Tag: transit

History of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)

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By Shashikant N Sharma

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is a planning and design strategy that promotes compact, walkable communities centered around high-quality public transportation systems. The concept has evolved over time, drawing from various urban development practices, transportation innovations, and planning philosophies. Its history can be traced through several key phases:

1. Early Inspirations (19th to early 20th Century)

The roots of TOD can be traced back to the development of rail-based suburbs in Europe and North America during the 19th century. As cities industrialized, railways and streetcars enabled the development of new residential communities beyond the congested urban core:

  • United Kingdom: The garden city movement led by Ebenezer Howard in the late 1800s emphasized self-contained communities with strong rail connectivity.
  • United States: In cities like Boston and New York, neighborhoods developed along streetcar lines, giving rise to the term streetcar suburbs.
  • India: Colonial-era developments such as New Delhi were also shaped by railway access and hierarchical planning.

These early examples were not called TOD, but they shared its core principle: locating housing, jobs, and services near transit.

2. Post-War Suburbanization and Auto Dependence (1945–1970s)

After World War II, especially in countries like the U.S., there was a significant shift toward automobile-centric suburban development. Public transit declined in favor of highways and low-density suburban sprawl:

  • Urban decentralization led to spatial separation of land uses (residential, commercial, industrial).
  • Public transport use declined sharply.
  • This period marked a retreat from TOD-like principles, as city planning favored highways and parking over compactness and accessibility.

3. Emergence of the TOD Concept (1980s–1990s)

The term “Transit-Oriented Development” was formally coined by American architect and planner Peter Calthorpe in the early 1990s. His book The Next American Metropolis (1993) outlined TOD as a response to the problems of sprawl:

  • He defined TOD as compact, mixed-use communities within walking distance (usually 400–800 meters) of a transit stop.
  • Calthorpe advocated for integrating land use and transit planning to create more sustainable and livable urban environments.
  • During this period, cities in the U.S., Canada, and Europe began incorporating TOD into their long-term growth strategies.

4. Global Adoption and Expansion (2000s–Present)

TOD gained global traction as cities recognized the need for sustainable urban growth:

  • Asia: Cities like Hong Kong, Tokyo, Singapore, and Seoul developed sophisticated TOD models with high-density developments above or around metro stations.
  • Europe: Many cities enhanced existing TOD frameworks with tram, metro, and cycling integration.
  • India: The National TOD Policy (2017) was launched by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs to guide integrated land use and transport planning. Delhi, Ahmedabad, and Bengaluru have initiated TOD projects around metro corridors.
  • Latin America: BRT-based TOD emerged in cities like Bogotá and Curitiba.
  • TOD has also been integrated into climate resilience strategies and affordable housing policies.

5. Contemporary Trends and Innovations

Recent developments have further evolved TOD:

  • Technology Integration: Smart mobility, Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS), and data-driven planning enhance TOD effectiveness.
  • First-Last Mile Solutions: Cycling, e-scooters, ride-sourcing, and pedestrian infrastructure are increasingly emphasized.
  • Inclusive TOD: Focus on equitable access to housing, gender-sensitive design, and affordability.

Conclusion

Transit-Oriented Development has evolved from early rail-based planning to a comprehensive urban development strategy adopted worldwide. As cities grapple with climate change, congestion, and social equity, TOD remains central to efforts to create compact, connected, and sustainable urban forms.

References

Cervero, R. (2004). Transit-oriented development in the United States: Experiences, challenges, and prospects.

Dittmar, H., & Ohland, G. (Eds.). (2012). The new transit town: Best practices in transit-oriented development. Island Press.

Knowles, R. D., Ferbrache, F., & Nikitas, A. (2020). Transport’s historical, contemporary and future role in shaping urban development: Re-evaluating transit oriented development. Cities, 99, 102607.

Lund, H. (2006). Reasons for living in a transit-oriented development, and associated transit use. Journal of the American Planning Association, 72(3), 357-366.

Sharma, S. N. (2024). Sustainable Transit-Oriented Development: A Solution to Urban Congestion. Track2Training

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Assessing the Transit-Oriented Development and Travel Behavior of the Residents in Developing Countries: A Case of Delhi, India. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 151(3), 05025018.

Sharma, S. N., Kumar, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). The Precursors of Transit-oriented Development. EPW Economic & Political Weekly, 59(16), 14.

Lodhi, A. S., Jaiswal, A., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Assessing bus users satisfaction using discrete choice models: a case of Bhopal. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 9(11), 1-27.

Effective Strategies for TOD Implementation

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By Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) seeks to integrate residential, business, and leisure spaces into compact, walkable communities centered around high-quality public transportation. This urban development model leverages transit to help reduce congestion and pollution, enhance accessibility, and boost local economies. Implementing TOD effectively involves a combination of strategic planning, policy support, and community engagement. Below, we explore several successful strategies for TOD implementation, illustrated with case studies where these strategies have been effectively applied.

