna Timothy Umeifekwem*, PhD

Department of Public Administration, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University

Email: ukochenna2011@yahoo.com

³Ohabuenyi, Jonas

Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Jonas.ohabuenyi@unn.edu.ng

⁴Sabo Okonu

Department of Political Science, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: sabo.okonu@unn.edu.ng

Abstract

Conflicts of all types have a serious negative impact on society generally. Conflict between communities is an unavoidable component of human existence. It is the result of a variety of circumstances, including environmental, social, political, ethnic, and cultural elements. When it happens, communal conflict is the main reason for starvation, malnourishment, and food insecurity because of the complicated humanitarian crisis that comes with it. The focus of this paper is to analyse the nexus between communal conflict and development in Nigeria. Journal articles, textbooks and newspaper publications were used as sources of data for this article. At the end, the article calls for  communities to learn how to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes. 

Keywords: Communal conflict, Education, Health, Violence, Social Infrastructure.

INTRODUCTION

Disputes over land or natural resources, including oil reserves, solid minerals, and water, are the major causes of communal disputes in Nigeria. Conflict situation may also occur when groups want to protect their honour, property, or even their very existence against the attack of other societies (Burde, Kapit, Wah, Guven, and Skarpeteig, 2013; Okpiliya, Ekong, & Eni, 2013). Bolarinwa (2006) observed that the prevalence of community disputes hampers the daily livelihoods of rural dwellers and food supply to urban centres. The bulk of farmers have stopped cultivating their far-flung farmlands. They are practically confined to their compounds and a few nearby farmlands. Movement restrictions have hampered access to critical agriculture inputs, including better seeds, fertilisers, and loans. In the end, many farmers could not sell their agricultural products effectively (Ajayi, Akinnagbe, and Aghojare, 2009).

The destruction of property, the deaths of people, and the resulting humanitarian crisis have hampered the socioeconomic and political activity of the affected communities in Nigeria plagued with communal conflict. A growing body of data from an impressively diverse variety of cultural and geographical settings suggests that communal conflict has offensive negative consequences on socio-economic and political well-being of the people.  Using a cross-sectional data Popoola, Olawale, and Muftau, (2020) demonstrate that communal conflict negatively impacts on business activities in Osun State, Nigeria. They also found that communal conflict has negative effect on entrepreneurial activities and causes economic damage and seriously affect entrepreneurship development in that community. Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015) similarly show that economic activity is disrupted, a community’s productive base shrinks, and human capital, such as health and education, is lost as a result of communal strife. A loss in family income and wealth is expected to result from all of these repercussions of community strife, they said. As incomes decrease, more families will slip into poverty, and those already in poverty will fall even more. Farming and other rural economic pursuits are becoming more vulnerable to violence resulting from communal conflict.

 Gafaro, Ibanez, and Justino (2014) corroborate these results to a large extent, though they link them to the presence of armed non-state actors. Studies by Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015); Jones and Naylor (2014); Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, and Neville (2014) suggest that communal conflict can negatively affect various economic, health, and labour related outcomes. 

COMMUNAL CONFLICT 

Wig and Kromrey (2018), defined communal conflicts as violent confrontations between non-state actors where the cleavages largely fall along ethnic or tribal lines. Wig and Kromrey (2018) classified communal conflict into two distinct types, namely, inter-communal conflict, that is conflicts between ethnic groups and intra-communal conflict, that is conflicts within a one particular group. However, the classification of ethnic groups and subgroups are ambiguous, making it hard to extricate between intra-communal and inter-communal conflicts. In many of these communal crisis, crimes and ethnic cleansing are commonplace. Also, the crises have left many victims with lasting effects of trauma, homelessness, economic losses, as well as the weakening of social trust.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

. Rural development refers to the process through which capitalism spreads across rural regions, together with the set of policies and projects that are being implemented in rural areas with the goal of improving human conditions. As used by Atkinson (2017), rural development involves efforts that are economic and social in nature intended to encourage concepts of retention, growth, and expansion in areas outside cities, including improving quality of life for rural residents through such activity. According to Nwobi, (2007), rural development can be viewed as the development of the moral, social, political and economic potentialities of rural communities to enhance their self-reliance through the provision of appropriate infrastructure such as pipe-borne water, electricity, good roads and small scale industries, increase their political consciousness and participation, promote their moral and social well-being which will result in tolerance, good discipline, justice, fairness, kindness, love and peace. As such, the term suggests that rural development is a strategy that tries to obtain an improved and productivity, higher socio-economic equality and ambition, and stability in social and economic development..

FACTORS ENCOURAGING COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN NIGERIA

. The root of communal conflicts in Nigeria is linked to several complex factors and vary from one group to another. It has been demonstrated empirically by several researchers that, in particular, the causes of communal conflicts are not static but rather dynamic and varied in nature depending on the socio-economic and geopolitical circumstances at the time (Yecho, 2006, Albert, 2001, Onwudiwe, 2004, and Alimba, 2014). 

Poor economic conditions 

Like the rest of Africa, Nigeria is neither immune to the poverty cancer nor ignorant of its impact on their fragile peace and stability. With over 80 per cent of her population living below the US$1 a day, civil unrest and grievances, both recipes for conflicts, become widespread. Indeed hunger, starvation, lack of economic growth and development create a high likelihood of violent conflicts and available army of people who are ready to prosecute the conflict either as machinery or as militias. For instance, in research conducted by Vinck et al (2011), 30 per cent of the Liberian population indicated that poverty was one of the root causes of the Liberian civil war. Similar assertions have also been made with regards to the conflicts in Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau (Voz di Paz and Interpeace 2010).

Access to small arms weapons 

Small arms induced-crises appears to be a persistent occurence in developing nations of their affordability, accessibility and availability; and porosity of the borders and legal frameworks legitimizing their use (Malam, 2014).This may be adjudged true because a significant number of the communal conflct that occured in Nigeria were prosecuted with small arms, and in  some instances extremely sophisticated weapons fit for external assault. The evil perpetuated through this weapon are not measurble, as their avalaibility is usually considered as a major cause that influences communal conflict and the outbreak as well as the continuation of internal conflicts and tensions in Nigeria.

Land ownership

Notable examples of communities in Nigeria that plunged into serious communal conflict hinged on land tussle with destabilized implications to their socio-economic well-being are well documented in literature. In Ebonyi state, Nigeria, there was an ensuing conflict between the people of Ezza and Ezillo communities over a portion of land which resulted in high death rates, destruction of basic infrastructure and services, and malnutrition. With the intervention of government and security agencies, violence was abated leading to a ceasefire between the two communities. However, this superficial peace has always been short-lived as longstanding and simmering ethnic rivalry and distrust has always plunged these two communities into perpetual communal conflict. 

Also, In December, 2018, four communities in Biase Local Government Area of Cross River State engaged in three days conflict which result to wanton destruction of lives and peoples’ properties. The conflict was deeply rooted in the “decision by Orugbam people to annex some land in other Erei communities.” The Inyima, Onyadama conflict in March, 2016, where women, children, the aged and the entire houses in Inyima were set ablaze. The conflict which has become a recurring decimal was first fought in 2008 then 2014 and repeated in 2016. The cause of the war according to sources is that an Inyima man was said to have harvested cassava in a disputed portion of land with Onyadama community and since the first outbreak of the conflict many years ago, there have continued to be bad blood and    recurring skirmishes which have kept the two erstwhile sister communities at daggers drawn. 

IMPACT OF COMMUNCAL CONFLICT ON DEVELOPMENT

 The evidence from previous communal clashes in Nigeria, demonstrates that communal conflict has a significant negative impact on development and the well-being of the populations affected by such persistent violence. During community disputes, violence causes devastation and restricts commercial transactions. As a consequence, public and private assets are damaged, individuals are injured or murdered, and markets shrink as transaction costs rise. In addition, people change their behaviour to survive amid violence. Thus, instead of maximising profits, the population dedicates most of its effort to avoiding victimisation and increasing their chance of survival. Both dynamics reduce the income of those caught in violent attacks, cause poverty for the affected families, and make it hard for them to escape hardship.

Communal conflict causes extensive morbidity and mortality among the warring factions. Individuals, families, and whole communities are displaced as a result of armed conflict, leading to large numbers of people being forced to flee their homes. Previous communal conflicts in Nigeria have been marked by excessive cruelty and violence towards civilians, which has resulted in the deaths of a large number of individuals. Health, education, the economy, and social welfare services collapsed, and many features of traditional life and the social structure were destroyed. Moore (2005) argued that “communal conflict negatively impacts human capital by causing physical and mental impairment, declines in health and nutritional status, and education and training opportunities, which in turn drive individuals and households into poverty”. In both the short and long run, declines in health and well-being may limit an individual’s ability to work, thereby limiting their ability to make an income. In times of community war, the physical disabilities of civilians and fighters may keep people poor for a long time.

Impact of communal conflict on Healthcare delivery

Data suggest that over a third of maternal fatalities and half of all infant deaths occur in locations where health systems have been disrupted by violence. During conflict, malaria and other endemic illnesses are likely to be accelerated. Their results suggest negative effects of the insurgency on weight-for-age and weight-for-height z-scores and an increase in the probability of wasting. In their study, Patel, Gibson- Fall, Sullivan, and Irwin (2017) reported in their study the ordeal of health workers in conflict zones. They observed that health workers are frequently attacked and their working tools destroyed. Primary health centres (PHC) are often damaged during conflict. In most cases, the primary health centres are used by fighters as their base, where they sleep and keep their weapons. This makes health workers demoralized and feel bad about their jobs, which makes them less happy about their job.  

Impact of communal conflict on Education

. In times of armed conflict, schools and centers of learning are often targeted. Conflict reduces access to education by stopping schools from opening, endangering children’s safety while traveling to and from school, and causing teacher absenteeism. There is an increase in school dropouts, and lower educational survival rates owing to relocation, military enlistment, or economic hardship. Inadequate supply of basic essentials like food, water, and school supplies, education quality diminishes, particularly in communities surrounding the war that may see an inflow of refugees or internally displaced pupils. As a consequence of increased hardship caused by conflict, parents may be forced to prioritize their investments among their children, perhaps resulting in more girls than boys dropping out of school. Furthermore, safety and security concerns may be more prevalent among girls than among boys, with females being more vulnerable to sexual and gender-based abuse than males upon leaving the house.

Many children in developing countries have had their education interrupted or stopped because of endless conflict. In some conflict-torn nations, however, millions of school children have never had the chance to attend school in the first place. Conflict may hinder national development by adversely affecting family income and human resources that could be used to invest in education. This means that there are fewer resources available for families and governments to spend on education than there would be if there were no conflicts. The effect of a conflict extends well beyond the local region of the targeted school. It may lead parents to be hesitant about taking their children to school, instructors to be hesitant about teaching, and schools to shut down. In rare circumstances, military forces may issue instructions prohibiting children from attending school or may restrict entry tacitly. From the forgoing, it is obvious that conflict promotes illiteracy. Illiteracy is a powerful predictor of poverty and hunger, and it is primarily a rural phenomenon that impedes rural development and food security; threatens productivity and health; and hinders possibilities to boost individual living standards and gender parity. The chances of having good job prospects as well as a good income is low for the illiterate population. As a result, they are often faced with the challenges of dependency, low self-esteem, and higher levels of crime. 

Impact of communal conflict on Social amenities 

Studies have shown that, there has been an increase in the damage of infrastructure due to natural and anthropogenic disasters (Nyanga 2018, Nyanga & Sibanda 2019, Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, & Sillah 2013). The majority of the studies presented fresh information, insights, and understanding regarding the degree to which infrastructure has been devastated by the conflict and how this has affected rural development in general. Nyanga and Sibanda (2019) found that due to the devastation of roads and bridges, workers in conflict zones had a difficult time getting to and from work. Uyang, Nwagbara, Undelikwo, and Eneji (2013) demonstrated in their study that a significant relationship exists between boundary disputes and food security. Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, and Sillah (2013) showed that “a lot of economic infrastructure such as road networks, dams, Information Technology (IT), and financial services were destroyed by the civil war that erupted in Mozambique in 2013.” The study revealed that the destruction caused a lot of disturbances and disruptions to the economy, especially in the agricultural, manufacturing, and banking sectors. The economy was affected by the destruction of roads, bridges, information technology systems, energy and power infrastructure, and communication networks. Chang (2003) study revealed that disasters have huge economic and societal costs that directly affect firms. According to Nyanga (2018), armed conflict destroys the economic infrastructure and breeds insecurity.

One of the most direct ways in which conflict distorts rural development is through reduced production. Farmers lose money directly as a result of damaged health infrastructure caused by conflict, and this can have a big impact on agricultural growth and the lives of people in rural areas. Conflict and long-term crises are making more and more people poor, food insecure, and refugees. It wreaks havoc on agricultural and rural lives, resulting in severe financial loss, food shortages, and harm on all levels. According to Angara (2000), agricultural operations are generally the first to be impacted when there are conflicts in rural regions. Some of these things have a big impact on agricultural output, which leads to a high level of self-sufficiency and a lot of hunger and food shortages.

CONCLUSION

Communal conflict is damaging and can have a big impact on the socioeconomic activities of rural people. The reality is that community strife is on the rise, and its effect on development has been quite worrisome. The poor living standards of the inhabitants in the affected region are aggravated by the prevalence of violent conflict, which seems to affect subsistence farming, the population’s main source of income. These conflicts have slowed down most projects from both government and non-government organizations. Past conflict between communities in Nigeria has led to the deaths of many people. It collapsed the local economy, left the health, education, and social infrastructure devastated, and many aspects of traditional life and social structure obliterated. In order to reduce injustice and promote fairness and transparency, community leaders must adopt appropriate procedures for the distribution of landed properties. Communities should learn to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes. Land-owning clans must carefully ensure that land borders between clans are accurately established, delimited, and recorded as soon as possible.

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By Shashikant Nishant Sharma

A systematic literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of available research and literature on a specific topic or question. It follows a structured methodology to identify, evaluate, and synthesize all relevant published research on a given subject. This type of review is essential for informing evidence-based decision-making and identifying gaps in current research. In this article, we will delve into the key aspects of conducting a systematic literature review.

The Purpose of a Systematic Literature Review

A systematic literature review stands as a cornerstone in the realm of academic exploration, offering an in-depth and thorough analysis of existing research and literature concerning a specific topic or inquiry. Its methodology is meticulous, employing a structured approach to identify, evaluate, and synthesize all pertinent published research on a given subject. This type of review is instrumental in driving evidence-based decision-making and illuminating the gaps present within current research. In this article, we will unravel the intricacies involved in conducting a systematic literature review.

The Purpose of a Systematic Literature Review

The fundamental objective of a systematic literature review is to furnish a robust and unbiased summary of the existing knowledge pertaining to a particular subject. It strives to achieve the following key goals:

1. Summarize Existing Research:
   • Engage in the aggregation and summarization of findings from prior studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Collate and summarize the findings of previous studies to offer an overall understanding of the topic.
2. Identify Research Gaps:
   • Discern areas where research is deficient or warrants further investigation, acting as a compass for future scholarly endeavors. Pinpoint areas where research is lacking or where further investigation is needed.
3. Evaluate Methodologies:
   • Critically assess the quality and rigor of methods employed in previous studies, unveiling both strengths and weaknesses. Assess the quality and rigor of the methods used in previous studies to identify strengths and weaknesses.
4. Inform Decision-making:
   • Serve as a foundational resource for facilitating informed decisions, whether within academia, policy formulation, or practical applications. Provide a foundation for making informed decisions, whether in academia, policy, or practice.

The primary goal of a systematic literature review is to provide a robust and impartial summary of existing knowledge on a particular subject. It aims to:

1. Summarize Existing Research:
2. Identify Research Gaps:
3. Evaluate Methodologies:
4. Inform Decision-making:

Key Steps in Conducting a Systematic Literature Review

1. Formulating the Research Question or Objective:
   • Clearly define the research question or objective that the review aims to address. This ensures focus and clarity throughout the process. Begin by articulating a clear and precise research question or objective that the review aims to address. This sets the stage for maintaining focus and clarity throughout the review process.
2. Developing Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria:
   • Establish specific criteria for including or excluding studies based on parameters such as publication date, study design, population, or outcomes of interest. Establish specific criteria for study inclusion or exclusion based on parameters such as publication date, study design, target population, or outcomes of interest.
3. Systematic Search and Selection of Studies:
   • Conduct a thorough and systematic search across relevant databases and sources to identify all pertinent studies. The search process should be transparent, replicable, and documented in detail.
   • Apply the inclusion and exclusion criteria to select studies that meet the predefined criteria.
   • Initiate a comprehensive and systematic search across pertinent databases and sources to identify all relevant studies. The search process should be transparent, replicable, and meticulously documented.
   • Apply the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria to meticulously select studies that align with the set criteria.
4. Data Extraction and Analysis:
   • Extract relevant data from the selected studies using a standardized data extraction form. This could include study characteristics, methodologies, key findings, and other relevant information.
   • Extract pertinent data from the selected studies using a standardized data extraction form. This may encompass study characteristics, methodologies, key findings, and other pertinent details.
   • Analyze and synthesize the extracted data to unveil patterns, trends, and recurring themes.
5. Quality Assessment:
   • Evaluate the quality and rigor of the selected studies, considering factors such as study design, sample size, methodology, and potential biases. Conduct a rigorous evaluation of the quality and rigor of the selected studies, considering critical factors such as study design, sample size, methodology, and potential biases.
6. Synthesis and Presentation of Results:
   • Synthesize the findings from the selected studies, organizing them in a coherent and structured manner.
   • Present the results using appropriate formats, such as tables, graphs, or narrative summaries.
7. Interpretation and Conclusion:
   • Interpret the synthesized findings and draw conclusions based on the collective evidence.
   • Discuss implications, limitations, and potential future research directions.

Advantages of a Systematic Literature Review

• Comprehensive Understanding: Provides a comprehensive and organized overview of existing knowledge on a topic.
• Reduction of Bias: Minimizes bias by following a structured and systematic approach to study selection and analysis.
• Evidence-based Decision-making: Informs decision-making in various domains, including healthcare, policy, education, and more.
• Identifying Research Gaps: Highlights gaps in current research, guiding future research initiatives.

Challenges and Limitations

• Publication Bias: The inclusion of only published studies can introduce publication bias, as negative or inconclusive results may not be published.
• Resource Intensiveness: Conducting a systematic literature review requires significant time, resources, and expertise.
• Incomplete or Inaccessible Data: Some relevant studies may not be accessible or may lack detailed information.

Conclusion

A systematic literature review is a valuable tool for synthesizing existing knowledge and informing decision-making across various fields. By following a structured methodology, it provides a rigorous and objective analysis of the available research, aiding in the advancement of knowledge and the identification of research gaps. Researchers, policymakers, and practitioners can use the insights gained from systematic literature reviews to make informed decisions and contribute to the progression of their respective domains. A systematic literature review stands as a valuable and indispensable tool for synthesizing existing knowledge and informing decision-making across a plethora of academic and practical domains. Its structured methodology facilitates a rigorous and unbiased analysis of available research, propelling the advancement of knowledge and shedding light on critical research gaps. Researchers, policymakers, and practitioners can leverage the insights garnered from systematic literature reviews to make informed decisions and contribute meaningfully to the progression of their respective fields of study.

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Lena Ellitan; Ani Suhartatik

Faculty of Business

Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya Indonesia

Abstract

Product quality has a positive impact on repurchase intentions. Good product quality with good taste, and the wide variety of products available will make consumers visit and buy this product again in the future. Good service quality has a significant effect on repurchase intentions. This shows that good service quality alone is not enough to make consumers have the intention to buy again. Product quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction because good product quality will create a sense of satisfaction experienced by customers. The higher the quality of the product provided, the higher the customer satisfaction will be. Quality products with a wide variety of menus to make consumers feel satisfied and create a desire to visit and buy existing products again. Good service quality makes consumers feel good. Providing good service to make consumers satisfied, apart from good service, providing a comfortable atmosphere and eye-catching design so that consumers feel satisfied with the place and the service provided to their customers. Customer satisfaction creates an intention to buy again. Customer satisfaction will create an intention to repurchase. Consumers will have the intention to repurchase if consumers are satisfied with the quality of the products offered and also the services provided. Good service quality can create a good positive perspective from consumers so that consumers have the intention to come back. This article discusses the role of product quality, service quality and satisfaction in increasing repurchase intentions.

