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Mutual Funds

N kavya

A mutual fund is a company that pools money from many investors and invests the money in securities such as stocks, bonds, and short-term debt. The combined holdings of the mutual fund are known as its portfolio. Investors buy shares in mutual funds.

Why do people buy mutual funds?

Mutual funds are a popular choice among investors because they generally offer the following features:

1. Professional Management -:The fund managers research for you. They select the securities and monitor the performance.
2. Diversification-: “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.” Mutual funds typically invest in a range of companies and industries. This helps to lower your risk if one company fails.
3. Affordability -: Most mutual funds set a relatively low dollar amount for initial investment and subsequent purchases.
4. Liquidity -: Mutual fund investors can easily redeem their shares at any time, for the current net asset value (NAV) plus any redemption fees.

What types of mutual funds are there?

1. Money market funds-: Have relatively low risks. By law, they can invest only in certain high-quality, short-term investments issued by U.S. corporations, and federal, state, and local governments.
2. Bond funds-: Have higher risks than money market funds because they typically aim to produce higher returns. Because there are many different types of bonds, the risks and rewards of bond funds can vary dramatically.
3. Stock funds-: Invest in corporate stocks. Not all stock funds are the same. Some examples are:
• Growth funds-: focus on stocks that may not pay a regular dividend but have the potential for above-average financial gains.
• Income funds-: invest in stocks that pay regular dividends.
• Index funds-: track a particular market index such as the Standard & Poor’s 500 Index.
• Sector funds-: specialize in a particular industry segment.
4. Target date funds -: Hold a mix of stocks, bonds, and other investments. Over time, the mix gradually shifts according to the fund’s strategy. Target date funds, sometimes known as lifecycle funds, are designed for individuals with particular retirement dates in mind.

What are the benefits and risks of mutual funds?

Mutual funds offer professional investment management and potential diversification. They also offer three ways to earn money:

1. Dividend Payments -: A fund may earn income from dividends on stock or interest on bonds. The fund then pays the shareholders nearly all the income, and fewer expenses.
2. Capital Gains Distributions -: The price of the securities in a fund may increase. When a fund sells a security that has increased in price, the fund has a capital gain. At the end of the year, the fund distributes these capital gains, minus any capital losses, to investors.
3. Increased NAV -: If the market value of a fund’s portfolio increases, after deducting expenses, then the value of the fund and its shares increases. The higher NAV reflects the higher value of your investment.


A fund’s past performance is not as important as you might think because past performance does not predict future returns. But past performance can tell you how volatile or stable a fund has been over a while. The more volatile the fund, the higher the investment risk.

How to buy and sell mutual funds:

Investors buy mutual fund shares from the fund itself or through a broker for the fund, rather than from other investors. The price that investors pay for the mutual fund is the fund’s per share net asset value plus any fees charged at the time of purchase, such as sales loads.

Mutual fund shares are “redeemable,” meaning investors can sell the shares back to the fund at any time. The fund usually must send you the payment within seven days.

Before buying shares in a mutual fund, read the prospectus carefully. The prospectus contains information about the mutual fund’s investment objectives, risks, performance, and expenses.

Avoiding fraud:

By law, each mutual fund is required to file a prospectus and regular shareholder reports with the SEC. Before you invest, be sure to read the prospectus and the required shareholder reports. Additionally, the investment portfolios of mutual funds are managed by separate entities known as “investment advisers” that are registered with the SEC. Always check that the investment adviser is registered before investing.

Are mutual funds safe?

Mutual funds are a safe investment if you understand them. Investors should not be worried about the short-term fluctuation in returns while investing in equity funds. You should choose the right mutual fund, which is in sync with your investment goals and invest with a long-term horizon.

Television In India

N kavya

Television is the most powerful medium of mass communication that has ever existed. It has revolutionized our lives in many ways. Isn’t it a wonder that we can witness the events happening all over the world in the comfort of our drawing-room by merely switching on the Television? Today television has become an integral part of our lives. Television is a recent invention. Very few homes had television sets some fifty years ago. Also, till the 1990s Doordarshan was the only channel available to a vast majority of Indians.