Photo by Elena Saharova on Pexels.com

1. Comprehensive Planning and Zoning Adjustments

One of the foundational strategies for effective TOD is the adaptation of zoning laws and planning guidelines to support higher density and mixed-use developments near transit hubs. This often involves changing zoning to allow for greater height and density, reducing parking requirements, and permitting a wider array of commercial and residential building types.

Case Study: Arlington, Virginia, USA

Arlington’s Rosslyn-Ballston Metro Corridor is a prime example of how strategic zoning changes can drive TOD. Early on, Arlington County leaders adopted a “Bull’s-Eye” concept of zoning, where densities were highest near the metro stations and tapered off with distance. This approach supported vibrant, walkable communities around transit stations, significantly increasing public transit usage and reducing dependence on cars.

2. Stakeholder Collaboration and Public Participation

Successful TOD projects often result from collaborative efforts involving multiple stakeholders, including government authorities, developers, residents, and businesses. Engaging the community early and often in the planning process helps align the development with local needs and gain public support.

Case Study: Fruitvale Transit Village, Oakland, California, USA

The Fruitvale Transit Village project was initiated by the Unity Council in collaboration with the local transit authority and city officials. Extensive community engagement led to a design that preserved the neighborhood’s cultural fabric while adding housing, retail spaces, and community services around a major transit station. This development has not only increased transit ridership but also improved economic conditions in the area.

3. Leveraging Private Investment

Public-private partnerships (PPPs) can be critical in financing TOD projects. By sharing the costs, risks, and rewards of development, these partnerships can attract private investment that might not otherwise consider transit-proximate locations.

Case Study: Denver Union Station, Denver, Colorado, USA

The redevelopment of Denver Union Station into a multi-modal transit hub was funded through a mix of public funds and private investment. This PPP arrangement enabled the extensive renovation of the station and surrounding area, incorporating new public spaces, commercial developments, and improved connectivity between different transport modes.

4. Prioritizing Pedestrian and Cyclist Infrastructure

Creating pedestrian-friendly environments is essential in TOD. This involves designing safe, attractive, and comfortable street environments with amenities such as wide sidewalks, bike lanes, benches, shade, and lighting.

Case Study: Strijp-S, Eindhoven, Netherlands

In Strijp-S, an old industrial area was transformed into a dynamic TOD neighborhood, emphasizing pedestrian and cyclist infrastructure. The area features extensive bike paths, pedestrian zones, and public transport links, making it highly accessible without a car.

5. Sustainable Design and Green Building

Integrating sustainable building practices and green infrastructure can enhance the environmental benefits of TOD. This can include energy-efficient building designs, green roofs, and sustainable water management systems.

Case Study: Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm, Sweden

Hammarby Sjöstad is internationally recognized for its sustainable approach to TOD. The district uses eco-friendly waste management, energy recovery systems, and water conservation techniques, setting a high standard for sustainable urban development.

Conclusion

Effective TOD implementation requires a multifaceted approach that includes strategic planning, community involvement, private sector engagement, infrastructure development, and sustainability. These case studies demonstrate that when implemented thoughtfully, TOD can significantly enhance urban livability, reduce environmental impacts, and create cohesive communities centered around efficient transit systems.

References

Cervero, R. (2004). Transit-oriented development in the United States: Experiences, challenges, and prospects.

Dehalwar, K. Defining Neighbourhood, Clusters, and Society: Analyzing Neighborhood Development Patterns.

Huang, R., Grigolon, A., Madureira, M., & Brussel, M. (2018). Measuring transit-oriented development (TOD) network complementarity based on TOD node typology. Journal of transport and land use, 11(1), 305-324.

Ibraeva, A., de Almeida Correia, G. H., Silva, C., & Antunes, A. P. (2020). Transit-oriented development: A review of research achievements and challenges. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 132, 110-130.

Lyu, G., Bertolini, L., & Pfeffer, K. (2016). Developing a TOD typology for Beijing metro station areas. Journal of Transport Geography, 55, 40-50.

Sharma, S. N., Kumar, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). The Precursors of Transit-oriented Development. Economic and Political Weekly, 59(14), 16-20.

Xu, W., Guthrie, A., Fan, Y., & Li, Y. (2017). Transit-oriented development in China: Literature review and evaluation of TOD potential across 50 Chinese cities. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 10(1), 743-762.

Widyahari, N. L. A., & Indradjati, P. N. (2015). The potential of transit-oriented development (TOD) and its opportunity in Bandung Metropolitan Area. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 28, 474-482.

Bus Transit Systems in Bhopal: An Overview

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By Dr. Kavita Dehalwar & Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Bhopal, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh, India, has undergone significant transformations in its public transport system over the years. The city’s bus transit systems, in particular, have become a critical component of urban mobility, aiming to provide efficient, affordable, and sustainable transport solutions to its residents. This article provides a detailed exploration of the bus transit systems in Bhopal, examining their structure, effectiveness, and the level of user satisfaction, with reference to recent academic research.

Overview of Bhopal’s Bus Transit System

Bhopal’s bus transit system is spearheaded by the Bhopal City Link Limited (BCLL), which operates under the brand name ‘MyBus’. Launched in 2006, ‘MyBus’ operates a fleet of buses intended to serve all major routes across the city. The system was designed to reduce congestion, improve air quality, and provide a reliable alternative to private vehicle use.