Keywords: Product Quality, Service Quality, Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention

Introduction

Product and service quality is closely related to customer satisfaction and company profitability (Kotler and Keller, 2016). According to Schroder, (2011) quality is a distinctive attribute or characteristic that a product has. Better food quality will provide high customer satisfaction. Food quality is also an important attribute in food. Lovelock and Wirtz (2011) stated that service quality is the number of services that require direct interaction between customers and business actors. Differences in service methods between one service provider and another can often be seen from the attitudes and skills of employees. Felix (2017) believes that consumer satisfaction is a customer’s feeling of satisfaction or disappointment resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations. If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the results match the customer’s expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Companies that focus on customer satisfaction will be able to increase customer loyalty and at the same time will help the company to have a positive image (Tjiptono and Chandra, 2011). Customer satisfaction is also defined as a determinant of post-purchase attitudes that reflects positive or negative results. Hawkins and Lonney in Tjiptono (2004) also stated three dimensions of customer satisfaction, namely suitability of satisfaction, repurchase intention and willingness to recommend.

Santoso (2016) argues that repurchase intentions represent a customer’s likelihood of engaging in objectively observed future behavior. This is defined as a consumer’s intention to repurchase a particular product or service in the future (Wand and Yu, 2016). There are four dimensions of repurchase intention, namely transactional intention, referential intention, preferential intention and exploration intention (Ferdinand in Saidani and Samsul, 2012). Companies need to implement marketing strategies that are right on target in marketing their products. Determining strategies in terms of food quality and service quality to consumers which triggers consumer satisfaction which ultimately makes consumers have the intention to repurchase the products produced to introduce or brand their business. Based on the phenomena and background above, it is hoped that this article will provide benefits as a study of product quality, service quality, customer satisfaction, and be useful for further research as reference material. And used as input for entrepreneurs in managing their platforms and products according to product quality, service quality and customer satisfaction.

Product quality

Kodu (2013), states that product quality can be interpreted as the ability of a product to carry out its function which includes durability, reliability or progress, strength, ease of packaging, and product repair and other characteristics. Kotler and Armstrong (2012: 283) add that product quality is the ability of a product to perform its function. Product quality is determined by product attributes. Kotler (in Negara, 2018) also states that product quality is the character of a product that has the ability to meet consumer needs. Kotler and Keller (2009: 143) suggest that product quality consists of the features and characteristics of goods and services, the intensity of which can determine the performance capabilities of a product which can be stated or implied. This is related to the quality of the product or service itself, company profitability, and consumer satisfaction which determine the selection of a product. Kotler and Keller (2009: 144) state that the higher the level of product quality offered to consumers, the higher the price, the lower the costs required, and the company can maintain the experience that consumers feel when purchasing the product.

Kotler and Armstrong (2012) argue that product quality is the ability of a product to perform its function. Product quality is determined by product attributes. Product attributes are product elements that are considered important by consumers and are used as the basis for decision making (Tjiptono, 2009 in Afrilia, 2017). According to Kotler (2008), the higher the product quality, the higher the consumer’s decision to make a purchase. *When consumers purchase a product, there will be certain considerations that will become the benchmark for consumers to fulfill their desires, including the condition and appearance of a product marketed by the company. Kotler and Armstrong (2017:249) state that product quality is one of the positioning factors in determining marketing strategies.             

Product quality is the performance of a product in accordance with the commitments made by the manufacturer to consumers. This commitment can be explicit or implicit, namely in terms of quality management expectations from the average consumer of the product. A product can be known as a good and quality product only if the quality of the product is able to meet the criteria and desires of consumers. Product quality in physical appearance must be beautiful to the eye in order to attract consumer interest and achieve good product quality. To achieve this, quality standardization is needed.

Service Quality

Service quality is the activity of offering services that are felt by customers who have used the service. Service quality is very important for customer satisfaction and trust (Rahmani Nejad, Firoozbakht, & Taghipoor, 2014). Wibowo & Soedjono (2014) stated that service quality can be said to be good and of high quality if the service provided by a company can satisfy its customers. The company will not remain silent in terms of customer satisfaction, so that its customers can feel satisfied. According to Kotler, (2007) customer satisfaction is a person’s feeling of happiness or disappointment that arises after the person compares the performance (results) of the product in question against the expected performance. Service quality is how far the difference is between customer reality and the customer expectations they receive (Adabi, 2020). According to Kotler (2009), customer satisfaction can be felt after customers compare their experiences in purchasing goods or services from sellers or providers of goods and services with the expectations or feelings they get from the buyers themselves. Kotler and Keller (2007) state that service quality must start from customer needs and end in customer perception, where customer perception of service quality is a comprehensive assessment of the superiority of a service. According to Adipramita (2019), quality is often considered a measure of the relative goodness of a product or service which consists of design quality and suitability. According to Aryani and Rosita (2010) service quality is very important to achieve improvement efforts for business continuity, where with good service quality the value delivered to customers becomes more positive, and will provide satisfaction to consumers. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires and the accuracy of delivery to match customer expectations. According to Tjiptono (2014:282) there are five dominant factors or determinants of service quality.

1. Tangible. Namely in the form of physical appearance, equipment and various materials that are visible and can be assessed as good.

2. Empathy. Namely employee willingness to build relationships, good communication, personal attention, and understanding of customer needs.

3. Responsiveness. Namely the readiness of employees to meet consumer needs in a responsive and friendly manner. Employees must have the willingness to provide service quickly and responsively.

4. Reliability. Namely the employee’s ability to provide services promptly, accurately, consistently and satisfactorily

5. Guarantee (Assurance). Namely, employees must include the knowledge, competence, readiness and trustworthiness of employees regarding the promises given, free from danger, risk and doubt.

Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is a customer’s feelings, both satisfied and disappointed, resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations (Kotler and Keller, 2018). If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the performance meets expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Customer satisfaction is an individual’s perception of performance or service in relation to consumer expectations (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). Kotler and Armstrong (2008) also define customer satisfaction as the extent to which the product performance received is in line with customer expectations. Companies that focus on customer satisfaction will be able to increase customer loyalty and at the same time will help the company to have a positive image (Tjiptono and Chandra, 2011). Customer satisfaction is defined as a determinant of post-purchase attitudes that reflects positive or negative results. Agustiansyah and Tauik (2019) also stated that customer satisfaction plays a very important role in competitive industries, because there is a very large difference in loyalty between customers who are satisfied and customers who are truly satisfied or happy. Satisfaction is the difference between expectations and performance. Customer satisfaction will always be based on efforts to eliminate or narrow the gap between expectations and performance. Customer satisfaction is the level of customer feelings after comparing perceived service performance and compared with expectations (Kotler and Keller, 2016). Customer satisfaction is a person’s feeling of happiness or disappointment that arises after comparing the performance obtained with the expected performance. If performance does not match expectations, then customers become dissatisfied. If performance meets expectations, then customers will be very satisfied (Nurmalina, 2017). Customer satisfaction is an evaluation process after purchasing or evaluation results after comparing what they feel with their expectations (Yamit, 2013). Satisfaction is the level of feeling after comparing the perceived performance or results with expectations (Sumarwan, 2012). Kotler in Lupiyoadi (2013) states that satisfaction is a level of feeling where someone states the results of a comparison of the product performance received and expected. Hamdani (2011) found that achieving customer satisfaction can be improved through service quality with several approaches as follows:

1. Minimize the gaps that occur between management and customers. For example, by conducting research by distributing questionnaires over several periods, to find out customer perceptions of service.

2. Companies must be able to build a joint commitment to create a vision for improving service processes. This includes improving the way of thinking, abilities, behavior and knowledge of all existing human resources.

3. Give customers the opportunity to convey their complaints by forming a system of criticism and suggestions, and correcting deficiencies that customers complain about

4. Develop and implement accountable, proactive and partnership marketing according to the marketing situation. The company contacts customers after the service process occurs to determine customer satisfaction and expectations (accountable). The company contacts customers from time to time to find out the progress of its services (proactive). Companies build closeness with customers which is useful for creating the company’s image and position in the market (partnership).

Kuo et al (2013) stated that consumers who have a high level of satisfaction will repeatedly return to the same place to get optimal results. Efendi (2020) states that customer satisfaction is a post-purchase consumer evaluation where the alternative chosen does not provide the same results or exceed consumer expectations, while dissatisfaction will arise if the results obtained are below consumer expectations.

Repurchase Intention

Repurchase intention represents a customer’s likelihood to engage in objectively observed future behavior (Santoso, 2016). This is defined as a consumer’s intention to repurchase a particular product or service in the future (Wand and Yu, 2016). There are four dimensions of repurchase intention, namely transactional intention, referential intention, preferential intention and exploration intention (Ferdinand in Saidani and Samsul, 2012). Pham et al (2018) define repurchase as an actual action, and repurchase intention shows that the customer decides to engage in future activities with the seller. Hendarsono (2013) believes that repurchase interest is the behavior of customers who respond positively to what has been provided by a company and are interested in making return visits or consuming the company’s products again. Nurhayati (2012) states that repurchase intention is a consumer’s desire and action to repurchase a product because of the satisfaction received in accordance with what is desired from a product.

Repurchase is a post-purchase consumer action, the occurrence of consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction will influence subsequent behavior, if the consumer is satisfied then they will show a higher possibility of repurchasing the product. Repurchase intention refers to a possibility or opportunity to use a previous service provider again in the future. Repurchase intention is a customer’s tendency to buy products from the right manufacturer over a long period of time (Gounaris, Bimitraids and Stathakopoulos, 2010). Repurchase is a tendency for consumer buying behavior for a product or service that is carried out repeatedly over a certain period of time and actively likes and has a positive attitude towards a product based on experiences that have been made in the past (Suryana and Dasuki, 2013). And inform other people about good things about the product and will not pay too much attention to similar product offerings from other companies (Kotler and Armstrong, 2008).

Discussion

Several studies support that product quality has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. High quality products are products that are able to excel in competing to meet consumer needs (Wood, 2009). Product quality plays an important role in shaping consumers’ repurchase intentions (Mahendrayanti and Wardana, 2021). Excellent product quality can provide confidence for consumers who will buy the product again (Nurahma et al, 2016). This research is also in line with research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022) explaining that product quality in the Erigo brand has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. The better the quality of service provided to consumers, the greater the consumer’s interest in making repeat purchases. Service quality is a factor that significantly encourages consumers to make repeat purchases (Prastika and Sugiono, 2017). According to Mardikawati and Farida (2013) service quality describes the nature of product appearance or performance which is a main part of the company’s strategy in order to achieve sustainable excellence as either a market leader or a strategy to continue to grow. In research conducted by Hidayat, et al (2020) at the Hotplate restaurant in Jakarta, it was found that there was a significant influence on service quality on repurchase intentions.

Customer satisfaction can be created by many things, good product quality is one factor in customer satisfaction. Good product quality will make consumers buy the product again and feel satisfied with the product. Kotler and Keller (2009: 144) state that the higher the level of product quality offered to consumers, the higher the price and lower costs required, and can enable a company to maintain the experience that consumers feel when purchasing the product. In research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022), it was found that product quality has a positive effect on customer satisfaction.

There are many factors that create customer satisfaction, one of which is service quality. Service quality is a reflection of a company’s reputation. A good company will have good quality service, which is able to make consumers feel comfortable and satisfied with the services provided. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires as well as the accuracy of delivery to meet customer expectations. In research conducted by Hidayat et al (2020), it was found that service quality has a positive effect on customer satisfaction.

According to Mensah & Mensah (2018) customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions are very important to increase restaurant profits. Customers who are satisfied, both with the product and the service, will make repeat purchases at that place. If customers are not satisfied with the product and service, then customers will not come to that place again to make repeat purchases. In research conducted by Hidayat et al (2020) at a HotPlaye restaurant in Jakarta, it was found that there was a significant influence on customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions.

In several studies, customer satisfaction is able to mediate product quality which has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. The process of forming consumer buying interest must first form a sense of satisfaction for consumers through the quality they have (Savitri and Wardana. 2018). North et al (2004) state that product quality is defined as the ability of a product to meet consumer needs and their requests, and also as a set of attributes that contribute to consumer satisfaction and expectations in use. In research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022) conducted at Erigo Surakarta, it was stated that product quality mediated by customer satisfaction had a positive effect on repurchase intentions. Bailia et al (2014) stated that product quality partially has a positive effect on satisfaction. The consumer’s experience in purchasing a product will result in the consumer’s assessment of the product. Consumer repurchase intentions represent possible future behavior, while behavior is an objectively observed level (Santoso, 2016). Service quality is closely related to customer satisfaction and company profitability (Kotler & Keller, 2016). Awi and Chaipoopirutana (2014) argue that to increase repurchase intentions, businesses must focus on increasing their customer satisfaction. Mensah & Mensah (2018) also added that customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions are very important to increase restaurant profits. In research conducted by Hidayat, et al (2020), it was found that service quality, mediated by customer satisfaction, has a positive effect on customer repurchase interest.

Conclusion

            Product quality has a positive impact on repurchase intentions. The results of this research are also supported by Danu and Haryono (2022) that product quality has a positive effect on repurchase interest. Good product quality with good taste, and the wide variety of products available will make consumers visit and buy this product again in the future. Good service quality has a significant effect on repurchase intentions. This shows that good service quality alone is not enough to make consumers have the intention to buy again. Service quality can be mediated by customer satisfaction so that consumers’ repurchase intentions increase. Product quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction because good product quality will create a sense of satisfaction experienced by customers. The higher the quality of the product provided, the higher the customer satisfaction will be. Quality products with a wide variety of menus to make consumers feel satisfied and create a desire to visit and buy existing products again.

            Good service quality makes consumers feel satisfied. Research conducted by Widjoyo, et al (2014) also found that service quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction. In this study, researchers stated that if service quality is improved, customer satisfaction with the restaurant will also increase. Providing good service to make consumers satisfied, apart from good service, providing a comfortable atmosphere and eye-catching design so that consumers feel satisfied with the place and the services provided to their customers. Customer satisfaction creates an intention to buy again. Customer satisfaction will create an intention to repurchase. Consumers will have the intention to repurchase if consumers are satisfied with the quality of the products offered and also the services provided. Kotler and Keller (2018) customer satisfaction is the customer’s feelings, both satisfied and disappointed, resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations. If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the performance meets expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Good service quality can create a good positive perspective from consumers so that consumers have the intention to come back.

Researchers found a significant influence of product quality on repurchase intentions which was mediated by customer satisfaction. According to Kotler (2008), the higher the product quality, the higher the consumer’s decision to make a purchase. When consumers purchase a product, there will be certain considerations that serve as benchmarks for consumers to fulfill their desires, including the condition and appearance of a product marketed by the company. Service quality mediated by customer satisfaction has a significant effect on repurchase intention. Consumers who make repeat purchases also pay attention and feel directly the quality of service from a restaurant. Nur, A.I (2018) found that service quality can be mediated by customer satisfaction which results in consumers’ repurchase intentions. Good quality service will certainly make consumers feel satisfied and make repeat purchases. Service quality can be said to be good and of high quality if the service provided by a company can satisfy its customers. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires and the accuracy of delivery to balance customer expectations so that customers can feel satisfied with the services provided and the intention to buy again arises.

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Isaac Odoi Danquah

diok1982@yahoo.com  

Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua, Eastern Region – Ghana. 

ABSTRACT

Illegal gold mining business is so rampant at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana after the discovery of gold within the sub region. This has led to the destruction of natural resources such as lands, surface water bodies, forest reserves, plant species, destruction of natural water channels and destruction of aquifers. With this in mind, total land areas and surfaces are destroyed and changed after an illegal gold mining adventure. The aim of this research work sorts to investigate if an illegal gold mined site can be developed into an Eco park after gold mining adventure for the benefit of mankind, community and country. This is the reason for this research work at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. After the investigation, it is well established that an illegal gold mined site can be designed, developed into an Eco park after turning pits and dugouts into an edifice where tourist siting places (summer hat buildings) can be developed over the pits and dugouts. Aquatic development can also be done in the dugouts containing water after treatment. Other places developed as play grounds for kids and the old. Sight-seeing stands also obtained after the introduction of animal species such as snails, rabbits, antelopes, tortoise, parrots, Monkeys, turkey and birds of different kinds. Different plant species also introduced to serve as learning platforms for ecologist and students from the biology background. With this, all kinds of classifications (Kingdom to species levels) of animals and plant species can be done to serve as learning platform for all. Water resources sectors within the Eco Park such as dugouts and pits well protected  and developed to serve as learning platforms for professionals and students from the water resources sector. Finally, total beautification of the place with green grasses and flowers after good designing by bioengineers. 

Keywords: Eco Park, illegal mining, water, land, forest reserves, gold, aquatic, development, ecologist, water resources, dugouts. 

1          INTRODUCTION

Gold mining business in Ghana has yield billions of pounds sterling, dollars and cedis to the Ghanaian economy and the 

world. Both indigenous and migrants are benefiting from the gold mining business which is changing their lives both locally and internationally. But the only problem is the process of accessing or mining the finite product. That is one of the main challenges facing the people and government of Ghana currently. For this reason, gold is explored in various kinds of ways both by legal and illegal gold miners. Gold exploration by illegal gold miners is always leading to the overexploitation of natural resources such lands, forest reserves and surface water bodies. The illegal mining activities is destroying farm produce and commercial farm products such as cocoa, cassava, plantain, palm oil trees, coconuts etc.   

Assessing surface water in Ghana is now a big problem as almost all surface water bodies have been polluted and deteriorated. The once been used by Ghana Water Company Limited for abstraction and treatment for drinking requires huge amounts of money because of the polluted nature of the water body. So is Supong which is one of the areas where the illegal gold is mined. The most interesting thing is that people don’t care and see what is happening, all that they are interested in is the gold and the money. Where will Ghana stand to produce food and cocoa for the international market if all these lands are degraded and becomes infertile hence of no use for crop production. Will the gold money be enough to import all the food Ghanaians needs for sustenance and survival? This is a big no, hence the need to protect the natural resources for the good will of all – both the gold miners and common citizens. Gold mining is a good business that generates Billions of pounds sterling’s and cedis annually for economic growth but comes with repercussions and these need not be toiled with if not it becomes a curse. Since gold mining in Ghana started years ago, generations have come and gone, generations will continue to come and go but this gold resource will continue to be there as this is what nature has blessed the country Ghana for her growth and sustenance hence the need to protect.

Galamsey is a group of unlicensed individuals who come together using crude and sometimes refine methods to mine gold and other minerals. Galamsey or illegal mining became a boom in Ghana in the 1970’s when there was a decline in Ghana’s economy during that time. 

When the president of Ghana was sworn into office, he restated his commitment to protect the land and water bodies that has been destroyed as a result of illegal gold mining activities within the country. The president introduced measures to stop the illegalities, regularise the small-scale mining sector, take measures to prevent occurrence of illegalities in the future, including reform and strengthening of regulatory agencies as well as reform of mining laws by that cleaning the mess created by these galamsey people.

Illegal mining operators wash the ore, and discharge waste products into rivers and other water bodies that serve as raw water sources for drinking for various communities within the country. These wastes include mine tailings which are directly discharged into rivers bodies. Large amounts of waste materials released into the water, a large amount of suspended solids that directly contaminate aquatic habitats. Some mine tailings are toxic and pose serious health problems both to humans, animals and plant life. Most water bodies in Ghana over the years have been serving as drinking water for local communities and a raw water source for the Ghana Water Company. These water bodies have been heavily polluted as a result of illegal gold mining operations. The Supong, Birim, Offin, Ankobra, Tano and Pra Rivers for example, have become extremely expensive to treat for human consumption as a result of the very poor water quality and its turbid nature or level.