Evolution Of Television-:

Today television has become an integral part of our lives. 1939, television broadcasts began in the United States also. Other countries began television broadcasting on a wide scale only by the 1950s. Second World War slowed down the rapid development of the new medium, but the post-war years made up for it. The limitations of the early camera forced the actors and anchors to work with impossibly hot lights. Imagine trying to read news with full makeup under a blazing light. The early television broadcasts were all black and white. The first successful program in color was transmitted by Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) in the USA in 1953. From being a “radio with pictures” it acquired a unique style of its own. As a result of this, this phase is often called the “golden age” of television.

Important dates -:

1. 1936 – British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) of Britain began the first television service in the world.
2. 1939 – Television broadcasts began in the US. The 1950s – Other countries began television broadcasting on a wide scale.
3. 1953 – The first successful program in color was transmitted by CBS in the USA.

1959- TELEVISION BEGAN IN INDIA ON AN EXPERIMENTAL BASIS -:

The early programs on these experimental broadcasts were generally educational programs for school children and farmers. Several community television sets were set up in Delhi’s rural areas and schools around Delhi for the dissemination of these programs. By the 1970s, television centers were opened in other parts of the country also. In 1976, Doordarshan, which was All India Radio’s television arm until then became a separate department.

1976- DOORDARSHAN BECAME A SEPARATE DEPARTMENT INDEPENDENT OF ALL INDIA RADIO (AIR) -:

Several community television sets were distributed as a part of one of the important landmarks in the history of Indian television, the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE). It was conducted between August 1975 and July 1976. Under this program, the Indian government used the American satellite ATS-6 to broadcast educational programs to Indian villages. Six states were selected for this experiment and television sets were distributed in these states.

• Clusters selected for SITE

1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Karnataka
3. Madhya Pradesh
4. Bihar
5. Orissa
6. Rajasthan

1975-1976 SATELLITE INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION EXPERIMENT (SITE) -:

SITE was an important step taken by India to use television for development. The programs were mainly produced by Doordarshan which was then a part of AIR. The telecasts happened twice a day, in the morning and evening. Other than agricultural information, health and family planning were the other important topics dealt with in these programs. Entertainment was also included in these telecasts in the form of dance, music, drama, folk, and rural art forms. A major milestone in the history of Indian television was the coverage of the Ninth Asian Games in 1982. In addition to the domestic transmission, Doordarshan was also providing content for the broadcasters of many other countries. After 1982, there was a huge increase in the live coverage of sports by Doordarshan. Doordarshan provided national coverage for the first time through the satellite INSAT 1A. Also, for the first time, the transmission was in color.

1982- DOORDARSHAN PROVIDED NATIONAL COVERAGE FOR THE FIRST TIME THROUGH THE SATELLITE INSAT 1A. -:

By 1983, the government-sanctioned a huge expansion of Doordarshan. Several new transmitters were set up throughout the country. Thus towards the end of the 80s around 75 percent of the population could be covered by the transmitters. Many of the programs of Doordarshan like Hum Log, Buniyaad, and Nukkad were immensely popular.

1983- GOVERNMENT SANCTIONS HUGE EXPANSION OF DOORDARSHAN -:

In 1997, Prasar Bharati, a statutory autonomous body was established. Doordarshan along with AIR was converted into government corporations under Prasar Bharati. The Prasar Bharati Corporation was established to serve as the public service broadcaster of the country which would achieve its objectives through AIR and DD. This was a step towards greater autonomy for Doordarshan and AIR. However, Prasar Bharati has not succeeded in shielding Doordarshan from government control.

1997- ESTABLISHMENT OF PRASAR BHARATI -:

About 90 percent of the Indian population can receive Doordarshan programs through its network. From its humble beginning as a part of All India Radio, Doordarshan has grown into a major television broadcaster with around 30 channels. These include Regional Language Satellite Channels, State Networks, International Channel, and All India Channels like DD National, DD News, DD Sports, DD Gyandarshan, DD Bharati, Loksabha Channel, and DD Urdu.