Nsutam community has a lot of rich natural resources which needs to be harnessed in the right direction as well as protect it for the future generation.  Some of this natural resources are lands, water, gold, forest reserves etc. The mining of gold within the community is enriching lives and generating Billions of Pounds Sterling for Ghana and the world market. Despite the enrichment of lives, there is the need for the community and government to mine the resource in the right direction as well as sustaining the natural resources for unborn generations to come. In this regards, there is the need to use standard operation procedures to identify the resources and mine it for the betterment of mankind. In doing this, lands, forest reserves, water bodies will be under management through stakeholder participation towards the sustainability of the natural resources. Natural resources identification, assessment and protection hasn’t been the mentality of Ghanaians but only improper way of harnessing it. Ghana as an economy is rich in natural resources so is Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Nsutam a stopover community is now welcoming natural resources discoverers all over the world as its rich in all kinds of resources. One most important thing in all this is the sustainability of the resource for the now and future generation. Ghana lacks protection, maintenance and sustainability attitude among its citizens and so can be seen at Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The natural resources available at Nsutam needs to be harnessed, mined and protected for the future. In doing this, the natural resource can be used to feed the current generation and future generation. It therefore calls on the government, government agencies, tourist board, stakeholders and private investors to help in the maintenance and protection of natural resources within the community as they continue to mine and use to meet daily needs and demands. Some citizens do not have the use for today but keep for future generation and this needs to be installed in their minds in order to protect and maintain the resources at Nsutam. The Ghanaian government needs to cultivate the attitude of resources estimation, protection and maintenance for the future generation. Government institutions such as Water resources commission, Environmental Protection Agency, Lands commission and Tourist Boards needs to look at resources allocation and the potential of private investors to make use and protect the resources before leasing out. By this, private investors who buys lands in communities such as Nsutam will use standard operation procedures to harness resources such as gold whiles protecting lands, forest reserves and water bodies and designing them into tourist attraction sites in Ghana.

Eco Park development from illegal gold mined sites is a good thought through opportunity to make use of damaged sites or design an illegally mined abandoned sites into a tourist site full of beauty to serve mankind, community, country and the international world. With such a project of life span of say 70years, it can serve generations in various directions;

• Serve as a tourist sites
• Serve as learning sites
• Serve as entertaining sites
• Serve as conference center for programs
• Serve the community on special occasions etc.

• RESEARCH AREA

The research area for this study is in Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The people of Nsutam are involved in gold mining, farming and trading. Some of the farm products produced includes coconut, cocoa, plantain, yam, cassava, sugar cane and all kinds of vegetables produced during the farming seasons. The huge amount of gold discovered in the community has resulted in all kinds of illegal gold mining activities destroying water bodies, forest reserves and lands resources. The community has a population of about 7000 (2021 population census) with the majority being immigrants due to the gold mining business, Linda Dor and Paradise Tourist operates in the community. The destroyed land, surface water resources and forest reserves or plant species needs reclamation process in order to restore the infertile lands together with other resources back to normalcy. This fertile rich soils will support plant growth in order to support the hydrological cycle and exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between man and plants. Restoration of the degraded lands will also promote afforestation and wildlife existence in the future for future generation. It will also promote tourist attraction when vegetation’s are groomed and protected with the existence of wildlife’s. Fig 1 below is a view of the study area in the Eastern Region of Ghana where coconut is in mild production to boost livelihoods within the community.

Fig. 1: Map of Fanteakwa south

• METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED FOR THE RESEARCH

The methodology employed for this research is Site Stationed Investigation Procedure (SSIP). With this method, the researcher works on the illegal mined site for several years (2018 – 2023) and embarks on learning and investigations as illegal gold mining is done. The site is designed artificially as various processes and procedures are done by illegal gold miners to access the mineral willingly or unwillingly. Site is discovered after the whole process of illegal gold mining after thorough process to access and analyze what can be done with the site. An Eco Park is seen evolving out the site after the whole process of mining. 

• IDENTIFIED ECO PARK DEVELOPMENT STAGES
  • Summer Hat buildings creation on dugouts

In the process of mining within the identified area, all kinds of pits were dug to obtain the gold metal. These pits were dug to various depths generating water after hitting water table. Water from the Supong was also abstracted to help in the washing of stones and sand to obtain the gold being sort for. This has created dugouts after pit digging to a greater depth. Quite a number of the dugouts have been obtained and full of water to help in the Eco Park design and construction for Nsutam community. Summer hats buildings will therefore be done after concreting on the water bodies or dugouts having four or three access paths. This will be done with safety precautions or protections in mind so that no client or visitor falls inside the dugouts during operations and usage. This will be done nicely to add beauty to the design of the Eco Park at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Some are of the view that creating such summer hat buildings on illegal mined site dugouts is very dangerous but not the case, if proper design is done and constructed across the dugout with maximum precautions. This will be done to ensure safety of visitors, users and clients so that pleasure attainment will be obtained by all who makes use of the Eco Park now and the future. The dugout will be filled with fishes (to be treated under aquatic habitat creation and sight – seeing) and designed with flowers to give it much beauty to serve the people of Nsutam and beyond.

Fig 1: Summer hat building design

Fig 1 is a summer hat building which is going to be constructed over each of the identified dugouts in the illegal mined site. A number of such summer hat buildings will be constructed to add beauty to the Eco Park at Nsutam. This will have all kinds of fishes and aquatic organisms swimming in them to serve as sight – seeing for visitors and anyone who access the Eco Park. Plate 1 is one of the dugouts to have the summer hat building installed over it.

Plate 1: Dugout to have summer hat building installed

The summer hat building installation and creation on all identified possible dugouts will be done to international standards more than that identified in plate 2 below. Such summer hats will have four or three pathways as can be seen in fig 1. There will be a number of them depending on the number of dugouts identified with adequate size and capacity to facilitate the installations and creation.

Plate 2: sample summer hat building to be installed on dugouts

• Creation of playing grounds for kids

Kids like playing especially when they meet in numbers at a designated place to have fun. Arboretwum at Bunso has seen a lot of visitation and patronage and one can observe playing by kids all day round upon visitation at the Eco Park. And this is no exception when GMCL Eco Park is established at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. It therefore deems fit if a playing ground is designed, created or constructed to propagate this gospel of playing among kids, sharing love among themselves and extend friendly hands towards each other. This will enhance cordial relationship creation among kids as they learn how to work and cooperate with each other as they grow and mature into adulthood to serve man and country. 

• Access paths creation

All kinds of access paths will be created within the Eco Park to help one access and move around the Eco Park at ease as he/she embarks on sight – seeing. Access paths will comprise of concrete pavements, roads and green grass vegetated areas within the Eco Park. This will add beauty to the Eco Park and hence attract a lot of people to the place to make it lively. Royal palms together with other flowers and tree species will help in the access path and pathway creation (Plate 2). Runoff generation within the Eco Park is very high and again the water table is closer to the surface of the land hence high rate of water over the area. That is, most of the areas within the catchment becomes waterlogged during heavy storms hence the need for pavements and concreting of areas to avoid dirty storm waters being drained into the dugout. When this is achieved, the water body and all waters in the dugouts will be clean and serene all the time to make the Eco Park admirable. 

Plate 3: Access pathway creation

• Introduction of animals for sight – seeing and learning

In years back, zoos like the Kumasi zoo in the Ashanti Region harbors all kinds of animals and birds serving as for sight-seeing and for education. This is not the case in the Eastern Region of Ghana and GMCL Eco Park seeks to establish this learning and sight-seeing center for all and especially those living at Nsutam and in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Illegal gold mining is being embarked day in day out within the Eastern Region of Ghana which is turning lands and destroying natural resources within the sub region. Mined sites are left aloof after gold mining business and GMCL seeks to use one of the site as a case study in establishing an Eco Park. Extinction of animals and birds is still on going as individuals enter into deep forest like Atiwa forest to harness such animals and birds for sale and food in the homes. GMCL seeks to preserve nature by creating an area within the Eco Park where all kinds of animals and birds will be kept for sight-seeing and learning by students, young and old. Animal species such as snails, rabbits, antelopes, tortoise, turkey, monkey etc and birds of different kinds will be kept at the Eco Park for this purpose. Birds of different kinds can be found at the Eco Park now and some still moving in on daily basis. 

• Ecological creation of plants species

Biologist and Ecologist are much interested in plant species for learning in the schools and universities, for medicinal purposes and so on. For this reason, all kinds of plant species will also be planted within the Eco Park to serve educational purposes of learning at every level of education by all. That is from lower levels of education to the university level in Ghana, Africa and the world. Plant species and flowers will be planted around heaped sands and gravels and decorated into a sight – seeing area where there will be taking of pictures and all kinds of playing activities (photographing area and playground) as shown in Plate 4 below. 

Plate 4: photographing area and play ground

• Aquatic habitat creation and sight – seeing.

To access gold from underground through illegal means, all kinds of pits and dugouts have been generated full of dirty and polluted water. This polluted water has been channeled to the river Supong through the creation of artificial river channels within the obtained sites. This is polluting the river Supong and hence river Birim at a high and fast rate. Self-stratification is playing a major role in bringing the water bodies created within the site to normalcy. Treatments will also be done to help the self-treatment purpose of getting a clean quality water. The good quality dugouts and pits that have undergone self-stratification have fishes in them which are growing at a faster rate. The untreated once do no but will be treated and stocked with fishes and aquatic animals or organisms to boost the status of the Eco Park. It will serve educational purposes which also being used as sight – seeing by the indigenous and all within the Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana.

Plate 5: Polluted water to be treated to serve as aquatic habitat

• Creation of resting stands with trees and flowers 

Touring within an Eco Park is a tiring work hence the need for various resting stands where visitors and if possible supervisors working in the Eco Park can rest when the need be. With this in mind, various siting and resting places will be created within the Eco Park to serve this purpose. This will be done under shades or trees in order to receive fresh cool air away from heat and the sun. Such areas will be decorated with flowers to have a very attractive natural beauty to make an Eco Park a very stunning one for all. The Eco Park will be serving people of all classes hence will be to a good standard to serve this purpose at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The construction of the Eco Park will be done with Engineers and floweriest and designers who knows how to give beauty to environment and society. All the dugouts which will harbour the summer hat building will have their areas decorated with flowers and trees together with green grasses and other varieties of grasses covering the ground. This will make the Eco Park beautiful and lively area and place for people to visit, learn and have fun. This will be done for such people together with their friends, staff members, colleagues at school or university and family. Creation of such an Eco Park at Nsutam will serve the community which is now a gold mining community with migration of people within Ghana and outside Ghana to the community. 

• Overhead walk creation over Eco Park

Canopy walk is a nice tourist adventure to be embarked on whenever one visits a tourist site with such opportunity. Within the Eco Park will be the planting, nurturing and growing of all kinds of tree species to add beauty and nature to the Eco Park. These trees can be coordinated and modelled into a canopy walk in the future when all the trees are grown and matured. This will give visitors and anyone who accesses the Eco Park a better and nice view of the tourist site and environment. Human beings like adventure and this will give them another adventure opportunity within the Eco Park. This will give a view to human beings comparable to a drone view within the tourist site (Eco Park). 

• Creation of Entertainment and Conference Centers

The Eco Park being established sorts out to serve as an entertaining centre and site as well as serving as an education centre or tourist sites where all kinds of learning can be done. With this in focus, there is the creation of an entertainment center and conference or learning centre. Such two areas will purposefully serve entertainment reason and learning reason. The entertainment areas will comprise of places where children will have playing grounds for fun and learning. This will serve as a playing ground where children can easily move around and play during special occasions when they come in their numbers for tourist and entertainment reasons. Children like learning but it’s usually through playing and entertainment. As they happy themselves, then they play alongside each other for friendship, happiness and entertainment. This will be achieved when a playing ground is established within the Eco Park. A learning or conference center will also be created where students can be taught comparable to a classroom teaching environment. This will purposely serve school children and university undergraduates and researchers. Installing all kinds of animals and plants species requires taking tourist through some great learnings and history which when given at the touring moments is easily forgotten. But when done under a classroom settings, students and researchers can easily take lesson notes and write-ups home. Parents too and working class or staffs can be taken through same at the tourist sites and in the conference center.

4.10           Vegetative cropping stand for learning

A vegetative cropping stand will be created where touring people, students and visitors will be taken through vegetative reproduction. With this, some selected crops will be used to demonstrate vegetative reproduction to students, teachers, working staffs and anyone who visits the Eco Park. It will have some planted crops which have undergone vegetative reproduction for better understanding and learning among visitors to the touring site at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana.

4.11 Aesthetic treatment of created water bodies and dugouts

All the dugouts and pits are full of water undergoing self – stratification. Some have gone through the process over several months past and obtaining the finite good nature of water habited by aquatic organisms (fish, frog, toad etc) and usable by mankind to meet daily water demands. All the dugouts or pits will be aesthetically designed with green grasses, grasses and flowers to make it beautiful and attractive to all. This will be done after installation or construction of the summer hat buildings on the dugouts or water bodies.

• Bioengineering, pavement, concreting and grassing of the Eco Park

Bioengineering of a place with grasses like green grass adds beauty to nature, gives fresh air, increases infiltration, reduces runoff generation full of dirt and sediments into a drain or water body. This will be done in most of the areas with trees planted at vantage points within the Eco Park. Once bioengineering is done together with green grass planting, infiltration will be 100% (higher rate) as runoff generation will be 0% (or to a lesser rate). It is only at the pervious areas where pavements and concreting has been done that will give total runoff generation with various runoff depths. This will be generated during precipitation and will be over the field or Eco Park hence the need to channel all of them downstream. All these runoffs will end up in the connected dugout and finally in river Supong. Most of the bioengineering will be done around the dugouts and connected dugouts towards river Supong. This will be done with green grasses to avoid dirty runoff generation or runoff full of sediments been created and drained into the created dugouts which upon treatments will be of quality and have all kinds of fishes and aquatic organisms. With all kinds of drains within the Eco Park, all generated runoffs void of sediments and dirt’s will be channeled into river Supong. With all these done within the Eco Park, a beautiful sight – seeing Eco Park will be obtained to serve Nsutam community, visitors, country and world comparable to that depicted in plate 6 (Danquah, 2023). 

Plate 6: Bioengineering and pavement creation

5    CONCLUSION

Illegal gold mining is now part and parcel of the Ghanaian economy as its serving as a gainful employment source and a source of income for people and homes. It is generating millions of pound sterling’s, dollars, and cedis into pockets and boosting the Ghanaian economy and the world when it comes to gold production. Illegal gold mining will therefore continue to be embarked by the youth and old within Ghana and hence its resultant repercussions. It will always lead to the destruction of farmlands, lands, water bodies, forest reserves and so one. But what one does with the destroyed lands is the most important thing after illegal gold mining adventure within a community. With these assertions, it is justified that one can turn a destroyed land after a gold mining adventure into an Eco Park that will be beneficial to people, community, country and world.

Acknowledgement

Grateful I am to the Almighty God for the mindset, ability to think thoughtfully and in discovering this Eco Park at Nsutam. Thanks to the Chief and people of Nsutam for playing various roles towards the success of this project. I am again grateful to the Danquah and Darko family of Nsutam and Kukurantumi respectively for their various roles. God bless the chief Osaberima, teacher Yirenkyi, Okyeame Danso and the assembly man of Nsutam, honorable Alex for their help and roles in this project. God richly bless you all.

References

Danquah, I. O. (2023), Stormwater Modelling within Three catchments using MIDUSS v2.25: Real Time Simulation Model to analyze stormwater within catchments, International journal of Research.

Author: Shashikant Nishant Sharma

In the realm of academia, measuring the impact of a researcher’s work is vital for evaluating their contributions and influence within a specific field. Various bibliometric indicators have been introduced to quantify this impact, with the h-index and its variant, the h10-index, being prominent measures. These indices provide valuable insights into a scholar’s productivity and citation impact, aiding in academic decision-making processes.

The h-index: A Comprehensive View of Scholarly Impact

The h-index, also known as the Hirsch index after physicist Jorge E. Hirsch who introduced it in 2005, is a numerical indicator that combines both productivity and citation impact. It is based on an individual’s scholarly publications and the citations those publications receive.

Specifically, an author possesses an h-index of h if they have h papers, each of which has been cited at least h times. In simpler terms, it represents the number of publications (h) that have garnered at least h citations. For instance, an h-index of 10 (h=10) means a researcher has published 10 papers, each cited at least 10 times.

The h-index is widely used across academic disciplines to assess the overall impact and productivity of researchers. It provides a balanced measure, taking into account both the quantity and quality of a scholar’s research output. Academic institutions often consider the h-index when making hiring decisions, evaluating promotions, and assessing research grant applications.

The h10-index: Focusing on Recent Impact

While the h-index provides a comprehensive view of a researcher’s career-long impact, it may not always reflect recent contributions accurately. This is where the h10-index comes into play. The h10-index is a variant of the h-index that specifically focuses on the most recent impact of a scholar’s work.

Similar to the h-index, the h10-index is calculated by identifying the number of papers (h10) that have been cited at least 10 times. However, unlike the h-index, which considers a researcher’s entire body of work, the h10-index only takes into account the citations garnered by papers within the past 10 years. This enables a more precise evaluation of a scholar’s recent and ongoing contributions.

The h10-index is particularly useful when assessing the evolving impact of a researcher, especially in fields where the relevance and influence of work tend to change rapidly. It helps gauge the contemporary significance of a scholar’s research output and provides a current snapshot of their scholarly impact.

The h-index and h10-index are both bibliometric measures used to evaluate the research output and impact of scholars, particularly in academia. These indices provide a quantitative measure of a researcher’s productivity and citation impact in the academic community.

1. h-index (Hirsch index): The h-index is a numerical value that quantifies both the productivity and citation impact of a scholar’s published research. It was proposed by physicist Jorge E. Hirsch in 2005. An author has an h-index of h if they have h papers that have each been cited at least h times. For example, an h-index of 10 (h=10) means that a researcher has published 10 papers, each of which has been cited at least 10 times.

The h-index is widely used in academia and is considered a useful tool to assess a researcher’s overall impact and productivity. It is often used in hiring decisions, promotions, and funding applications.

2. h10-index: The h10-index is a variant of the h-index that considers only the citations of a scholar’s papers within the most recent 10 years. It is useful in situations where you want to evaluate a researcher’s recent impact rather than their entire career impact. The h10-index is calculated similarly to the h-index, but it only considers the number of papers that have been cited at least 10 times within the last 10 years.

The h10-index is valuable when you want to assess a researcher’s recent and ongoing contributions to their field, especially when considering advancements and impact in more recent research.

In summary, the h-index measures the overall impact of a scholar’s work throughout their career, while the h10-index specifically focuses on their recent impact within the last 10 years. Both indices provide different perspectives on a researcher’s influence and productivity, helping in evaluating their scholarly contributions.

Conclusion

In the academic world, bibliometric indicators like the h-index and h10-index play a crucial role in assessing a researcher’s impact and contributions. The h-index offers a comprehensive view of a scholar’s career-long influence, considering both the quantity and quality of their work. On the other hand, the h10-index hones in on recent impact, capturing the citations garnered by a researcher’s papers within the last 10 years.

Both indices are valuable tools in evaluating researchers for academic positions, promotions, and funding opportunities. By understanding and utilizing these measures effectively, academic institutions and stakeholders can make informed decisions regarding scholarly contributions and their societal impact.

References

Alonso, Sergio, et al. “h-Index: A review focused in its variants, computation and standardization for different scientific fields.” Journal of informetrics 3.4 (2009): 273-289.

Bornmann, Lutz, and Hans‐Dieter Daniel. “What do we know about the h index?.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and technology 58.9 (2007): 1381-1385.

Egghe, Leo. “An improvement of the h-index: The g-index.” ISSI newsletter 2.1 (2006): 8-9.

Hirsch, Jorge E. “Does the h index have predictive power?.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19193-19198.

Kelly, Clint D., and Michael D. Jennions. “The h index and career assessment by numbers.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21.4 (2006): 167-170.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

Dr  Arthur Sunday

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Caleb Tamwesigire

Assoc. Prof , Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Dr Eliab Byamukama Mpora

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Mr Agaba Moses

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Abstract

Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as a vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2016). Micro finance in Uganda is a vibrant growing industry and the government of Uganda has over the past decade initiated implemented and or supported various micro credit schemes aimed at fighting poverty in the country. Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion. Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability and not on internal control system and lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions. Failure by MFIs to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda. The study analyzed the relationship between Management control system and financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda and it was hypothesized that Management control system positively influences   financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. MFIs have come under spotlight for cases of poor financial performance. Lack of empirical studies to assess the impact of Management control system on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda is the motivation behind this study. Therefore, this study is important not only because it fills the gap, but also it is set out to address this evident knowledge gap. The study adopted positive–phenomenological, epistemology and quantitative-qualitative methodology dimension with cross sectional and correlation designs, the unit of analysis was Microfinance Institutions registered with Association of Microfinance Institutions, and employees were the units of inquiry. Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were used to for statistical modeling

Besides, Hierarchical regression was used to test the predictive power of the variables and indicate precisely what happens to the model as different predictor variables are introduced in the model fit. This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that Management control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance. And Management control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance.  The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient Management control systems. These models can then be used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda .Regardless of the existence of controls in MFI, the results revealed that Management control systems were less efficient due to lack of close monitoring. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals .Policy makers, AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy

Key Words : Management Control System, Financial Performance, microfinance, Institution

Introduction

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion .The microfinance movement has received enthusiasm as a poverty alleviation tool that has eventually become a self-sustaining industry. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2016). Most microfinance institutions have embraced a more business-oriented outlook and maintained their target groups of economically-active poor, in order to achieve financial sustainability (Kalyango, 2004; Baguma, 2008). The micro finance institutions in developing economies are widely growing from time to time. Various studies on different countries on the performance of the MFIs confirm this (Adongo and Stork 2005, Zeller and Meyer 2002, Meyer 2002, Robert cull et al. 2007). Approaches used by microfinance institutions in Uganda to deliver financial services to the poor are similar to those used in other countries where microfinance institutions operate. The approach used depends on the nature and structure of the respective microfinance institution. The institutions providing microfinance services include: Tier I: formal financial institutions Comercial banks, TierII; credit institutions, Tier III; microfinance deposit taking institutions, Tier IV; Saccos (BOU Policy on MFIs 1999).

Microfinance institutions in Uganda from time and again been faced with high operating costs to provide financial services to the poor people and Small and Medium Enterprises (Micro banking Bulletin, 2002). And as such,  are unable to meet their obligations when they become due usually resulting from poor cash flow planning, failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending and micro loan portfolios  (Srinivasan, 2006 due to unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which are volatile. IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears. An enduring problem facing microfinance institutions, however, is how to attain financial sustainability (Dunford, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Woller 2000; Hollis and Sweetman, 1998; Christen et al, 1995). This problem has attracted attention of numerous researchers in recent decades and, as a result many strategies have been identified to ensure that institutions are sustainable (Randhawa and Gallardo, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Yaron, 1992). Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of management control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal control systems can alleviate disruptive performance in a business enterprise. Ledgerwood (1999) as cited by Lincolin Arsyad (2005), conceptualizes financial performance as; Financial viability (operational self-sufficiency, financial self-sufficiency) Profitability (return on assets ratio, return on business ratio, return on equity ratio) and Portfolio quality (portfolio at risk, repayment rates).  Financial performance being a critical factor in the success of microfinance Institutions, therefore, this research focused on financial performance and not social performance

Most of the studies on financial performance of microfinance institutions apply and use different methodologies as in the case of Tilahun (2009) , however this study employed a descriptive research design based on quantitative data. The researcher collected and analyzed annual reports using descriptive statistics.  A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between management control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions. 

Poor financial performance marked by deteriorating returns and portfolio quality has taken a center stage and remained unexplained in microfinance Institutions (Performance Monitoring Tool 2006/2009/). Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which tend to be more volatile (Ssewanyana 2009). According to the IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears hardly existed. Microfinance institutions in Uganda face poor cash flow problems due to changes in market interest rate and failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda (Bank of Uganda 2010/2011)

Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability (Migiri, 2002). Lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions.  Though some studies have identified ICS as a possible predictor of financial performance in different industries, there are still gaps as a result of absence of representative empirical studies that would address the issue of financial performance of microfinance institutions as a result of Management control systems (PekChen, 2005).More so, theories and models apparently used to explain financial performance in firms have proved to be weak and inadequate in explaining this phenomenon. 

This study enabled microfinance firms to have a more definite and direct understanding of the elements of management control system that can influence performance. Besides, understanding of how management control system elements combine to influence firm performance can lead to better resource allocation, which eventually may promote performance in microfinance institutions.

Empirical studies aimed at assessing the impact of Management control systems on the financial performance of Microfinance Institutions in Uganda are missing. Therefore, this study is important because it fills this gap of knowledge

Literature Review 

A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. There are various forms  that have been used to examine the way contextual factors are related to aspects of Management control System with an  attempt to assess whether this association is linked to financial performance of Microfinance Institutions.

Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between magememt control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions

Synthesizing existing studies in the broad area of explaining financial performance of MFIs, indicate a clear dearth of studies examining multiplicative effect of various elements the predictor variable ie Management control system(Internal Control System, Budgeting, Performance Measurement ) on  financial performance of  MFIs . 

Model Specification

Management control system has been conceptualized from the Contingency point of view that assumes that the design and the application of management control systems are influenced by the context in which they are applied (Chenhall, 2007). A contingency approach to management control systems aims at identifying the best design, usage and application of Management control system in a given context (Chenhall and Chapman, 2006).This study follows the use of management control systems and examines the way contextual factors are related to aspects of management control system with attempt to assess whether this association is linked to financial performance of Microfinance Institutions. Any controlled system requires objectives and goals against which its performance can be assessed and the existence of different goals is likely to involve the selection of different performance measures and controls

The contingency approach was cited and explained by Simons’ (1995) levers of management system control model that requires management of effective companies to know how to achieve high degrees of high control efficiency and performance. Simon argued that it is not the identification of controls associated with particular strategies that are important, but the distribution of management attention and efficiency of controls that can lead to high degrees of performance. Simons (1995) organises management control system tools into a coherent model called “levers of control

Independent Variable MCS

Dependent Variable: Financial Performance

Figure 1: Conceptual Frame Work

Internal Control System

Budgeting

Performance measurement

Perceived Financial     Performance

Profitability

Portfolio Quality

Financial Viability

Source: Literature Review

To understand management control system  and financial performance variables in relation to microfinance institutions, the major management control system  pillars i.e. budgeting, performance measurement, internal control system are dissected. Financial performance especially relating to microfinance institutions is also reviewed based on the performance dimensions comprising: Profitability, portfolio quality and financial viability. The significance of Management control system in microfinance institutions is also highlighted. These are compressed in a conceptual framework as shown above. From the conceptual framework above, the hypothesis was structured to ascertain the extent to which management control system can influence financial performance. This was expressed as:

      Y=a+bx 

      FPM= f(MCS)

      Y=α_o+β₁ICS₁+β₂BDGT₂+β₃PFM₃+ ₄  +µ_…

       Where

      Y = Financial performance (proxied by Profitability, portfolio quality, financial viability)

 Key predictor of Management control system is given as 

      ICS₁ = Internal control System, BDGT₂ = Budgeting, PFM₃ = Performance Measurement

Simon (1995), asserted  that Management control systems  have different impacts on organization performance, Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of internal control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies, Davila (2000), in his study his study findings indicated that different strategies will need different interactive use of management controls to raise firm performance.

Welsh (2003), Simons (1995), Chow et al (1999), Merchant (2007), appreciate that Management   control systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers that ensure that errors and fraud are detected, safe guard company’s  assets and opine that MCS greatly influences firm performance.

Recent studies draw from the original organizational theorists (Burns & Stalker 1961, Lawrence & Lorsch 1967, Thompson 1967, Perrow 1970, Galbraith1973) to develop arguments that explain how the effectiveness of control systems  (Chenhall 2003).

Bisbe and Otley (2004), findings indicated that the application of control systems has a huge contingency effect on firm performance. However, Bisbe’s research did not discuss the importance of human effect to control system (Snell, 1992; Abernethy and Brownell, 1997; Keller, 2001; Widener, 2004)

Dexon  (2010), findings revealed that Management Control Systems have a significant positive effect in achieving Value for Money. All the constructs of Internal Control Systems (Control environment, control activities, risk assessment) have a significant positive relationship with Value for Money in a business entity

Internal control  process reduces uncertainty and improves firm performance, Ivancevich (1976), Steers (1976), Imoisili (1989), Locke & Schweiger (1979), Mia (1989), Ezzamel (1990), Hirst & Lowy (1990) etc. Another study on control process and firm performance relationship by scholars (Merchant, 1980; Peel & Bridge, 1988; Edward, et al., 2001) and empirical results (Merchant, 1980) show that control systems enhance the accuracy the degree of information accuracy. In turn, it results in higher performance in organizations.  The increased use of comprehensive ICS practices can be assumed to result in better improved financial performance among firms (e.g. Chenhall 2003, see also discussions in Gul 1991, Gul & Chia 1994, Hoque & James 2000, Ittner et al. 1998, 1998, Scott & Tiessen 1999)

Management Control System acts as a driver variable in firm strategy and performance as found in Chong & Chong (1997) and Baines & Langfield-Smith (2003). Report of bank of Uganda (2002), Simon (1995), results showed that there is indeed a positive association between certain internal control practices when are used concurrently with other strategic initiatives and improvement in financial performance.  Abernethy and Brownell (1999) also discussed the interactive use of management   control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies. The findings confirm the report findings of Armesh (2010) on the influences of internal control system on organizational performance in Malaysia, which showed that Internal Control System influences the behavior and performance of the organizational to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization s objectives.

On the other hand however, McMahon (2001) did not find any significant relationship between use of Control practices and firm performance. Donaldson (2001) found no significant associations were between the use of comprehensive Management Control System and measures of growth in net sales and profitability. 

Additionally, McMahon & Davies (1994) and McMahon (2001) have not found any significant relationships between internal control practices and performance of businesses. Thus, the empirical results on the relationship between various dimensions of Management Control System and performance seem to be rather mixed

Jonathan (2005), study findings revealed that most of the microfinance institutions in Namibia are not yet financially sustainable and it was attributed to the fact that interest rates that Microfinance institutions require to break-even exceed the ceiling imposed. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in financial institutions (Srinivasan, 2006), Studies by Bontis (2002), Chong and Richardson (2006), explained similar performance trends in Portuguese. Study findings revealed that average ROA for MFIs is 3.57%. This concur with study findings of Lafourcade (2005), the findings revealed that, Africa MFIs have the lowest financial performance of ROA of 2% as compared to 7.6%-10% of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The findings are in agreement with Tilahun (2009), study findings on ‘the financial performance and sustainability of microfinance institutions in Ethiopia’; the result of the study indicates that there was a negative shift in the performance indicators particularly in the year 2009  and the gross loan portfolio has declined by 15.73% in the year 2009.

Furthermore, contrary to Chong and Richardson (2006),  study findings, McMahon (2001), did not find any significant relationship between use of control System of Australian business firms and profitability.

Furthermore, Perera et al. (1997) have also reported a respective non significant relationship in manufacturing firms. Malmi et al. (2004) likewise did not find a significant direct relationship between management practices and profitability, even though they reported an interaction effect of the practices and use of other relationship management control systems to be significant in relation to firm performance.

Both theoretical and empirical studies show that strong and efficient systems that maintain high levels of capital adequacy are important in determining financial institutions profitability. Sufian and Habibullah (2009), found out that good systems have a positive impact on bank profitability in China. This confirms Athanasoglou, et al. (2008, 2006) and Kosmidou (2008) who also finds a positive and significant effect of strong control system on bank profitability, reflecting the sound financial condition of banks.This shows that maintaining strong and efficient Managementl control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions (Gramling et al. 2004; Hermanson & Rittenberg 2003; 2004

First, Reid & Smith (2000) found out those developing control  systems, especially in the areas of management and accounting applications, lead to high firm performance, Reid & Smith (2002) , Reid & Smith (2000, 2002) holds that high performers  firms  use and apply internal control systems for daily financial monitoring and for identifying important trends in key variables for their further survival.  On the other hand, Reid & Smith (2002), argue that static performers at satisfactory financial levels tend not to value control systems as much as the others. Consequently, the relationship between Management control system and firm performance seem to be U-shaped

The foregoing reviews reveal that the application of Management control system elements in any organization differ and different interactive use of Management controls to raise firm performance.

The level, application and interactive use of internal control system in Ugandan microfinance industry is elusive. This, therefore, caused the need for a scientific investigation on the use internal control system elements influences financial performance in Uganda’s microfinance industry. This necessitated the study to evaluate the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda. Hence to the hypothesis that “Management control system positively influences financial performance of microfinance institutions”

Methodology 

The study adopted a positivist quantitative paradigm with cross sectional and correlation designs. Correlation design was used to establish relationships between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs. Logical positivism quantitative designs were applied in data collection, analysis and presentation which also helped to test hypothetical deductive generalizations. The study population consisted of 36 MFIs in central region Uganda registered with AMFIU from where the sample size of 33 MFIs were determined comprising a sample of 356 which was consistent with the sample size guidelines of Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006). Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006), multistage, simple rondom sampling and purposive tequniques were used. Primary and secondary data sources were used in the study.Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were also used to for statistical modeling.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the instruments and the instruments were found to be reliable at 0.78. Content  validity of  the  two  instruments was ensured  through use of  valid  concepts  which  measure  the  study  variables .  Content  validity  was  used  to  ensure  that  the questionnaire  was  content  valid. The content validity results were obtained and for all the constructs were above 0.7 as recommended by Sakaran (2000). The study used Means and standard deviations in order to summarize the results. The means were used because they show a summary of data and standard deviation clearly shows how well the means represent the data (Field, 2009). Hierarchical regression was used to estimate the predictive power of the predictor variable on the criterion variable in the model fit.

Findings and Discussion 

Descriptive characteristics

Table 1: Mean and Standard deviations of  the predictor and criterion Variables

	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Budgeting	356	1.75	4.00	3.23	.35
ICS	356	1.30	4.00	3.19	.27
P.Measurement	356	.82	4.00	3.21	.33
Financial Performance	356	.91	4.00	3.09	.25

Source: Primary data

The findings reveal that all mean scores of the constructs in question range between 3.09 and 3.23, with the standard deviations in the range of 0.25 to 0.35. Because of the small and minimal standard deviations compared to mean values, it is evident that the data points are close to the means and hence calculated means highly represent the observed data. In effect, the calculated means are a true reflection of reality (Garson, 2000; Field, 2006, & Saunders et al., 2007). The mean value of financial performance (3.09) is the lowest in contrast to other means .This finding coincides with the earlier assertion about the poor performance of Microfinance institutions in Uganda.

Table 2: Criterion Variables (Profitability)

Profitability
	Return on Asset(ROA)		Return on Equity(ROE)		Profit Margin
Mean	3.6540		16.9460		12.2280
Standard Deviation	.20082		.29263		1.56122
Sample Variance	.040		.086		2.437
Skewness	.466		-.274		1.472
Kurtosis	-2.284		-2.994		1.457
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.000		.000

Source: Primary data, 

The findings reveal that, MFIs ability to generate return on capital employed is quite disparate and p value is significant. And it was further revealed that MFIs do not have similar debt equity ratios in the financing mix and the return on equity for these firms is not identical. The findings reveal that there are significant differences in the levels of return on equity, return on assets, and also in profit margin levels. 

Table 3: Criterion Variables (Financial Viability)

Financial Viability
	Operational Self Sufficiency		Financial Self Sufficiency		Debt/Equity
Mean	111.2000		114.4000		4.2600
Standard Deviation	7.04982		1.81659		.424
Sample Variance	49.700		3.300		.424
Skewness	-.091		.267		.918
Kurtosis	-2.834		1.074		-.387
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.000		.000

Source: Primary data, 

The financing mix among the microfinance institutions varied widely with p value being significant. This has mainly emanated from increasing reliance of the institutions on funds being made available by donors and other funding agencies. Most of the firms are not yet dependent on equity as a source of funds in a big way.

Table 4: Criterion Variables (Portfolio Quality)

Portfolio Quality	Portfolio at Risk>30 days		Portfolio at Risk>90 days		Loan Loss rate
Mean	1.484		.9740		1.3060
Standard Deviation	.4867		.31548		.29619
Sample Variance	.237		.100		.088
Skewness	-.871		-2.229		-.422
Kurtosis	-.395		4.975		-2.879
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.002		.001

 Source: Primary data, 2012

The findings reveal that, the p value is significant in case of potential future bad debts, provision for bad debts an indicator that the Microfinance institutions are operating with differing levels of risk appetite. This means that the risk avoidance in MFIs is different

Table 5: Zero order correlation between Management Control, and Financial Performance

	Mean	Std. Deviation	ICS	Budgeting	P.Measurement	Financial Performance
ICS	3.20	.28	1
Budgeting	3.23	.36	.323**	1
P.Measurement	3.21	.33	.499**	.131*	1
Financial Performance	3.10	.25	.388**	.249**	.183**	1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level(2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level(2-tailed)

Source: Primary data

It is evident that there is a positive significant correlation between Budgeting and Internal control system (r= .323^**p< 0.05). This finding means that Efficiency in budgeting is associated with greater structural control systems. Furthermore, the findings reveal that there is a positive and significant relationship between Internal control system and performance measurement exists (r=.499^**, p< 0.05). From correlation matrix the results indicate that the relationship between budgeting and performance measurement is not significant (r= .131^*, p > 0.05).

Table 6: Correlation of MCS variable and Financial Performance

		ICS	Budgeting	Performance m	Financial performance
ICS	Pearson Correlation	1	.323**	.499**	.388**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.000	.000	.000
Budgeting	Pearson Correlation	.323**	1	.131*	.249**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000		.014	.000
P.Measurement	Pearson Correlation	.499**	.131*	1	.183**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.014		.001
Financial performance	Pearson Correlation	.388**	.249**	.183**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.000	.001
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Source: Primary

The findings revealed that appositive and significant relationship between internal control system and financial performance exist in Microfinance Institutions(r= .388^** p(.000)< 0.01.  This shows that a maintaining strong and efficient internal control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions. In a related case, the relationship between budgeting and financial performance is significant(r= .249^**, p(.000)< 0.01). This implies that efficient budgeting systems are associated with higher performance levels in Microfinance Institutions. This is because the budget systems, and processes, in an institution can influence the institution’s level of efficiency and effectiveness, which are important to every institution’s success. The findings, posit that there is a significant and positive effect of budgeting on financial performance

It is further evident that there is a significant and positive correlation between performance measurement and financial performance (r= .183^**, p (.001)< 0.01). This is a sign that a strong relationship exists between performance measurement and financial performance. This signifies that a higher Microfinance Institution’s performance measurement is associated with high performance levels. 

Table 7: Management control system & Financial Performance

	Mean	Std. Deviation	Management Control System	Financial Performance
Management Control System	3.21	.25	1
Financial Performance	3.10	.25	335**	1
	** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Source: Primary data

Results show a positive and significant relationship between management control system and financial performance. The findings further revealed that there is a strong significant relationship between the level of management control system and the degree of financial performance r = .335^{** ,}sig = 0.000 indicating a strong positive co-relation (r > 0) which indeed was big since its sig  value =0.000 < α=0.01 leading to acceptance of the hypothesis to the effect that the  level of management control system has a strong relationship with the degree of financial performance of microfinance institutions in Central region Uganda 

Model estimates 

The hypothesis was structured to ascertain the extent to which management control system can influence financial performance. This was expressed as:

      Y=a+bx 

      FPM= f(MCS)

      Y=α_o+β₁ICS₁+β₂BDGT₂+β₃PFM₃+ ₄  +µ_{…. …………}

       Where

      Y = Financial performance (proxied by Profitability, portifolio quality, financial viability)

 Key predictor of Management control system is given as 

      ICS₁ = Internal control System, BDGT₂ = Budgeting, PFM₃ = Performance Measurement

Table 8: Model Summary and estimates of the Variables

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.524a	.275	.269	.17763
a. Predictors: (Constant), P.Measurement, Budgeting, Internal control system

Table 9:Hierarchical regression with Management control system elements on financial performance

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.499a	.249	.247	.18025
2	.522b	.272	.268	.17771
3	.524c	.275	.269	.17763
a. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System
b. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System, Budgeting
c. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System, Budgeting, Performance  measurement

In the Model, the findings revealed that, internal control system accounted for 24.9 % of variance in financial performance that caused a statistically-significant standardized coefficient (B =0.381, P <0.01); In Model 2, the introduction of budgeting in the equation yielded 27% to the explanatory power of the model. This implies that budgeting accounted for an additional 2% of the variance in financial performance and caused a statistically-significant coefficient (B =0.095, p<0.01) the inclusion of performance measurement, yielded an insignificant additional 0.3% to the explanatory power of the model. This finding means that performance measurement accounted for only 0.3% of the variance in financial performance and caused a statistically insignificant coefficient (B =0.045, p >0.05)This led to the development of structural equation model and a modified frame work respectively 

Figure 2: Structural equation model

Figure 

Financial Performance

Management Control System

3: Modified Conceptual model

Profitability

Portfolio Quality

Financial Viability

ICS

Budgeting

Source: Developed by the Author-New Knowledge Generated        

The study findings revealed that performance measurement was dropped from the modified frame work, since it caused a statistically insignificant contribution on Financial Performance of Microfinance Institutions, with coefficient (B =0.045, p >0.0

The findings indicate that microfinance institutions in central region Uganda are efficient in preparing budgets and receive budget targets,and it was revealed that budgeting provides basis for control and performance evaluation because budgets act as a benchmark against which the performance of microfinance institutions is measured. The findings further revealed that the purposes of the budget are not always communicated to the stake holders of the institution and yet itis necessary in an efficient organization that all people be informed about the objectives, policies, programs, performance and expectations of the organization. This is always made possible through their participation in budgeting process

It was further revealed that those microfinance institutions in central region Uganda are efficient in performance measurement in a way that, the microfinance institutions are very efficient in resource utilization, however it was discovered that much as good performance is always received on good performance, exceptional performance is not always recognized by the microfinance institutions in central region Uganda. 