Conclusion -:

Television as a medium of visual communication offers immense possibilities to overcome the illiteracy barrier and assists in the process of modernization. It has a marked role to play in furthering the cause 2 of education and has a unique advantage over the media. While it provides words with pictures and sound effects like the movies, it scores over the latter by its high intimacy and reaches the largest number of people in the shortest possible time the visual in it has ii an edge over sound broadcasting. It can also deal with topical problems and present known persons who can provide solutions. People learn through the eye and remember things better. periodical surveys about the public reaction to television programs have indicated that most of the programs telecast are rather dull. There is a lot to be done in them. The plays particularly are uninspiring and badly directed.

Criticism against Indian television is that like the All India Radio, it is the mouthpiece of the Government and the ruling party. The News Bulletins in Hindi and English and the news and views programs are heavily colored in favor of the Government and the party in power. Achievements of the Government are highlighted while the weaknesses are ignored. There is hardly any program: which allows free, frank, and straightforward criticism of the Governmental policies and the ruling party politicians. Therefore, there has been a demand for All India Radio and Doordarshan to be turned into autonomous bodies with no control and interference by the Government.

SCHIZOPHRENIA

N kavya

Schizophrenia is a disorder of the brain in which the person has lost touch with reality, and has symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and bizarre beliefs. A person with schizophrenia has only one personality. The ‘split’ refers to the fact that their thinking, feeling, and behavior may not be consistent/congruent with one another (e.g., laughing while recollecting a sad story).

Schizophrenia sometimes can cause a person to behave violently, but not all with schizophrenia are violent. It is only a small minority of violent persons. Even these people are not violent all the time; they may become violent mostly when they are very ill. After a proper diagnosis and appropriate medication, a person with schizophrenia is no more or less violent than a person who does not have the disorder. Improved patients who are on treatment are no more dangerous than the general population.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia –:

The symptoms are classified into 5 types Behavioural, cognitive, mood, psychological, speech

1. Behavioural: social isolation, disorganized behavior, aggression, agitation, compulsive behavior, excitability, hostility, repetitive movements, self-harm, or lack of restraint
2. Cognitive: thought disorder, delusion, amnesia, belief that an ordinary event has a special and personal meaning, belief that thoughts aren’t one’s own, disorientation, mental confusion, slowness in activity, or false belief of superiority
3. Mood: anger, anxiety, apathy, feeling detached from self, general discontent, loss of interest or pleasure in activities, elevated mood, or inappropriate emotional response
4. Psychological: hallucination, paranoia, hearing voices, depression, fear, persecutory delusion, or religious delusion
5. Speech: circumstantial speech, incoherent speech, rapid and frenzied speaking, or speech disorder

• Also common: are fatigue, impaired motor coordination, lack of emotional response, or memory loss.
• Triggers may include:
• stress
• drug misuse
• chronic alcohol use

Causes of schizophrenia –:

1. Genetics
2. Structural changes in the brain
3. Chemical changes in the brain
4. Pregnancy or birth complications
5. Childhood trauma
6. Previous drug use

Can you prevent schizophrenia?

Researchers don’t completely understand what causes schizophrenia, there’s no sure way to prevent it. However, if you’ve been diagnosed with this disorder, following your treatment plan can reduce the likelihood of relapse or worsening symptoms.

Do People with schizophrenia need to be cared for in a hospital ?

Not all people with schizophrenia need to be hospitalized. The family can care for the person at home, by understanding the disorder and learning what kind of support the person needs, while diligently following the advice of the mental health professionals.

Is schizophrenia caused by bad parenting or abuse during childhood ?

Schizophrenia is not caused by bad parenting or abuse. The occurrence of schizophrenia is linked to the structure of the brain, and other risk factors: genetic, physical, emotional, and social. Adolescence is a period where some structural changes take place in the brain. One of the theories is that due to some faulty disruption that happens in the brain during adolescence, the teenager may be more vulnerable to developing the illness if other risk factors are also present.

When to seek help ?

If you believe you or a loved one is showing signs of schizophrenia, it’s important to seek immediate treatment.
Keep these steps in mind as you seek help or encourage someone else to find help.


1. Remember that schizophrenia is a biological illness. Treating it is as important as treating any other illness.
2. Find a support system. Find a network you can rely on or help your loved one find one they can tap into for guidance. This includes friends, family, colleagues, and healthcare providers.
3. Check for support groups in your community. Your local hospital may host one, or they can help connect you to one.
4. Encourage continuing treatment. Therapy and medications help people lead productive and rewarding lives. You should encourage a loved one to continue treatment plans.