The findings further revealed that the microfinance institutions have a good and strong internal control system in that the institutions are very efficient in proper authorization for acquisitions. it was further discovered that much as most microfinance institutions in Uganda maintain debtors ledgers control accounts, they are sometimes not independently checked on a regular basis. Due to the high levels of management control system. This exhibited the existence of management control systems among the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda

The findings revealed that the microfinance institutions in Uganda have a weakness in charging interest on delinquent loans and yet loans and interest income are among the highest yielding assets of microfinance institutions because they provide the largest portion of operating revenue for most microfinance institutions in Uganda.

In terms of financial viability and portfolio quality, the findings revealed that the microfinance institutions have the ability to reach significant number of people in durable and stable manner and this shows that the microfinance institutions were highly successful in ensuring repayments although the delivery systems for loan recovery are not efficient and it was further revealed that still have challenge of not holding sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress.  

Most microfinance institutions in Uganda have and apply management control systems. However Low levels of management controls were established in Microfinance Institutions. The weak and ineffective control system is attributed to lack of implementation and close monitoring of the system. Since performance measurement is at the center of all the controls, Its weak position, has equally affected the two adversely internal control system and Budgeting

It can be seen that since the three management control elements complement each other, their combination has translated into a weak overall management control system, which has, in turn, led to adverse effects in MFIs’ financial performance in Uganda.

Since the three management control system elements complement each other, their combination has translated into a weak overall system, which has, in turn, led to adverse effects in MFIs’ financial performance. The adverse effect of weak management control system is manifested in increased operational inefficiencies that have resulted into increased operating costs and loan loss write-offs. More so, weak management control system has weakened the MFIs credit policy, which has, in turn, led to increased non-performing loans and portfolio at risk (PAR). Microfinance Institutions’ poor performance is explained by weak performance measurement that has, in turn, affected internal control system and budgeting. 

The study has addressed matters that have not been covered in the literature, more especially in the microfinance industry. The study has attempted to verify and affirm whether the theoretical assumptions are empirically supported in Microfinance Institutions. Consequently, the study has contributed to the management control debate in the field of microfinance industry in Uganda.

Though many researchers and scholars have different views on management control system elements, this study has ascertained that it is a multi-dimensional predictor encompassing management control system, budgeting and performance measurement. However, internal control system is crucial in enhancing the strength of other management control system elements. The study has, therefore, brought to light the true composition of management control system in Uganda’s Microfinance Industry.

This study further established that management control system dimensions operate in a synergic way to affect financial performance in Microfinance Institutions in Uganda. However, internal control system is the most important predictor among the three management control system dimensions in explaining performance variance. Thus, the mixed results on the contribution of individual management control system elements to financial performance have been looked at in this study.

This study has introduced a clearer understanding of the extent to which management control system influence performance in Microfinance Institutions. This can promote management efforts of Microfinance Institutions to improve performance, which can be facilitated through the appropriate management systems of leading elements of management control system combination that can foster performance in Uganda’s Microfinance Industry.

Finally, the empirical studies on the management control system in MFIs context are few in number, making this research area of special interest for exploration. 

On the basis of the study findings, and reviewed literature, the following recommendations are pertinent to the success of Ugandan microfinance institutions. MFIs should enhance controls that will ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. And this will enhance the levels of management control system

MFIs should put a lot of emphasis on internal control system since it’s a high contributor of financial performance. MFIs should hold sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress 

Managers MFIs in Uganda have to continuously re-evaluate and try different new methods of measuring performance to manage performance better. These performance measurement practices require time to succeed and the institutions need to continually re-examine the system alignment, tracking and monitoring effectiveness and modifying the system to accommodate the changing needs 

Microfinance institutions set and establish   effective control systems:  all of the financial, operational and other control systems which are carried out by internal controllers and which involve monitoring, independent evaluation and timely reporting to management levels systematically in order to ensure that all the institutions activities are performed by management levels in accordance with current policies, methods, instructions and limit 

MFIs should pay more attention to the internal effects of performance measurement systems. These effects are namely directly affected through performance measurement and drive the organizations to external effects. MFIs, should establish portfolio monitoring and control system to improve and monitor the portfolio quality and this will  improve financial performance. MFIs should find ways to reduce costs, increasing the number or size of loans disbursed, without compromising the loan portfolio, or reducing default rates

The Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Bank of Uganda, Microfinance support centre should provide a favorable platform for microfinance institutions to access financing that can enable them to set Interest rates that will not have a negative effect on the customer base. MFIs in Uganda charge relatively high interest rates this has led to lower repayment rates that negatively impacts on the institutions portfolio quality and profitability

The MFIs have to allocate more of their assets in to productive uses such as loans rather than current assets or fixed assets. MFIs should have a depth of outreach with clear market segmentation in order to improve on the sustainability the portfolio quality and the related loan loss provision. MFIs should enhance controls that will ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. MFIs should put a lot of emphasis on internal control system since it’s a high contributor of financial performance. MFIs should hold sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress 

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Dr Arthur Sunday, Dr Abanis Turyahebwa, Dr Derick Ssekajugo, Dr Mabonga Eric

Abstract

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion. Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability and not on internal control system and lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions. Failure by MFIs to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda. The study analyzed the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda and it was hypothesized that internal control system positively influences   financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. MFIs have come under spotlight for cases of poor financial performance. Lack of empirical studies to assess the impact of internal control system on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda is the motivation behind this study. Therefore, this study is important not only because it fills the gap, but also it set out to address this evident knowledge gap. The study adopted positive-phenomenological, epistemology and quantitative-qualitative methodology dimension with cross sectional and correlation designs, the unit of analysis was Microfinance Institutions registered with Association of Microfinance Institutions, and employees were the units of inquiry. Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were used to for statistical modeling

Besides, Hierarchical regression was used to test the predictive power of the variables and indicate precisely what happens to the model as different predictor variables are introduced in the model fit. This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that internal control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance. And internal control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance.  The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient internal control systems. These models can then used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda .Regardless of the existence of control systems in MFI, the results revealed that internal control systems were less efficient due to lack of close monitoring. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals  Policy makers, AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy

Key Words : Internal Control System, Financial Performance, microfinance, Institution

Introduction

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion .The microfinance movement has received enthusiasm as a poverty alleviation tool that has eventually become a self-sustaining industry. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2002). Most microfinance institutions have embraced a more business-oriented outlook and maintained their target groups of economically-active poor, in order to achieve financial sustainability (Kalyango, 2004; Baguma, 2008). The micro finance institutions in developing economies are widely growing from time to time. Various studies on different countries on the performance of the MFIs confirm this (Adongo and Stork 2005, Zeller and Meyer 2002, Meyer 2002, Robert cull et al. 2007).

Approaches used by microfinance institutions in Uganda to deliver financial services to the poor are similar to those used in other countries where microfinance institutions operate. The approach used depends on the nature and structure of the respective microfinance institution. The institutions providing microfinance services include: Tier I: formal financial institutions Comercial banks, TierII; credit institutions, Tier III; microfinance deposit taking institutions, Tier IV; Saccos (BOU Policy on MFIs 1999).

Microfinance institutions in Uganda from time and again been faced with high operating costs to provide financial services to the poor people and Small and Medium Enterprises (Micro banking Bulletin, 2002). And as such,  are unable to meet their obligations when they become due usually resulting from poor cash flow planning, failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending and micro loan portfolios  (Srinivasan, 2006 due to unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which are volatile. IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears. An enduring problem facing microfinance institutions, however, is how to attain financial sustainability (Dunford, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Woller 2000; Hollis and Sweetman, 1998; Christen et al, 1995). This problem has attracted attention of numerous researchers in recent decades and, as a result many strategies have been identified to ensure that institutions are sustainable (Randhawa and Gallardo, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Yaron, 1992). Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of management control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal control systems can alleviate disruptive performance in a business enterprise. Ledgerwood (1999) as cited by Lincolin Arsyad (2005), conceptualizes financial performance as; Financial viability (operational self-sufficiency, financial self-sufficiency) Profitability (return on assets ratio, return on business ratio, return on equity ratio) and Portfolio quality (portfolio at risk, repayment rates).  Financial performance being a critical factor in the success of microfinance Institutions, therefore, this research focused on financial performance and not social performance

Most of the studies on financial performance of microfinance institutions apply and use different methodologies as in the case of Tilahun (2009) , however this study employed a descriptive research design based on quantitative data. The researcher collected and analyzed annual reports using descriptive statistics.  A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between management control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions. 

Poor financial performance marked by deteriorating returns and portfolio quality has taken a center stage and remained unexplained in microfinance Institutions (Performance Monitoring Tool 2006/2009/). Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which tend to be more volatile (Ssewanyana 2009). According to the IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears hardly existed. Microfinance institutions in Uganda face poor cash flow problems due to changes in market interest rate and failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda (Bank of Uganda 2010/2011)

Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability (Migiri, 2002). Lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions.  Though some studies have identified ICS as a possible predictor of financial performance in different industries, there are still gaps as a result of absence of representative empirical studies that would address the issue of financial performance of microfinance institutions as a result of management control systems (PekChen, 2005).More so, theories and models apparently used to explain financial performance in firms have proved to be weak and inadequate in explaining this phenomenon. Empirical studies aimed at assessing the impact of ICS on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda are missing. Therefore, this study is important because it fills this gap of knowledge

Literature Review 

Synthesizing existing studies in the broad area of explaining financial performance of MFIs, indicate a clear dearth of studies examining multiplicative effect of various elements the predictor variable ie internal control system(control procedures, risk assessment, control environment, Monitoring and internal audit ) on  financial performance of  MFIs . (see for review

Welsh (2003), Simons (1995), Chow et al (1999), Merchant (2007), appreciate that internal   control systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers that ensure that errors and fraud are detected, safe guard company’s  assets and opine that ICS greatly influences firm performance.

Recent studies draw from the original organizational theorists (Burns & Stalker 1961, Lawrence & Lorsch 1967, Thompson 1967, Perrow 1970, Galbraith1973) to develop arguments that explain how the effectiveness of control systems  (Chenhall 2003).

Bisbe and Otley (2004), findings indicated that the application of control systems has a huge contingency effect on firm performance. However, Bisbe’s research did not discuss the importance of human effect to control system (Snell, 1992; Abernethy and Brownell, 1997; Keller, 2001; Widener, 2004)

Simon (1995), asserted  that internal control systems  have different impacts on organization performance, Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of internal control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies, Davila (2000), in his study his study findings indicated that different strategies will need different interactive use of management controls to raise firm performance.

Dexon  (2010), findings revealed that Internal Control Systems have a significant positive effect in achieving Value for Money. All the constructs of Internal Control Systems (Control environment, control activities, risk assessment) have a significant positive relationship with Value for Money in a business entity

Internal control  process reduces uncertainty and improves firm performance, Ivancevich (1976), Steers (1976), Imoisili (1989), Locke & Schweiger (1979), Mia (1989), Ezzamel (1990), Hirst & Lowy (1990) etc. Another study on control process and firm performance relationship by scholars (Merchant, 1980; Peel & Bridge, 1988; Edward, et al., 2001) and empirical results (Merchant, 1980) show that control systems enhance the accuracy the degree of information accuracy. In turn, it results in higher performance in organizations.  The increased use of comprehensive ICS practices can be assumed to result in better improved financial performance among firms (e.g. Chenhall 2003, see also discussions in Gul 1991, Gul & Chia 1994, Hoque & James 2000, Ittner et al. 1998, 1998, Scott & Tiessen 1999)

ICS acts as a driver variable in firm strategy and performance as found in Chong & Chong (1997) and Baines & Langfield-Smith (2003). Report of bank of Uganda (2002), Simon (1995), results showed that there is indeed a positive association between certain internal control practices when are used concurrently with other strategic initiatives and improvement in financial performance.  Abernethy and Brownell (1999) also discussed the interactive use of internal  control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies

The findings confirm the report findings of Armesh (2010) on the influences of internal control system on organizational performance in Malaysia, which showed that Internal Control System influences the behavior and performance of the organizational to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization s objectives.

On the other hand however, McMahon (2001) did not find any significant relationship between use of internal control practices and firm performance. Donaldson (2001) found no significant associations were between the use of comprehensive Management Control System and measures of growth in net sales and profitability. 

Additionally, McMahon & Davies (1994) and McMahon (2001) have not found any significant relationships between internal control practices and performance of businesses. Thus, the empirical results on the relationship between various dimensions of MCS and performance seem to be rather mixed

Jonathan (2005), study findings revealed that most of the microfinance institutions in Namibia are not yet financially sustainable and it was attributed to the fact that interest rates that Microfinance institutions require to break-even exceed the ceiling imposed. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in financial institutions (Srinivasan, 2006), Studies by Bontis (2002), Chong and Richardson (2006), explained similar performance trends in Portuguese. Study findings revealed that average ROA for MFIs is 3.57%. This concur with study findings of Lafourcade (2005), the findings revealed that, Africa MFIs have the lowest financial performance of ROA of 2% as compared to 7.6%-10% of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The findings are in agreement with Tilahun (2009), study findings on ‘the financial performance and sustainability of microfinance institutions in Ethiopia’; the result of the study indicates that there was a negative shift in the performance indicators particularly in the year 2009  and the gross loan portfolio has declined by 15.73% in the year 2009.

Furthermore, contrary to Chong and Richardson (2006),  study findings, McMahon (2001), did not find any significant relationship between use of control System of Australian business firms and profitability.

Furthermore, Perera et al. (1997) have also reported a respective non significant relationship in manufacturing firms. Malmi et al. (2004) likewise did not find a significant direct relationship between management practices and profitability, even though they reported an interaction effect of the practices and use of other relationship management control systems to be significant in relation to firm performance.

Both theoretical and empirical studies show that strong and efficient systems that maintain high levels of capital adequacy are important in determining financial institutions profitability. Sufian and Habibullah (2009), found out that good systems have a positive impact on bank profitability in China. This confirms Athanasoglou, et al. (2008, 2006) and Kosmidou (2008) who also finds a positive and significant effect of strong control system on bank profitability, reflecting the sound financial condition of banks.

This shows that maintaining strong and efficient internal control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions (Gramling et al. 2004; Hermanson & Rittenberg 2003; 2004

First, Reid & Smith (2000) found out those developing control  systems, especially in the areas of management and accounting applications, lead to high firm performance, Reid & Smith (2002) , Reid & Smith (2000, 2002) holds that high performers  firms  use and apply internal control systems for daily financial monitoring and for identifying important trends in key variables for their further survival.  On the other hand, Reid & Smith (2002), argue that static performers at satisfactory financial levels tend not to value control systems as much as the others. Consequently, the relationship between internal control system and firm performance seem to be U-shaped

The foregoing reviews reveal that the application of internal control system elements in any organization differ and different interactive use of internal  controls to raise firm performance. 

The level, application and interactive use of internal control system in Ugandan microfinance industry is elusive. This, therefore, caused the need for a scientific investigation on the use internal control system elements influences financial performance in Uganda’s microfinance industry. This necessitated the study to evaluate the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda

Methodology 

The study adopted a positivist quantitative paradigm with cross sectional and correlation designs. Correlation design was used to establish relationships between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs. Logical positivism quantitative designs were applied in data collection, analysis and presentation which also helped to test hypothetical deductive generalizations. The study population consisted of 36 MFIs in central region Uganda registered with AMFIU from where the sample size of 33 MFIs were determined comprising a sample of 356 which was consistent with the sample size guidelines of Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006). Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006), multistage, simple rondom sampling and purposive tequniques were used. Primary and secondary data sources were used in the study.Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were also used to for statistical modeling.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the instruments and the instruments were found to be reliable at 0.78. Content  validity of  the  two  instruments was ensured  through use of  valid  concepts  which  measure  the  study  variables .  Content  validity  was  used  to  ensure  that  the questionnaire  was  content  valid. The content validity results were obtained and for all the constructs were above 0.7 as recommended by Sakaran (2000). The study used Means and standard deviations in order to summarize the results. The means were used because they show a summary of data and standard deviation clearly shows how well the means represent the data (Field, 2009). Hierarchical regression was used to estimate the predictive power of the predictor variable on the criterion variable in the model fit.

Findings and Discussion 

Descriptive Statistics of the Predictor Variable and Criterion Variable
	N	Range	Minimum	Maximum	Mean		Std. Deviation	Variance
C. Procedure	356	2.67	1.24	3.90	3.2002	.01436	.27098	.073
C. Environment	355	3.18	.82	4.00	3.2101	.01757	.33106	.110
R. Assessment	356	2.70	1.30	4.00	3.1967	.01465	.27644	.076
Monitoring	356	2.11	1.50	3.61	2.9259	.01350	.25466	.065
I. Audit	356	2.25	1.75	4.00	3.2342	.01894	.35735	.128
F.Performance	356	2.89	.91	3.81	3.0993	.01325	.25005	.063

Source: Primary Data 2017

Results showed that internal control system among MFIs is defined in terms of the five observed variables, control procedures, control environment, risk assessment, and monitoring and internal audit. And financial performance was conceptualised in terms of Return on Assets, return on Equity, profit margin and portfolio quality. The findings indicate small and minimal standard deviations compared to mean values; it is evident that the data points are close to the means and hence calculated means highly represent the observed data. The findings revealed that standardized regression weights for the predictor variable(Internal control system), in explaining financial performance  were significant(p<0.001) signifying a strong relationship between internal control system  and financial performance  of MFIs in  central region Uganda and Zero order correlation  was applied to determine the correlation  between internal control system  and financial performance  of MFIs

Zero order correlation between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs

Variables	a	B	C	D	E	f
C. Procedure     (a)	1	1
C. Environment(b)	.131*
R. Assessment  (c)	.310**	.499**	1
Monitoring       (d)	.259**	.151**	.264**	1
I.Audit              (e)	.133*	.131*	.323**	.127*	1
F.Performance  (f)	.650**	.183**	.388**	.638**	.249**	1

	*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
	**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Hypothesis		Supported/not supported
H1: There is a positive and significant relationship between control procedure and Financial performance of MFIs          (r= 0.650, p< 0.05).		supported
H2: There is a positive and significant relationship between control environment and Financial performance of MFIs      (r= 0.183, p< 0.05).		supported
H3: There is a positive and significant relationship between risk assessment and Financial performance of MFIs                             (r= 0.388, p< 0.05).		supported
H4: There is a positive and significant relationship between monitoring and Financial performance of MFIs                                  (r= 0.638, p< 0.05).		supported
H5: There is a positive and significant relationship between internal audit and Financial performance of MFIs                           (r= 0.249, p< 0.05).		supported
H5: There is a positive and significant relationship between internal control system and Financial performance of MFIs              (r= 0.355, p< 0.05).		supported

To test the predictive power of the study variables, from the hypothesized model 

Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+ β₅X₅+e

Where Y is the Dependent Variable – Financial Performance

α = Constant

X = representing the constructs of the predictor Variable- ICS

X₁  = Control Procedure 

X₂  = Risk assessment 

X₃  = Control Environment

X₄  = Monitoring

X₅  = Internal Auditing

ß₁–₅ = Coefficients of beta 

e = error term in ascertaining the influence of individual element on Financial       performance, all the models as indicated the model fit 

Model1:          Y = α+β₁X₁+e 

Y = 1.154+0.607X₁

(t =14.201), (t=7.830), R²= 0.431, F = 83.26, DW = 1.366

Model2:          Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+e

Y = 1.470+0.536X₁+0. 250X₂

(t =13.011), (t=5.190), (t= 6.693) R²= 0.491, F = 76.07, DW = 1.366

Model 3           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+e

Y = 1.427+0.535X₁+0.264X₂+0.022X₃

(t =12.102), (t=4.6513), (t= 5.353) (t=1.671) R²= 0.492, F = 42.08, DW = 1.366

Model 4           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+e

Y = 1.474+0.452X₁+0.160X₂+0.026X₃+0.457X₄

(t =10.261), (t=3.544), (t= 4.773) (t=1.482) (t =1.875) R²= .683, F = 39.28, 

DW = 1.366

Model 5           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+ β₅X₅+e

Y = 1.295+0.450X₁+0.131X₂+0.023X₃+0.455X₄+0.061X₅

(t =9.371), (t=3.623), (t= 4.897) (t=1.495) (t =1.910), (t = 2.130) R²= .690, F = 33.66, DW = 1.366

In Model 1, Control Procedure accounts for 43.2% of variance in financial performance of MFIs (F =  83.26, P < .005) and caused a statistically-significant non-standardized coefficient (B =0. 607, P <0.05).

In Model 2, the introduction of Risk Assessment in the equation yielded an extra effect 6% to the explanatory power of the model. This clearly implies that Risk Assessment accounts for an additional 6% of the variance in financial performance. This means that a unit change in Risk Assessment leads to 6% increase in financial performance (F=76.07, p < 0.05), and caused a statistically-significant coefficient (B =0. 250, p <0.05); 

Results for Model 3 indicate that the introduction of Control Environment in the equation yielded a low significant effect of 0.1% to the explanatory power of the model. This means that Control Environment explained an additional 0.1% of the variance in financial performance (F = 42.08, P < 0.05), and caused statistically very low significant coefficient (B =0.022, p<0.05); these results indicate that Control Environment influence financial performance of MFIs but with minimal effect. 

In Model 4, the introduction of Monitoring in the equation also yielded a less significant 19.1% to the explanatory power of the model. Thus monitoring account for additional 19.1% of the variance in financial performance (F =39.28, p<0.05) and lead to statistically significant contribution in coefficient (B = 0.457, p<0.05). 

In Model 5, after the internal audit was included, a less significant additional 0.7% was yielded and added to the explanatory power of the model. These results indicate Internal audit account for only 0.7% of the variance in financial performance (F= 33.66, p < 0.05), and caused a statistically less significant coefficient (B =0.061, p <0.05). However, model 5 shows the overall explanatory power of the model to be 69%.  This clearly shows that internal control system predicts 69 % of the variance in the financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. Considering, the unstandardized coefficients, control procedures has the highest beta followed by monitoring and then risk assessment, internal audit and finally control environment. 

This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that internal control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance leading to the acceptance of the hypothesis that internal control systems are positively related with financial performance among the MFIs in central region Uganda.. And internal control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance. 

The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder and resource based view as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed that efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient internal control systems. These models can then used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals 

Policy makers, BOU, MOFEP AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy.  

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–Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Agricultural marketing is a critical component of the agricultural sector that involves various activities, processes, and systems that facilitate the movement of agricultural products from producers to consumers. It encompasses the planning, execution, and monitoring of the production, transportation, storage, and distribution of agricultural goods. Efficient agricultural marketing is essential for the growth and sustainability of the agricultural industry, as it ensures fair returns to farmers, availability of goods to consumers, and stability in prices.

Importance of Agricultural Marketing

Agricultural marketing plays a pivotal role in the agricultural value chain. Here are some of its key significance:

1. Economic Growth:

Efficient agricultural marketing contributes to the overall economic development of a country by promoting increased agricultural production and generating income for farmers and stakeholders. When farmers receive fair prices for their produce, they are incentivized to invest in better farming practices, leading to higher productivity.

2. Price Stabilization:

By balancing demand and supply, agricultural marketing helps in stabilizing the prices of agricultural products. This is achieved through effective storage, distribution, and market intelligence, which enables market players to anticipate changes in demand and supply and make informed decisions.

3. Market Access:

Agricultural marketing facilitates access to markets for farmers, allowing them to sell their produce beyond local markets. This increases market reach and creates opportunities for farmers to engage with larger markets, both domestic and international, thereby expanding their customer base.

4. Reduction of Wastage:

Efficient marketing reduces post-harvest losses by ensuring that produce reaches consumers in a timely manner. Proper storage and transportation facilities are vital components of this, minimizing spoilage and wastage of agricultural goods.

5. Consumer Satisfaction:

Agricultural marketing ensures that consumers have access to a variety of high-quality agricultural products at reasonable prices. This results in enhanced consumer satisfaction and promotes a healthier population.

Components of Agricultural Marketing

Agricultural marketing comprises several key components that work in conjunction to facilitate the smooth movement of agricultural goods in the market:

1. Market Research and Information:

This component involves the collection and analysis of data related to agricultural production, demand, prices, and consumer preferences. Accurate market information helps farmers and other stakeholders make informed decisions regarding production, pricing, and market entry.

2. Storage and Warehousing:

Proper storage and warehousing facilities are crucial for preserving the quality and value of agricultural products. Storage facilities help in reducing post-harvest losses and ensuring a continuous supply of products in the market.

3. Transportation:

Efficient transportation systems are essential for the timely and cost-effective movement of agricultural products from production centers to consumption areas. Well-maintained transportation networks, including roads, railways, and ports, are vital for the success of agricultural marketing.

4. Processing and Value Addition:

Processing and value addition involve converting raw agricultural products into more marketable and valuable forms. This adds value to the produce and creates new market opportunities, encouraging a higher price realization for farmers.

5. Market Infrastructure:

Market infrastructure includes physical facilities such as market yards, wholesale markets, cold storage facilities, and packaging centers. These infrastructures provide a platform for buyers and sellers to interact and conduct transactions efficiently.

Challenges in Agricultural Marketing

Despite its importance, agricultural marketing faces various challenges that hinder its efficiency and growth:

1. Lack of Infrastructure:

Inadequate market infrastructure, including storage facilities, transportation networks, and processing units, can limit the smooth flow of agricultural goods and increase post-harvest losses.

2. Information Asymmetry:

Uneven access to market information and lack of transparency in pricing mechanisms often result in farmers not receiving fair prices for their produce.

3. Fragmented Markets:

Fragmented markets and a lack of a unified market approach can lead to inefficient pricing and distribution, impacting both farmers and consumers.

4. Policy and Regulatory Barriers:

Complex regulations and policies can hinder market access and growth, particularly for small-scale farmers and new market entrants.

Future Prospects

To overcome these challenges and enhance agricultural marketing, various stakeholders including governments, farmers, private sector entities, and development organizations need to work collaboratively. Investing in modern infrastructure, promoting digital technologies for market information dissemination, encouraging farmer cooperatives, and reforming policies can significantly improve agricultural marketing efficiency.

Efforts should be directed towards creating an integrated and well-organized agricultural marketing system that not only benefits farmers but also ensures food security, stable prices, and economic development. By addressing the existing challenges and fostering a conducive environment for agricultural marketing, we can unlock the true potential of the agricultural sector and contribute to sustainable growth and development.

References

Agarwal, Sarika, and Shashikant Nishant Sharma. “Universal Design to Ensure Equitable Society.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 1.

Ayuba, Dauda. “Understanding the Urban Development Dynamics.” Think India Journal 26.3 (2023): 13-17.

Bhan, Suraj, and U. K. Behera. “Conservation agriculture in India–Problems, prospects and policy issues.” International Soil and Water Conservation Research 2.4 (2014): 1-12.

Dhawan, Vibha. “Water and agriculture in India.” Background paper for the South Asia expert panel during the Global Forum for Food and Agriculture. Vol. 28. 2017.

Deshpande, Tanvi. “State of agriculture in India.” PRS Legislative Research 53.8 (2017): 6-7.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, Shankar Chatterjee, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Challenges and Opportunities.” Think India Journal 26.1 (2023): 7-15.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Sustainable development strategies and approaches.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 2 (2013).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Introduction to Sociology.” New Perspectives in Sociology and Allied Fields (2016): 1.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Review of most used urban growth models.” International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET) 10.3 (2019): 397-405.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

¹Glenn I. Arbis  ²Reymon R. Dumale  ³Michel D. Galavia  ⁴Mark Kevin C. Marbani, ⁵Michelle M. Navarro, ⁶Veverlyn A. Salvador, ⁷Jet Seth Mae A. Segura

^{1 2 3 4 5 6 7}Faculty, St. Paul University Surigao

¹ ORCID: 0000-0002-8644-0298

² ORCID: 0000-0003-1159-8936

³ ORCID: 0000-0001-7368-5408

⁴ORCID: 0000-0002-8777-2577

⁵ ORCID: 0000-0003-4620-9072

⁶ ORCID: 0000-0001-5043-7313

      ⁷ORCID: 0000-0001-5817-0043    

Abstract – This study investigated the learning gaps in English 9 of the Junior high school students at St. Paul University Surigao. In this study, quantitative quasi-experimental research using a pretest-posttest design was employed. The results showed that the pre-test/post-test design is more effective in achieving the learners’ mastery of the competency given than post-test- only design. While the interventions given by the teacher for the First Quarter are effective in mastering the competencies, a significant difference is found, especially for those with low mastery levels. This indicates the need for targeted interventions to bridge the learning gaps and further develop students’ understanding of the aspects of language arts that are essential for comprehension, expression, and effective communication. The study recommends that Grade 9 students execute targeted interventions that address the identified learning gaps. These interventions should consist of more modified teaching methods and resources, effective communication between educators, administrators, parents, and communities, and continual formative assessment. By implementing these suggestions, educators can significantly improve their students’ academic performance and competency in English.  

Keywords: Learning gap, Learning gap assessment, English 9, Mastery, Performance

I. Introduction

            In modern educational systems, the assessment of learning gaps plays a vital role in identifying areas where students may require additional support and intervention. The concept of learning gaps refers to the disparities between what students have learned and what they are expected to know at a particular grade level or academic milestone. These gaps can hinder their progress and overall academic achievement if left unaddressed.

            Moreover, Integrated English 9 serves as a pivotal year in secondary education, as it builds upon the foundation laid in earlier grades and prepares students for advanced studies. It encompasses various aspects of language arts, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening, which are essential for comprehension, expression, and effective communication. 

            Understanding the root causes of these learning gaps is crucial for educators to develop targeted interventions and support systems that address the unique needs of individual students. By identifying the factors contributing to these disparities, educators can implement evidence-based strategies to minimize learning gaps and create a more inclusive and equitable learning environment.

            In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has widened the learning gap in English proficiency among students, as online learning platforms may not adequately address the needs of diverse learners (Smith, 2021). According to a study by Johnson and Brown (2022), the disruption caused by the pandemic has led to significant setbacks in English language acquisition, particularly for students from low-income backgrounds.

            In connection with this, diagnostic tests were administered at the start of each quarter at the Basic Education Department of St. Paul University Surigao. Assessments of learning gaps give teachers the ability to precisely identify students’ gaps in English knowledge. By evaluating students’ comprehension and conceptual understanding, teachers gain knowledge of the areas in which students’ struggle. The use of this data assists in the development of instructional strategies and materials that are specifically tailored to the needs of particular students or groups. Without such assessment, students with knowledge gaps might struggle and regress in comparison to their peers, preventing them from moving forward generally in English education.

             By utilizing efficient learning gap evaluation methodologies, a more inclusive and effective learning environment may be created where students can develop a solid foundation in English topics and reach their full potential. This study evaluated first-quarter students from St. Paul University Surigao’s identified learning gaps in English 9.

II. Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to determine the learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the identified learning gaps in English 9?
2. What is the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9?
3. Is there a significant difference in the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9?
4. What interventions may be proposed?

III. Hypothesis

            At 0.05 level of significance, it is hypothesized that there is no significant difference in the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9.

IV. Methodology

In this study, the researchers used a quasi-experimental research method, employing a pretest and posttest design. In this design, the dependent variable is measured once before and once after the intervention or treatment in the test is administered. The participants involved in the research study were the Grade 9 students at St. Paul University Surigao- Basic Education Department during the First Quarter of the School Year 2022-2023, the resumption of face-to-face classes after the global crisis brought by COVID-19 pandemic. Utilizing a validated test-questionnaire, the test was administered to 32 students out of 33, which comprised 97% population of the total number of participants. The test-questionnaire encompassed the learning competencies indicated for the first quarter in the English 9 level, thus, concreting and measuring the desired level of competency for each specified criterion. The participants were given intervention as specified in their least learned competencies before employing the posttest. The administration of pretest and posttest was done during the synchronous face-to-face classes of the English subject.

Pertinent to the declaration of policy enshrined in the Data Privacy Act of 2012, the researchers ensured that the data gathered should be placed with utmost confidentiality. Hence, students were informed of the essential purpose of the undertakings and its benefits. Further, the researchers’ questionnaires undergone rigorous review and validation to ensure its reliability, validity and purposefully achieve consistency of the desired outcomes.

To achieve the primary objective of having the most reliable and accurate results and findings on the learning gap analysis of the Grade 9 students in English, the researchers made use of the following statistical tools to treat and analyze the data:

Paired t-test. It is used to test the difference between a set of paired samples.

Frequency Count and Percentage Computation. These were used to determine the distribution of the correct responses of the respondents.

The collected data provided would play a crucial role in the study. In this regard, the researchers established an unbiased manner of providing the test questionnaire without having the participants know the questions to be administered to prevent inconsistencies that would have risked the data retrieved. Hence, under no circumstances should the researchers influence the participants’ answer by inappropriate interventions or disclosure of answers prior to the implementation of the pretest and posttest examinations.

V. Results and Discussions

Identified learning gaps in English 9

            Table 1 presents the identified learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023.

Table 1. Identified learning gaps in English 9

Learning Competencies	Pre-Test		Post-Test
	%	Interpretation	%	Interpretation
The learner…
EC: Identifies the use of modals in expressing permission, obligation, and prohibition	75.00%	Moving Towards Mastery	68.75%	Moving Towards Mastery
PPre-requisites:DDetermines the use of conditionals in expressing argumentsEC: uses conditionals in expressing arguments EN9G-IIe-20	31.25%	Low Mastery	57.29%	Average Mastery
EEmploys the appropriate communicative styles for various situations (intimate, casual, conversational, consultative, frozen) EN9OL-Ic	60.42%	Average Mastery	76.04%	Moving Towards Mastery

As presented in the table, this provides information on the learning competencies of a learner before and after a learning intervention. Firstly, the enabling competency identifying the use of modals in expressing permission, obligation, and prohibition got 75.00% in the pre-test and 68.75% in the post-test, both interpreted as Moving Towards Mastery. The percentage of correct responses in the post-test had a slight decrease of 6.25% compared to the pre-test. Nevertheless, the responses of the students in the competency remain as Moving Towards Mastery. 

Secondly, the pre-requisite competency determining the use of conditionals in expressing arguments and enabling competency uses conditionals in expressing arguments EN9G-IIe-20, got 31.25% in the pre-test, interpreted as Low Mastery. This was supported by the study of Jusuf et. al., 2021, states that one factor affecting the student’s performance is lack of exposure to English language. However, 57.29% in the post-test, interpreted as Average Mastery. This indicates that there is an improvement on the performance of the students.

Lastly, the competency employing the appropriate communicative styles for various situations (intimate, casual, conversational, consultative, frozen) got 60.42% in the pre-test, interpreted as Average Mastery and 76.04% in the Post-Test, interpreted as Moving Towards Mastery. This implies that there is an improvement in the percentage of correct responses of students after the intervention was conducted. 

On the whole, the learner’s performance has shown improvement in two out of the three learning competencies. They have made progress in identifying the use of modals and employing appropriate communicative styles. However, their performance in using conditionals to express arguments still needs improvement, although they have made some progress.

Pre- and Post-test Performance of the learners 

            Table 2 presents the identified learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023. 

Table 2. Identified learning gaps in English 9

Scores	f (n=32)	%
Pre-Test
Average	2	6.25
Good	18	56.25
Excellent	12	37.50
Post-Test
Good	14	43.75
Excellent	18	56.25

As presented in the table, this provides the scores and percentages of the 32 participants in the pre-test and post-test. In Pre-test, two (2) participants got 6.25%, scored Average. Eighteen (18) participants got 56.25%, scored Good. And twelve (12) got 37.50%, scored Excellent. On the other hand, in the post-test, fourteen (14) participants got 43.75, scored Good and eighteen (18) participants got 56.25%, scored Excellent. 

Overall, in the pre-test, the majority of participants (56.25%) scored Good, followed by 37.50% of participants, scored Excellent, and a small percentage (6.25%) scored Average. In the post-test, the distribution shifted slightly, with 43.75% of participants scored Good and the majority (56.25%), scored Excellent. This indicates an improvement in the overall performance of the participants between the pre-test and post-test, as there was an increase in the percentage of participants in the Excellent range and a decrease in the percentage in the Good range. However, it’s important to note that the exact improvement or change in individual scores cannot be determined from this table alone.

Table 3. Significant Difference of the Identified learning gaps in English 9

Scores	t	df	p-value	Decision
Pre-Test – Post-Test	-2.98	31	0.006	Reject Ho

Findings revealed that at 0.05 level of significance there is a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test results after giving an intervention, especially to those with low mastery levels (t (31)=-2.98, p =0.006). This means that the interventions used by the teacher are effective in mastering the competencies in the First Quarter of English 9 of the school year 2022-2023. 

According to the study by Thompson et al. (2022), the interventions implemented by the teachers were found to be effective in enhancing students’ mastery of competencies. The study reported significant improvements in student performance after the interventions were administered. This could entail a change in how they approach the students’ preferences, new instructional materials, and revised class activities. Additionally, teachers should spend more time on students who are falling behind in class, explain everything in detail, and stick to a structured lesson plan. Every student should have their needs met, and instruction should be given with more fervor, repetition, and regularity. Time should be given for students to consider what they have learned or absorbed. Teachers should implement formative assessments to track students’ performance, assess their progress, and work to close the achievement gap. They must establish standards, devise achievable objectives, be honest with the students regarding their performance, and utilize technology to advance. Furthermore, according to Johnson and Smith (2021), bridging the learning gap requires targeted interventions and instructional strategies tailored to students’ individual needs. Additionally, a study by Roberts et al. (2020) found that implementing personalized learning plans significantly improved academic outcomes for students at risk of falling behind.

                                                VI. Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn;

1. Pre-test/post-test design is more effective in achieving the learners’ mastery of the competency given than post- test- only design.
2. Interventions given by the teachers play a very important role and are efficacious in mastering the competencies of the learners.

VII. Recommendation

From the conclusions drawn, the following recommendations are given;

1. Effective communication between educators, administrators, parents, and communities is among the most crucial elements in bridging the learning gap.
2. Teachers should intensify the use of pre- test/ post-test design, injecting a variety of engagement activities/ intervention to sustain its effectiveness and eventually enhance the academic achievement of the students.
3. Students together with their parents are encouraged to collaborate and cooperate on the use of pre- test/ post- test design implemented by the teachers to track students’ performance, assess their progress, and work to close the achievement gap.

IX. References

Johnson, B., & Brown, C. (2022). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on English language learning: A case study of low-income students. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 40(3), 189-205.

Johnson, R., & Smith, S. (2021). Bridging the learning gap: Targeted interventions and instructional strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(2), 145-162.

Jusuf, S., Fatsah H., Dako, R., 2021 Students’ Performance in Speaking English (A Case Study on Students’ Poor Performance In Speaking English)

Roberts, L., Brown, K., & Davis, M. (2020). Personalized learning plans: A pathway to improved academic outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 321-335.

Smith, A. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on education: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Education and Development, 25(2), 45-60.

Thompson, A., Smith, B., & Johnson, C. (2022). Enhancing students’ mastery of competencies: Effective interventions implemented by teachers. Journal of Education, 45(3), 215-230.

LINK TO DOWNLOAD FULL PAPER

Dr. A. Kusuma

Assistant Professor,

Department Sociology, S.V. University, Tirupati.

Email: drsumasvu20@gmail.com

drsumavsu09@gmail.com

K. Chinna Veeranna

Research Scholar.