Treatment –:

Treatment includes medications and therapies –:


1. Medications – Antipsychotic and Anti-Tremor
2. Therapies – Support group, Rehabilitation, Cognitive therapy, Psychoeducation, Family therapy, Behaviour therapy, and Group psychotherapy

Schizophrenia is a lifelong condition. However, properly treating and managing your symptoms can help you live a fulfilling life. Recognizing strengths and abilities will help you to find activities and careers that interest you. Finding support among family, friends, and professionals can help you to reduce worsening symptoms and manage challenges.

Bitcoin The Future?

N kavya

Bitcoin is a type of digital currency that enables instant payments to anyone. Bitcoin was introduced in 2009. Bitcoin is based on an open-source protocol and is not issued by any central authority. It is an electronic currency created back in January 2009. It is known to be decentralized electronic cash that does not rely on banks. It is possible to send from one user to another on the bitcoin blockchain network without the necessity for mediators. It is primarily used for sending or receiving cash through the internet even to strangers. Bitcoin is also known to be a new type of cash. It is predicted to grow at a rapid pace over the years, along with its value. It is typically purchased as an investment by numerous industries and people.


The central government typically handles bitcoins without specific rules, unlike dollars and euros. It is not owned by a country, individual, or group. Therefore, it reduces the chances of corruption and inflation.

History -:

The origin of Bitcoin is unclear, as is who founded it. A person, or a group of people, who went by the identity of Satoshi Nakamoto are said to have conceptualized an accounting system in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis.

Uses -:

1. Originally, Bitcoin was intended to provide an alternative to fiat money and become a universally accepted medium of exchange directly between two involved parties.
2. Fiat money is a government-issued currency that is not backed by a commodity such as gold.
3. It gives central banks greater control over the economy because they can control how much money is printed.
4. Most modern paper currencies, such as the US dollar and Indian Rupee are fiat currencies

Acquiring Bitcoins -:

1. One can either mine a new Bitcoin if they have the computing capacity, purchase them via exchanges, or acquire them in over-the-counter, person-to-person transactions.
2. Miners are the people who validate a Bitcoin transaction and secure the network with their hardware.
3. The Bitcoin protocol is designed in such a way that new Bitcoins are created at a fixed rate.
4. No developer has the power to manipulate the system to increase its profits.
5. One unique aspect of Bitcoin is that only 21 million units will ever be created.
6. A Bitcoin exchange functions like a bank where a person buys and sells Bitcoins with traditional currency. Depending on the demand and supply, the price of a Bitcoin keeps fluctuating.

Bitcoin Regulation -:

The supply of bitcoins is regulated by software and the agreement of users of the system and cannot be manipulated by any government, bank, organization, or individual.Bitcoin was intended to come across as a global decentralised currency, any central authority regulating it would effectively defeat that purpose.It needs to be noted that multiple governments across the world are investing in developing Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs), which are digital versions of national currencies.
The legitimacy of Bitcoins (or cryptocurrencies)

In India -:
In the 2018-19 budget speech, the Finance Minister announced that the government does not consider cryptocurrencies as legal tender and will take all measures to eliminate their use in financing illegitimate activities or as a part of the payment system.
In April 2018, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) notified that entities regulated by it should not deal in virtual currencies or provide services for facilitating any person or entity in dealing with or settling virtual currencies.
However, the Supreme Court struck down the ban on the trading of virtual currencies (VC) in India, which was imposed by the RBI.
The Supreme Court has held that cryptocurrencies are like commodities and hence they can not be banned.

Possible Reasons for the Rise in the Value of the Bitcoin -:

1. Increased acceptance during the pandemic.
2. Global legitimacy from large players like payments firm PayPal, and Indian lenders like State Bank of India, ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank, and Yes Bank.
3. Some pension funds and insurance funds are investing in Bitcoins.