Abstract

Child labor remains a pervasive violation of human rights, drawing global attention to the welfare of children. The 20th century marked a significant turning point in the advancement of child welfare, leading to heightened awareness of children’s rights as distinct individuals. This study aims to assess the level of parental awareness regarding government welfare schemes designed to support female child laborers. Our findings reveal that 46.3% of respondents acknowledge that child labor forces children into premature adulthood, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation due to their vulnerability. Furthermore, 33.5% of respondents recognize that a sense of inferiority among child laborers stifles their courage and creativity. The creation of additional employment opportunities for unskilled and unemployed individuals in rural areas can contribute to economic growth. Implementing awareness generation programs focusing on child labor laws and involving various stakeholders such as government departments, youth associations, self-help groups (SHGs), and civil society members is crucial for reducing the prevalence of child labor.

Keywords: Child Labor, Welfare, Female Child Labor, Economic Development, Legislation, Parental Awareness

Introduction

Child labor remains a pressing concern in India, with a pronounced presence in rural areas. Although legislative measures have been introduced worldwide to restrict the employment of children below a certain age and define acceptable conditions for minors working in various professions, the effectiveness of laws designed to protect children from hazardous labor is often lacking. In many instances, children find themselves aiding family members in agricultural endeavors, working as part of contractual family labor arrangements, or participating in plantation work. Rural India witnesses a common practice of school-aged children engaging in agricultural work as part of their family responsibilities. Regrettably, the implementation of Child Labor Laws at the state and district levels has been inadequate.

This study seeks to shed light on the perspectives of parents and employers regarding child labor issues, aiming to enhance their awareness, knowledge, and understanding of the prevalence and conditions of child labor within the study area. The situation of female child laborers is especially distressing due to gender discrimination prevalent in many Indian societies. Agriculture, which contributes three-fourths of the national income and supports over 75 percent of the population for subsistence, is heavily intertwined with child labor. Poverty and the absence of social security remain primary drivers of child labor, trapping children in work that offers limited opportunities for physical, social, and mental development. Both girls and boys are ensnared in the worst forms of child labor, but societal expectations, duties, and responsibilities imposed on girls often render them more susceptible to exploitation. Addressing the issue of female child labor is a complex challenge, compounded by the fact that the labor of female children is often unacknowledged or underrepresented in formal labor statistics. The absence of quality universal education further contributes to children dropping out of school and entering the labor force, making it difficult to accurately detect the true extent of child labor.

Welfare schemes for female child labor are essential in combating this pervasive violation of human rights. Child welfare has garnered global attention, particularly in the 20th century, with growing awareness of children’s rights as independent entities. Article 18 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 emphasizes the need to protect children from economic exploitation and hazardous work that interferes with their education, health, or overall development. The International Labor Organization (ILO) also opposes child labor, particularly in situations where children face educational and social disadvantages or work in exploitative conditions harmful to their well-being.

The Indian Government recognizes child labor because of poverty and has taken steps to address it through legislative measures. In 1986, the 

Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was enacted, replacing the Employment of Children Act of 1938. While the 1986 Act does not completely ban child labor, it focuses on “projecting” working children. The government has established unique schools to rehabilitate children engaged in dangerous or hazardous occupations, offering them education, vocational training, monthly stipends, and nutrition and health services.

The commitment of the Government of India to eradicate child labor is enshrined in the Constitution, which provides for the protection of children from engaging in economic activities unsuitable for their age. The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution reinforce this commitment. The Central Labor Service (CLS), established in 1987, aims to improve industrial relations, labor welfare, and the enforcement of labor laws. Various schemes offering medical, housing, educational, recreational, water supply, and family welfare benefits are implemented for workers as part of the government’s ongoing efforts to safeguard the welfare of children and laborers.

Material and Methodology

Objectives

The present study broadly aims at studying the socio-economic and social participation, employment support and knowledge on welfare schemes available to female child labors. The following are the main objectives of the present study:

• To study the level of knowledge on welfare schemes provided by the Government for girl child labor. 
• To study the level of knowledge on girl child rights
• To examine the economic and social conditions of female child labor in the sample district. 

  Sample design and study area

The researcher has purposively selected the Kurnool district due to its proximity and familiarity. Stratified random sampling method was used in selection of study sample. The study has conducted in six Mandal’s of three revenue divisions of the Kurnool district. Four villages from each Mandal were selected. 20 respondents each were selected at random in 24 villages and the total sample is comprises of 480 female child labor residing in agricultural families in the Kurnool district for the present study.  

 Results

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the respondents

A study of the background characteristics of sampled population is an important task in the study. Several studies have been shown that there is a strong relationship between socio-economic status and Girl Child Labor in Agriculture Families. 

Table No.1: Percentage Distribution of the respondents by their Socio-Demographic Characteristics (N=480)

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the respondents	Frequency	Percent
Age of the Respondent
5-8 Year	47		9.8
9-11 Years	115		24.0
12-14 Years	318		66.2
Religion
Hindu	242		50.4
Muslim	59		12.3
Christian	146		30.4
Others	33		6.9
Education
pre-school	137		28.5
Primary	98		20.4
Upper-Primary	177		36.9
High School	68		14.2
Work Experience (Years)
≤ 2 Years	151		31.5
2- 4Years	223		46.5
≥ 4 Years	106		22.1
Girl Child Income
≤ 5000	16		3.3
5001 and above	464		96.7
Source of Family Income
Agriculture	177		36.9
Allied Labor	155		32.3
Business	45		9.4
Others	103		21.5

  Age plays an important role in measuring the respondent’s perception on their present working condition. Data has been collected on the girls who involved in the agriculture labor to analyze the girl’s working condition in the agriculture field. In the study area nearly two-thirds (66.3 %) of the respondents were in 12-14 years age group. One-fourth (24.0 %) of them were in 9-11 years and the remaining (9.8 %) were in the age group of 5-9 years. One half (50.4 %) of the respondents were Hindus, less than one-third (30.4 %) of them were Christians, 12.3 percent were Muslims and 6.9 percent belong to other religions. It is observed from the above table that more than one third (36.9 %) of the respondents have completed upper-primary education in the study area. More than one-fourth (28.5%) the girls had pre-school education and two-fifth (20.4 %) had primary education and 14.2 percent of the respondents had high school education. More than two-fourth (46.5 %) of the respondents were having ≤ 2 years of experience in the agriculture field, less than one-third (31.5 %) of them were working experience of 2-4 years and more than one-fifth (22.1 %) of them were working 4 years and above in the agriculture field. Almost all (96.7 %) of the respondents were getting a monthly income Rs. 5000 and above the study area. More than one-third (36.9 %) of the respondents’ parents were having agriculture background, followed by allied labor (32.3%) and other types of activities (21.5 %). 

The data was collected on parents opinion on child labor, sociological and economical aspects of the girl child labors in agricultural families namely on 1) fulfillment of social obligation 2) prone to habits like smoking, gambling and extravagancy 3) loss of potential intellectuals and thinkers in 4) prone to exploitation 5) violation of human rights 6) enforcement of laws 7) punishment under child labor laws 8) parents knowledge on girl child welfare schemes etc.

Table No. 3: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents opinion on Sociological and economical aspects of female child labor

Sociological aspects		Agree	Disagree	Un-Decided	Total
GCs need proper nurture and nourishment to make them best fits in future life	N	355	71	54	480
	P	74	14.8	11.3	100
CL has no rationale as it is the decision of the parent who are second to none as well wishes of children	N	256	160	64	480
	P	53.3	33.3	13.3	100
CL is not unethical rather fulfillment of social obligation by employers towards poor of whom government fails to take care of	N	199	173	108	480
	P	41.5	36	22.5	100
CL keeps children away from education and breeds illiteracy in a society	N	209	187	84	480
	P	43.5	39	17.5	100
Working children are prone to the habits of smoking, gambling, and extravagancy	N	209	200	71	480
	P	43.5	41.7	14.8	100
Child labor compels children to lead pre-mature adults’ lives	N	222	161	97	480
	P	46.3	33.5	20.2	100
CL has high opportunity cost as it leads to loss of potential intellectuals and thinkers	N	225	188	67	480
	P	46.9	39.2	14	100
Inferiority complex suppresses courage and creativity of children	N	161	95	224	480
	P	33.5	19.8	46.7	100
Children as workers are prone to exploitation by reason of their docility	N	164	157	159	480
	P	34.2	32.7	33.1	100
Child labor is an off school of poverty which is the result of unequal distribution of wealth	N	288	141	51	480
	P	60	29.4	106	100

In the table no.3 shows that 33.5 percent of the respondents agreed that inferiority complex among the children will suppress their courage and creativity. 46.3% of the respondents agreed that child labor compels children to lead premature adults and there is a chance to exploit by reason of their docility. 43.5 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor leads to children keep away from education and breeds illiteracy in society. 46.9 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor is one of the opportunities to forego the potential intellectuals and thinkers of nation. Nearly three-fifth (60 %) of the respondent’s parents opinioned that unequal distribution of wealth is one of the reasons for child labor as it leads to more dropouts. Nearly three-fourth (74 %) of the parents agreed that girl child require proper nurture and nourishment to make them best fits in future life.

Table No 4: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents opinion on Sociological and economical aspects of female child labor 

Knowledge on Legal aspects		Agree	Disagree	Un-Decided	Total
Employing CL is a violation of human rights	N	235	211	34	480
	P	49	44	7.1	100
Employment of children in hazardous work is a crime	N	201	200	79	480
	P	41.9	41.7	16.5	100
Child labor is a moral crime against humanity	N	217	183	80	480
	P	45.2	38.1	16.7	100
Hazardous nature of job coupled with excessive workload and long hours of work are so heinous crime	N	138	226	116	480
	P	28.8	47.1	24.2	100
Child labor is a punishment to tender hands for no fault of theirs	N	111	267	102	480
	P	23.1	55.6	21.3	100
CL laws fail as these are unacceptable to people with unsound financial position	N	148	251	81	480
	P	30.8	52.3	16.9	100
Weak enforcement of laws leads to child labor with impunity	N	141	209	130	480
	P	29.4	43.5	27.1	100
The parents of child workers shall be booked under the relevant laws	N	144	166	170	480
	P	30	34.6	35.4	100
Child labor shall be completely banned in all aspects	N	202	205	73	480
	P	42.1	42.7	15.2	100
The employers of CL shall be dealt with stringent punitive measures	N	136	243	101	480
	P	28.3	50.6	21	100
Enforcement of child labor laws shall be strictly observed	N	155	275	50	480
	P	32.3	57.3	10.4	100
Child labor is subject to punishment under child labor laws.	N	167	112	201	480
	P	34.8	23.3	41.9	100

In this study an attempt is made to assess the parents’ opinion on the sociological and economical aspect of the child labors related aspects. Nearly one-half (49 %) of the respondent’s agreed that working as a child labor is violation of human rights. 45.2 percent of respondents accepted that child labor is moral crime against humanity and 41.9 percent of the respondents agreed that employment of child in hazardous work is crime and 28.8 percent of respondent’s expressed that excessive workload and long hours of work in hazardous Work is heinous crime.  Only one-third (29.4 %) of the parents were having knowledge on child labor laws as they expressed that the Child labor laws are failed in implementation and weak enforcement of law were the causes of child labor.  Nearly one-third (32.3 %) of parents expressed that they have observed strict enforcement of child labor laws. 30% of the respondents were agreed that parents of the child labor should be punished under the child labor laws. More than one-third (34.8 %) of the respondents were aware that child labor is subject punishment under child labor laws. 42.1 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor shall be banned in all aspects. It is interesting to note that more than two-fifth (41.5 %) of the parents agreed that child labor is not an unethical and the employers of the child labor were giving an opportunity to get the financial source for those who are neglected by the governments. 

The findings from the above table shows that majority of the parents were aware of the ill effects of the child labor and the laws and functioning of law enforcement authorities related to child labor. 

Parent’s knowledge on various welfare schemes implemented by the government to avoid Child Labor is presented in the table no. 5. Cent percent of the respondents (100 %) in the study area agreed that free education for girls up to higher education will help to eradicate the child labor.  Higher proportion (85 %) of the respondent’s expressed that Balika Sam Rakshana scheme is very useful to balance sex ratio and prevent gender discrimination and the scheme is also encouraging employment skills, opportunities and creates awareness on health and family life education to girl Child.  More than one-half (51.7 %) of the respondents felt that Apana Beti Apne desh scheme is providing rehabilitation services for those who were rescued from child labor and brothel home. Similar percentage (62.5 %) of the respondents agreed that strict implementation of prenatal diagnostic technique act helps in reducing female feticides and the gender discrimination. The girl child agreed that implementing the constitutional provisions and human rights for girl child reduces gender discrimination (60 %) and welfare measures are sufficient to improve the girl child status provided by the government and non-government organizations (60.2 %). More than one-half (52.5 %) of the respondents agreed that national policy for children and legal enactment facilitates the development of girl child.

     Table No. 5: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents knowledge on welfare schemes for female child labor

Parents knowledge on welfare schemes		Agree	Disagree	Total
Free education for girls up to degree level is very beneficial for girl education	N	480	0	480
	P	100	0.0	100.0
Balika samrakshna pathakam is very useful to balance sex ratio and prevent gender discrimination	N	408	72	480
	P	85	15	100
The KB scheme is encouraging employment skills, opportunities, and health awareness of girl children	N	290	190	480
	P	60.4	39.6	100
KB scheme is providing awareness on family life education to girl children	N	290	190	480
	P	60.4	39.6	100.0
ABAD programmer is very useful to rehabilitate the girls who are rescued from CL and brothel home	N	248	232	480
	P	51.7	48.3	100.0
Strict implementation of pre –natal diagnostic technique Act, 1994 helps in reducing female feticides	N	300	180	480
	P	62.5	37.5	100.0
Constitutional provision and human rights for GC reduces gender discrimination	N	288	192	480
	P	60	40	100.0
National policy for children and legal enactments facilitates development of GC	N	252	228	480
	P	52.5	47.5	100.0
The present welfare measures taken by govt; NGOs are sufficient to improve the girl child status	N	289	191	480
	P	60.2	39.8	100.0

Conclusion

Equality of opportunities is the foundation of modern welfare states.  The crucial role that education can play in the reduction of girl child labor and improvement in the economic wellbeing of individuals can go a long way in achieving such ends.  In India, poverty remains the key determinant of children not being sent to school. Most of the parents are not able to afford to send them to school. The path to progress in terms reducing the number of girl child laborer’s by taking into consideration the cultural and economic measures, their future will continue to remain bleak.  The study suggests that promotions of non-agricultural economic activities like micro and small industries and self-employment with the support of SHG groups (Women Groups) are the best alternatives to improve employment and income generation for the rural poor. Creation of more employment opportunities to the unskilled Unemployed will help to economic growth in rural areas. Through awareness generation programmes related to the Child Labor Laws with involvement of convergent departments, youth associations, SHGs, Civil Society members will be helping to   decrease the number of child labors. Educate the parents of girl child on importance of sufficient nutritious food and proper education for the growth of girl child and its impact on future generations.

Reference

1. Asha Bajpai, (2011). Child Rights in India: Law, Policy, and Practice. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
2. B. Jaya Surian and D. Vezhavendan (2018). An Empirical Study on the Status of Child Labor before and after the Implementation of National Child Labor Project Scheme in India. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol: 119, No. 17, 247-267; ISSN: 1314-3395.
3. ILO (2010). Accelerating action against child labor – Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. 
4. Kumar Das and Sarojini Mishra (2005). Economic exploitation of girl child labor in India. Ahfad Journal, Vol. 22, Issue 2, Publisher: Ahfad University for Women
5. M. Swaminathan (1998). “Economic growth and the persistence of child labor: evidence from an Indian city”.  World Development, vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 1513–1528.
6. Pramod Kumar Agarwal, Dr. Anil Chandra Pathak (2015). A Socio – Economic Analysis of Child Labor in India. Lakshya: Journal of Science & Management (LJSM) – Volume -1, Issue-1.
7. Rupinder Singh (2019). Child Labor In India: A Legal Study, International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, Vol: 6, Iss: 1. 
8. Sanjay Mohapatra and Manusmita Desh  (2011). “Child Labor”- A Product of Socio-Economic Problem for India, Findings and Preventives- A Case of Bhubaneswar (A State Capital of India). International Research Journals, (ISSN: 2141-5161) Vol. 2(6) pp. 1199-1209. http://www.interesjournals.org/ER&nbsp;
9. Srikanth Bolla (2010). Child Labor in India. http://web.mit.edu/angles/2010_Srikanth_Bolla.html
10. UNICEF (2021). Child Labor and Exploitation, UNICEF main web page, https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/child-labour-exploitation
11. Vineet J Samuel. (2018) Child Labor & Child Rights in India: Myth or Reality, Economic Justice.  https://www.oxfamindia.org/blog/child-labour-india
12. World Day Against Child Labor (2020). Preventing child labor in agriculture during COVID-19 and beyond. News and Press Release Source FAO, Posted 12 Jun 2020.
13. Y. Janardhana Reddy (2020). An Analytical Study of Child Labor in India. Vol-15-Issue-4.https://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/WCMS_172261/lang-en/index.htm
14. Rupinder Singh (2019). Child Labor in India: A Legal Study. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, Vol: 6, Iss: 1.

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–Shashikant Nishant Sharma

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) is a revolutionary government program in India aimed at providing livelihood security to rural households and enhancing their overall well-being. Enacted in 2005, it is named after Mahatma Gandhi, an iconic figure in India’s struggle for independence and a proponent of social and economic equality.

Introduction

MGNREGS is an ambitious initiative designed to address the issues of poverty and unemployment prevailing in rural areas of India. It guarantees 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to every rural household willing to do unskilled manual work. The program’s core objectives include generating sustainable employment, fostering social inclusion, and catalyzing rural development.

Historical Context

In the early 2000s, India faced a significant challenge of rural poverty and distress migration due to lack of employment opportunities in the rural sector. The need to address this crisis led to the inception of MGNREGS. The scheme was implemented on a pilot basis in 200 of the country’s poorest districts in April 200 districts. It was later extended to cover the entire nation.

Key Objectives

1. Employment Generation: MGNREGS aims to create a demand-driven employment model, providing livelihoods to rural households and uplifting their economic status.
2. Inclusive Growth: The program is committed to ensuring equal participation and benefits for women, Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other marginalized sections of society.
3. Asset Creation: MGNREGS focuses on creating durable assets like roads, water conservation structures, irrigation facilities, and rural infrastructure, contributing to long-term development.
4. Sustainable Rural Development: By focusing on employment, asset creation, and skill development, the scheme seeks to catalyze holistic rural development, promoting sustainability and self-sufficiency.

Implementation and Operations

The Ministry of Rural Development oversees the implementation of MGNREGS at the national level. The responsibility for implementation is shared between the central and state governments. The funds for the scheme are shared in a 60:40 ratio between the central and state governments, except in the case of northeastern states and hilly states where the ratio is 90:10.

The Gram Panchayats (village councils) play a pivotal role in implementing the scheme at the grassroots level. They are responsible for planning, executing, and monitoring projects under MGNREGS, ensuring transparency and accountability.

The successful implementation and effective operations of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) are vital for ensuring that its objectives are met and rural households benefit from its provisions. The scheme is designed to be implemented in a decentralized and participatory manner, involving multiple stakeholders at various levels.

Centralized Oversight and Funding Allocation

At the national level, the Ministry of Rural Development holds the responsibility of overseeing the implementation of MGNREGS. This involves formulating policies, guidelines, and monitoring the overall progress of the program. The central government plays a crucial role in allocating funds for the scheme. The funding allocation is divided between the central and state governments in a specified ratio, typically 60:40. However, in the case of northeastern states and hilly states, the ratio is 90:10. This allocation is crucial in ensuring the financial sustainability of the scheme and its widespread implementation across the country.

State and District-Level Implementation

Once the funds are allocated, the state governments take charge of implementing MGNREGS within their respective states. They have the responsibility of designing state-specific operational guidelines while adhering to the overall framework provided by the central government. The state governments ensure that the program is effectively executed in various districts within their jurisdiction.

At the district level, the District Programme Coordinator (DPC), usually the District Collector or District Magistrate, is appointed to oversee the implementation of MGNREGS. The DPC is responsible for coordinating with various stakeholders, monitoring the progress of works, resolving disputes, and ensuring compliance with the scheme’s guidelines.

Role of Gram Panchayats

The Gram Panchayats, or village councils, play a pivotal role in the successful execution of MGNREGS. They are the primary units for implementing the scheme at the grassroots level. Here’s an elaboration on their roles:

1. Planning: Gram Panchayats are responsible for identifying and prioritizing projects that align with the needs and demands of the local community. This participatory planning ensures that the projects are relevant and beneficial to the rural population.
2. Execution: Once the projects are identified, the Gram Panchayats oversee the execution of the works. They ensure that the projects are carried out according to the approved plans and within the stipulated time frame.
3. Monitoring and Evaluation: The Gram Panchayats are also responsible for monitoring the progress of ongoing projects. They ensure that the work is being done as per the prescribed standards and quality. Additionally, they evaluate the impact of the projects on the community and the environment.
4. Transparency and Accountability: Gram Panchayats are instrumental in promoting transparency and accountability in the implementation of MGNREGS. They ensure that all information related to the scheme, including employment provided, wages paid, and works undertaken, is made accessible to the public.

By involving Gram Panchayats, MGNREGS fosters local ownership and empowers communities to actively participate in decision-making processes, aligning with the spirit of decentralization and community involvement.

Addressing Challenges and Enhancing Implementation

Efforts to enhance the implementation of MGNREGS include the integration of technology to streamline processes, reduce delays, and improve transparency. Digital platforms are used to track project progress, maintain records of workers and wages, and facilitate efficient fund flow and payment systems. Additionally, capacity building and training programs are conducted to ensure that stakeholders at all levels are well-equipped to execute the scheme effectively.

In conclusion, a well-structured and decentralized implementation approach, with active involvement of Gram Panchayats, is crucial to the success of MGNREGS. By addressing challenges and leveraging technology, the scheme can continue to positively impact the lives of millions of rural households by providing employment and creating assets that contribute to sustainable rural development.

Achievements and Impact

Over the years, MGNREGS has made a substantial impact on the lives of millions of rural households across India. Some of the notable achievements and impacts include:

1. Employment Generation: The scheme has generated millions of days of employment, providing a steady source of income to rural households.
2. Asset Creation: Significant assets like roads, ponds, check dams, and rural infrastructure have been developed, improving the quality of life and agricultural productivity.
3. Social Inclusion: MGNREGS has contributed to social inclusion by empowering marginalized sections, particularly women, through financial independence and skill development.
4. Poverty Alleviation: The program has played a vital role in reducing poverty and distress migration in rural areas, enhancing overall economic well-being.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite its successes, MGNREGS faces challenges such as delayed payments, corruption, and uneven implementation across states. Future prospects involve leveraging technology for better monitoring, addressing existing gaps, and strengthening the scheme to maximize its potential impact.

In conclusion, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is a beacon of hope for millions of rural Indians, providing them with livelihood security, empowering marginalized sections, and contributing to sustainable rural development. With continuous improvements and effective implementation, MGNREGS can further elevate the living standards of the rural population and pave the way for a prosperous and equitable India.

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) has undoubtedly made significant strides in addressing rural poverty and unemployment. However, like any ambitious program, it faces several challenges that need to be addressed to ensure its continued success. Additionally, exploring innovations and understanding future prospects are crucial for the sustained impact and enhancement of the scheme.

Challenges

1. Delayed Payments: One of the major challenges faced by MGNREGS is the delay in wage payments to the workers. Timely payment is crucial for workers, especially those from economically vulnerable backgrounds, to meet their daily needs.
2. Corruption and Leakages: Instances of corruption, fund mismanagement, and leakages in the system have been reported in various regions. This compromises the intended benefits of the program and undermines its efficiency.
3. Uneven Implementation: The implementation of MGNREGS varies across states and regions. Some states have been more successful in achieving the program’s objectives, while others struggle due to a lack of resources, administrative capacity, or political will.
4. Limited Skill Development: While MGNREGS provides employment, it mainly focuses on unskilled labor. A future challenge lies in integrating skill development and training to enhance the employability of workers in different sectors beyond manual labor.

Innovations and Solutions

1. Digital Integration and Aadhaar Linkage: Leveraging digital technology and linking MGNREGS with Aadhaar (India’s unique identification system) can streamline payments, reduce delays, and minimize corruption by ensuring that funds reach the intended beneficiaries directly.
2. Geospatial Technology for Project Selection and Monitoring: Utilizing geospatial technology to identify suitable projects and monitor progress can enhance the efficiency and impact of MGNREGS. This can help in optimal project selection based on local needs and environmental factors.
3. Strengthening Social Audits: Empowering local communities and civil society to conduct regular social audits can improve transparency, enhance accountability, and reduce instances of corruption by involving stakeholders in the monitoring process.
4. Multi-Sectoral Skill Development: Integrating skill development components into MGNREGS can empower workers by providing them with a diversified skill set, enabling them to explore a broader range of job opportunities and improving their long-term livelihood prospects.

Future Prospects

1. Enhanced Rural Livelihoods: With continued improvements and effective implementation, MGNREGS can elevate rural livelihoods by providing a stable income source and promoting sustainable rural development through asset creation.
2. Poverty Reduction and Social Inclusion: By addressing the challenges and leveraging technology, MGNREGS can play a significant role in poverty reduction and social inclusion, particularly for marginalized communities and women.
3. Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Future prospects involve integrating climate-resilient infrastructure projects into MGNREGS to promote environmental sustainability and mitigate the impact of climate change in rural areas.
4. Policy Reforms and Resource Allocation: Continuous policy reforms and adequate resource allocation will be vital to address existing gaps, strengthen the scheme, and ensure that MGNREGS remains relevant and impactful in changing socio-economic dynamics.

In conclusion, MGNREGS has indeed emerged as a beacon of hope for millions of rural Indians, offering livelihood security and fostering sustainable development. Addressing challenges through innovative solutions and harnessing technology can maximize its potential impact, leading to a prosperous and equitable India where rural communities thrive.

References

Carswell, Grace, and Geert De Neve. “MGNREGA in Tamil Nadu: A story of success and transformation?.” Journal of Agrarian Change 14.4 (2014): 564-585.

Esteves, Tashina, et al. “Agricultural and livelihood vulnerability reduction through the MGNREGA.” Economic and Political Weekly (2013): 94-103.

Ranaware, Krushna, et al. “MGNREGA works and their impacts: A study of Maharashtra.” Economic and Political Weekly (2015): 53-61.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, Shankar Chatterjee, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Challenges and Opportunities.” Think India Journal 26.1 (2023): 7-15.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

Sharma, S. N. (2013). Sustainable development strategies and approaches. International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR), 2.

Vinita, Arora, Luxmi Rani Kulshreshtha, and Vrajaindra Upadhyay. “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: a unique scheme for Indian rural women.” International Journal of Economic Practices and Theories 3.2 (2013): 108-114.

¹*Fawziah Zayed Eid Almutairi,²Nasier Abdullah Nasier Al-Degashiem,³Zainah Turki Alqahtani,⁴Sarah Shouib Alrashedi,⁵Mariam Saud Awadhah Almoteri, ⁶Laila Mashawi Hawas Ghazwani, ⁷Abdulrahman Meshal Dakhelallah Almutairi, ⁸Fathia Ahmed Saad Alshehri.

^1*Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA) (e-mail: fof0-2030@hotmail.com ).

²Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), e-mail: nad1425@hotmail.com .

³Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), e-mail: (zalghtani@moh.gov.sa  )

⁴Nursing Technicians RN, King Faisal Primary Health Care Centre Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA),  Email: sashalrashedi@moh.gov.sa

  ⁵Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), e-mail:Umshaher1440@hotmail.com

⁶Technician-Nursing, RN, Nurse at Alsadah primary health care center Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), Email: rorooo201395@gmail.com   

⁷Nurse Specialist, Eradah, Complex for Mental Health-Riyah Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), (e-mail: aalmutairi356@moh.gov.sa).

⁸Nursing Specialist RN, Nurse at school health, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) (e-mail: fatooo1111@hotmail.com .

Abstract

 Background: Non psychiatric nurses care for hospital patients with
behavioral health conditions.. 

Objectives:  The current study aimed to assess practice towards Psychiatric, Patients with Aggressive Behaviors at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals.

 Materials and methods:    

Descriptive cross sectional hospital based design was used to conduct this study at a Psychiatric Hospital in Khartoum. The target population consisted of 60 nurses employed at the Khartoum Psychiatric Hospital. Structured questionnaires were distributed to the participants for data collection.  Data analysis was done using a Statistical Package for Social Science, version 24, and nominal as well as ordinal data was analyzed using descriptive analysis.  

Results:  The study showed that the overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior was found good among 71.5% and poor among 28.5%. There was association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and age group<0.05.

Conclusion:    Nurses has overall adequate practice towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. While the age was significantly influence the practice of nurse towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. Future studies with large sample size will be recommends.

  Keywords: practice , Psychiatric, Khartoum psychotic hospital

1. Introduction:

Aggression is a serious problem on psychiatric wards and has large consequences for patients as well as staff working in mental healthcare: aggressive behavior is an important reason to seclude or restrain a patient (Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2003), but, according to patients, this feels as being controlled and punished with no therapeutic value (Meehan et al., 2004).  Health care workers experience feelings of anger, anxiety and guilt after an aggressive incident (Needham et al.,2005)  and higher levels of burn-out (de Looff et al., 2019).  Development and expression of aggression is generally explained as multifactorial: being environment-related (design of the ward, privacy, locked doors, ambiance, noise level, overstimulation), mental health care-system related (regional policy, hospital policy, ward rules, attitude towards patients, cultural factors), patient-related (demographics, cognitive and emotional state, malevolence, pathology) and clinician-related (degree of communication, de-escalation skills, attitudes towards aggression, clinicians’ stress level) (Cutcliffe et al., 2013). Previous reviews on aggression on psychiatric wards were mainly focused on patient-related factors e.g. isolation of high-risk patients who were prone to develop aggression (Cornaggia et al., 2011). From a prevention perspective, ward and staff factors provide an interesting avenue for prevention of aggression, while treatment of the psychiatric illness is the only patient factor that reduces the risk of aggression development (Hamrin et al., 2009).  Nevertheless it remains unclear how the various factors that explain aggression development interact with each other. The term aggression is ambiguous: multiple interpretations have been found, and it is often used interchangeably with agitation and violence. Agitation is defined in the DSM-5 as “a state of excessive psychomotor activity accompanied by increased tension and irritability” resulting in non-productive and repetitious behaviour” (Garriga et al., 2016).  Generally it is seen as the precursor of aggression (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2008).  The WHO defines aggression and violence as the same principal: “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation” (Krug et al., 2002).  The British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines define aggression as: “a range of behaviours or actions that can result in harm, hurt or injury to another person, regardless of whether the violence or aggression is physically or verbally expressed, physical harm is sustained or the intention is clear” (National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, 2015).  In these definitions agitation, aggression and violence can be understood as a continuum of severity, where agitation evolves into aggression and ultimately into violence. Violence differs from aggression by the severity and intentionality of the behaviour. The vast amount of literature on aggression may reflect that the topic is important and of interest. Reviews on violence on the emergency ward (Stowell et al., 2016) , aggression in forensic settings (Gadon et al., 2006)  and on interventions to reduce seclusion and restraint (Steinert et al., 2010) have been published earlier. Reviews on the development of aggression in psychiatric hospitals have also been performed before, but they focussed on a single part of aggression development, such as patient factors (Cornaggia et al., 2011) and staff and ward factors that may contribute to aggression development were left out.  The present study aimed to assess practice towards Psychiatric Patients with an Aggressive Behaviors at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

The study design was a quantitative descriptive cross sectional hospital study. 

STUDY AREA

This study was conducted in   Khartoum psychotic hospital.

 The population chosen for this study includes registered nurses as well as nursing unit managers working in Khartoum psychiatric hospital. 

1. SELECTION CRITERIA

1.2.4.1. Inclusion criteria:

The inclusion criteria for those eligible for the study was include male and female registered nurses and nursing unit managers who have worked in Khartoum psychiatric hospital. .  

1.2.4.2. Exclusion criteria:

Those who were not agree to participate in the study and those who are not found at the time of data collection.

1. SAMPLE SIZE AND   SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The sample size was taken conviencely as 60 nursing in Khartoum psychiatric hospital.

 1.2.5.6. DATA COLLECTION

 Data collection is the precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the
research purpose or the specific objectives (Polit and Beck ,2008). According to Polit and Beck (2008), a data collection plan for quantitative studies should yield accurate, valid and meaningful data that are maximally effective in answering research questions. The researcher used a self-designed, structured questionnaire, consisting of 30 closed ended questions, to collect data. Brink et al. (2012) define questionnaires as a self-report instrument where the participants respond to given questions. The questionnaire was developed by the researcher.

  1.2.5.8. Data analysis:

Descriptive statistics are used to describe and synthesize data. This helps to set the stage for the understanding of quantitative research evidence (Polit and  Beck, 2012). The data was arranged into frequency distribution that is described by Polit and  Beck (2012) as a systematic arrangement of values from the lowest to the highest value, together with the number of times each value was obtained. 

1. Study findings:

  Fig.1: Distribution of nurses according to gender (n=60)

  Fig.2: Distribution of nurses according to age group (n=60)

      Fig.3: Distribution of nurses according to years of experience (n=60)

      Fig.4: Distribution of nurses by education level (n=60)

      Fig.5: Distribution of nurses by type of aggression (n=60)

    Table 1: Overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals

Practice	Good		Poor
	No.	%	No.	%
I can communicate effectively with clients with a mental health problem	35	58.3	25	41.7
I can carry out a comprehensive psychosocial assessment of clients	49	81.7	11	18.3
I can conduct a mental status examination	50	83.3	10	16.7
I can develop a nursing care plan on the basis of my assessment	42	70.0	18	30.0
I can assist clients with a mental illness to clarify treatment goals	51	85.0	9	15.0
I am able to provide basic counseling for clients with a mental illness	36	60.0	24	40.0
I am able to be empathic with clients with a mental illness	50	83.3	10	16.7
I can provide information and education for clients regarding their diagnosis	43	71.7	17	28.3
I am able to assist clients to develop living skills	45	75.0	15	25.0
I have a basic knowledge of antipsychotic medications and their side effects	34	56.7	26	43.3
I am able to provide client education regarding the effects and side effects of medications	45	75.0	15	25.0
I can conduct a suicide risk assessment	35	58.3	25	41.7
Overall practice	515	71.5	205	28.5

                      Mean score =  Mean± SE= 19.2 ±  (.3)

Table 2: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and age group

Age	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
<35	17.5882	.51492
36-40	19.5000	.65192
41-55	20.2857	.70655
>55	19.6923	.77942
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	3.385
P-value	.024*

*P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

Table 3: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and gender

Gender	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
Male	19.6316	.65877
Female	18.9756	.40648
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	.773
P-value	.383

   *P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

Table 4: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and years of nursing experience

Years of nursing experience	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
1-5	19.8750	.70637
6-10	19.3333	.62234
11-15	18.8125	.66595
<15	18.0000	.61721
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	.928
P-value	.433

*P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

Table 5: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and education level

Education	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
Registered nurse	19.7647	.67807
Bachelor of Science in	19.3889	.67223
Diploma	18.1538	.71474
Master of Science in nursing	19.1000	.73711
PhD in nursing Science	19.5000	2.50000
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	.699
P-value	.0051*

*P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

1. DISCUSSION:

  This study aimed to assess practice towards psychiatric patients with an Aggressive Behaviors at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals. The study showed that the overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior was found good among 71.5% and poor among 28.5%. Comparable findings i.e.  research by Menzies (1959, Republished in 1988) on nurses in general hospitals with physically ill patients, indicated that these nurses were in the presence of patients who were in pain, dying, frightened and scarred by operations. The nursing practice developed as such that the nurses avoided close relationships with patients and to make decisions. They practiced functional nursing. In such practice, nurses related to only a part of each patient. Minor decisions were passed on to be taken at the top of the nursing hierarchy. This also happened in psychiatric hospitals. In psychiatric wards, nurses also avoided personal contact with patients (Donati, 1989). The medical model the nurses adhered to, focused on medical diagnosis and led to a process of emotional distancing which is not recognized, but becomes standard practice. It assisted the mental health professionals to cope with the impact of mental illness. It did not assist the patients who suffered from mental illness. It rather increased the patients’ suffering. On the contrary, the suffering of mental health professionals were not recognized by themselves nor was it recognized by the management who were suppose to provide support.

Bilgin (2009) studied the interpersonal skills of nurses and found that nurses are more likely to feel that their rights are ignored, while the rights of patients are maintained and protected. According to Lin, Probst and Hsu (2010), research had identified nursing as a high-stress profession. Nurses cope daily with extreme physical and psychological demands inherent in providing care to acute and chronic populations. The demands of caring for others can be extremely stressful on the psychiatric nurse (Van Rhyn & Gostsana ,2004).

According to Van Rhyn and Gostsana (2004), most studies on stress, experienced in a psychiatric setting, focused on staffing levels: overworking and administrative duties. In addition, they face unique challenges in their day-to-day work that reflect in their interaction with a particular patient group. Working with shortages of staff in an inadequate physical working environment and under hierarchical pressure with regard to colleagues, co-workers or medical staff as well as being victims of interpersonal violence, are all indicators of a stressful work environment (Bilgin 2009).

Various studies have been done on aggression in the work environment. Yildirim (2009) states that nurses are at a high risk of being exposed to violence and aggression in the work environment. Both Yildirim (2009) and Bimenyimana et al. (2009) indicated that violence and aggression ultimately had an overt negative psychological effect on the nurses.

The study showed that there was association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and age group<0.05. While gender, years of experience and education significantly not associated with overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. The finding is similar to a group of studies showed that age was examined in association with aggression with an average OSQE score of 7.7 (SD = 1.8; range 4–12) (Cho et al., 2014 , Stewart et al.,2013 ). The number of patients included in these studies was 30,143. Age was not associated with the development of aggressive behavior in several studies (Calegaro et al., 2014). In the other studies, younger age was predominantly found to be a factor contributing to the appearance of aggression (Weltens et al., 2021).

Focussing on the age of staff members, younger nurses were more at risk to experience aggression against them (OR = 0.96; 95% CI = 0.94–0.98) (Pekurinen et al., 2019) ; an age under 30 years has an Adjusted Rate Ratio (ARR) = 1.70 (95% CI = 1.17–2.48) for physical aggression (Chen et al., 2009) and the age group 30–39 years has an OR = 1.04 (95% CI = 0.69–1.57) (Chen et al., 2009).  Interestingly, staff with an age between 40–49 years and 50–63 years both experienced less aggression.  Fourteen studies reported data on the gender of the nurse in relation to aggression development (Yang et al., 2018).  

   In other studies, no gender differences were found (Niu et al., 2019), whereas different studies reported that male nurses encountered more aggression, and no clear methodological difference was found on the OSQE. One study reported that female nurses met more aggression (Chen et al., 2009), but this study was of poor methodological quality with an OSQE score of 3. Earlier studies concluded that aggression was more frequent between patient and staff of the same gender (r = 0.32; p < .001), with medium methodological quality (OSQE score 5, 6 and 6). With limited evidence, it appears that male nurses were more often involved in aggressive incidents, which does not mean that they contribute to the occurrence of aggression because of their gender.

In previous studies, the years of professional experience or education level of nurses was studied as a potential factor associated with the occurrence of aggression on the ward (Niu et al., 2019).  Five studies did not find any significant association  (Chen et al., 2009) In the remaining studies, the results are contradictory; increased risk for aggression or assault was found with more years of experience (z = 3.05; p < .002) (Ezeobele et al., 2019)  or OR = 0.95 (95% CI not provided; p = .001) (Al-Azzam et al., 2017) , as well as with fewer years of experience (ARR = 1.23; 95% CI = 1.32–1.18 (Chen et al., 2009)  and ARR = 3.08; 95% CI = 1.47–6.44 (Yang et al., 2018).  The contradictory results cannot be explained by methodological differences, while both high and low scores on the OSQE were present for the different outcomes. Staff members with academic education levels experienced more aggression in one study (OR = 3.0; 95% CI = 1.03–8.9) (Zeng et al., 2013), but not in another (Chen et al., 2009).  Staff training in aggression management showed no effect on the number of aggressive incidents (Sjostrom et al., 2001) , but this study was of poor methodological quality (OSQE score of 4) and during the study period many other changes such as a reduction in beds were implemented, which made results difficult to interpret. No clear effect of work experience to the occurrence of aggression was found.

 Conclusion:

   It can be concluded that nurses has overall adequate practice towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. While the age was significantly influence the practice of nurse towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. Future studies with large sample size will be recommends.

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