Bitcoin Transaction -:

Bitcoin address is built from the public key. It is very similar as compared to an email address, anyone can check up and provide bitcoins. The private key is known to be identical to that of an email password since it is possible to send bitcoins with the help of remote access only. That’s why it is essential to keep the private key confidential or hidden. To send bitcoins, it is required to verify to the network that you acquire the private key of that particular address without the private key being revealed. It can be done with a specific mathematics branch referred to as public-key cryptography. The identification of the user possessing bitcoins is known as a public key. The public access and the ID number are very alike. For an individual to send you bitcoins, they require your bitcoin address. It is known to be another version of the public key that can be typed and read effortlessly.

However, the security concern of bitcoin is increasing day by day across the world. Since digital wallets are used to store bitcoins, they might be targeted by hackers as their value increases.

Top 5 venomous snake species

Snake are deadliest animal. Whenever one encounters it many get hurt or you can easily say they are dangerous to humans. They have aggressive nature. They are very dangerous especially for rural area people’s. There are estimated 3,500 snake species out of which 600 are venomous. Their estimated yearly attacks ranges from 53 lakhs to 54 lakhs, out of which more than 1 lakh people die due to their attack.

1) Inland Taipan

They are also known as fierce snake. They has the most toxic venom in the world. The average quantity venom give by this snake is 44mg while the most given is 110mg, which is enough to kill 100 people. Its venom consists of neurotoxins, Hemotoxins (procoagulants) affecting the blood, myotoxin affecting the muscles, nephrotoxins affecting the kidneys and hemorrhaggins causing hemorrhage. Its venom paralysis the body and cause hemorrhage. It is found in Australia.

2) Dubois sea snake

Dubois sea snake is also known as reef shallow sea snake. It is a species of venomous sea snake. Adult sea snake grows upto 4.86ft but usually grow upto 2.6ft. It is most venomous sea snake and one of the top three most venomous snakes in the world. The venom is lethal and contains neurotoxin that act on the nerve cell, myotoxins acting on muscles. The venom of this snake paralysis the respiratory system which ultimately cause death of the person. They feed on fish and swallow the whole fish. True incident of sea snake bite has not been recorded but they might have caused bite in rural area where taking record might not be possible. They are not aggressive but can bite if feel threatened or surprised. Fisherman’s are more likely to get trapped in their bites often when they try to remove them from fishing net. They are found in Australia, and some parts of Indian Ocean and Timor sea.

3) Eastern brown snake

Eastern brown snake or also known as common brown snake. This snake is highly venomous snake in the family Elapidae. Adult eastern brown snake goes upto 2m or 7ft. The venom of the snake mainly affects the circulatory system, coagulopathy, hemorrhage, cardiovascular collapse and cardiac arrest mainly the death occurs due to cardiac arrest. And one of the main components of venom is prothombinase which breaks down prothrombin. It is responsible for about 60% of snake bite death in Australia. They are native to eastern and central Australia and southern New Guinea.

4) Black mamba

Black mamba also belongs to highly venomous species of family Elapidae. It is second longest venomous snake after king cobra. It grows upto 2m (6ft 7in) and commonly grow to 3m (9ft 10in). Its colour varies from grey to dark brown and it’s species is both terrestrial and arboreal (found on trees). It is native to parts of Sub Sahara Africa. Its venom is composed of neurotoxins and it’s induce symptoms within ten minutes and is frequently fatal. This species of snake is aggressive but only attack when threatened or cornered. It constantly bites more than once and it’s bite derive 100mg-120mg of venom, the highest venom recorded is 400mg. It is considered as snake of medical importance by World Health Organization. Its venom if not treated on time will result in respiratory failure, cardiovascular collapse and ultimately death.

5) Boomslang

Boomslang snake is one of the venomous snake of family Colubridae Average adult Boomslang is 100-160 cm in total length and exceeds to 183cm. Colouration is very different like males are light green with black or blue scale edge while females may be brown. Their weight varies from 175 to 510 g. The Boomslang snake is able to open its jaws up to 170 degree when butting. It is found in sub Saharan Africa, south africa, Botswana and Namibia. Its venom is hemotoxin and disables coagulation process and the victim die as a result of internal or external bleeding. Its venom cause hemorrhaging in to tissue such as muscles and the brain tissue. Its venom is slow acting. This snake is timid and only bite if attempted to handle, catch or kill.