In addition to regular buses, Bhopal has also introduced Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS), known locally as the Bhopal BRTS, which began operations in 2013. This system features dedicated corridors for buses, aiming to ensure faster travel times by avoiding the usual traffic congestion on roads.

Infrastructure and Technology

The Bhopal bus transit system features modern infrastructure that includes well-designed bus stops equipped with real-time information systems. The BRTS corridors are specially engineered with elevated and at-grade sections that separate buses from general traffic, thereby increasing efficiency and punctuality.

Technological enhancements have been integrated into the system, such as GPS tracking of buses and automated ticketing systems. These technologies facilitate ease of use and improve passenger experiences by providing accurate information on bus timings and routes.

Assessment of Satisfaction Levels

A critical assessment by Jaiswal, A., Rokade, S., Vijay, N.C. (2024) in their study titled “Assessment of Satisfaction Level for Bus Transit Systems in Bhopal” found varied satisfaction levels among users of the city’s bus transit system. Published in the Springer series Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, their research evaluates several parameters that influence user satisfaction, including comfort, safety, frequency of buses, and accessibility of bus stops (Jaiswal et al., 2024).

Their findings indicate that while there are areas of strength, such as the availability of buses during peak hours, there are also significant areas for improvement, especially in terms of bus maintenance and service consistency. The study highlights the need for regular monitoring and upgrades to keep up with the growing demand and to ensure sustainable operations.

Challenges and Opportunities

Despite the advancements and the positive impact on urban mobility, Bhopal’s bus transit system faces several challenges. These include operational inefficiencies, financial sustainability issues, and the need for continuous improvement in customer service. Moreover, the increasing population of the city calls for an expansion of the bus network to cover newer areas and to handle greater passenger loads.

The opportunities for improvement align closely with the challenges. There is potential for expansion of the BRTS network, which could significantly improve the overall efficiency of public transport in Bhopal. Additionally, incorporating more eco-friendly buses, such as electric or hybrid models, could address environmental concerns and enhance the sustainability of the transit system.

Conclusion

Bhopal’s bus transit system plays an essential role in shaping the city’s transport landscape. With ongoing assessments and feedback mechanisms, such as the study conducted by Jaiswal et al. (2024), the system can continue to evolve and adapt to the needs of its users. The future of urban mobility in Bhopal appears promising, with continued investments in infrastructure, technology, and service quality poised to enhance the efficacy and popularity of its bus transit networks.

References

Chaurasia, D. (2014). Bus rapid transit system (BRTS): A sustainable way of city transport (Case Study of Bhopal BRTS). International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT) ISSN, 2249, 8958.

Dehawar, K. The Harsh Reality of Slum Life in Bhopal: A Closer Look at Poor Living Conditions.

Gurjar, J., Agarwal, P. K., & Jain, P. K. (2020). A comprehensive methodology for comparative performance evaluation of public transport systems in urban areas. Transportation Research Procedia, 48, 3508-3531.

Jaiswal, A., Rokade, S., Vijay, N.C. (2024). Assessment of Satisfaction Level for Bus Transit Systems in Bhopal. In: Singh, D., Maji, A., Karmarkar, O., Gupta, M., Velaga, N.R., Debbarma, S. (eds) Transportation Research. TPMDC 2022. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 434. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6090-3_35.

Jaiswal, A., Jain, G., & Goswami, S. Assessment of Satisfaction Level for Existing Public Transport Systems using Machine Learning: A Case of Bhopal (India).

LODHI, A. S., & SHARMA, S. N. Framework for Road Safety Improvement Measures for Madhya Pradesh.

Saxena, A., Gupta, V., & Shrivastava, B. (2021). An assessment of public transport accessibility levels for slums in Bhopal. City, 1000, 9.

Sharma, S. N., Kumar, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). The Precursors of Transit-oriented Development. Economic and Political Weekly, 59(14), 16-20.

Singh, A. P., Singh, V., Sharma, A. K., & Sharma, A. Review of Public Transit Services in the State Capital Bhopal.

Bhopal’s Bus Rapid Transit System: A Controversial Decision

By Kavita Dehalwar & Shashikant Nishant Sharma

The Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) in Bhopal, initiated in 2013 under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) scheme by the Bhopal Municipal Corporation, is now facing dismantlement after nearly a decade of operation. The 24 km long corridor, stretching from Misrod to Sant Hirdaram Nagar (Bairagarh), was a substantial infrastructure investment amounting to Rs. 329 crores. However, the decision to dismantle the BRTS has stirred controversy, as public representatives argue that removing it could enhance the local transport system’s convenience.

Infrastructure Investment and Implementation: The Bhopal BRTS project, conceptualized to address the growing transportation needs of the city, was a significant undertaking. The 24 km long corridor aimed to streamline public transportation, reduce traffic congestion, and provide a more efficient and eco-friendly mode of commuting. The investment of Rs. 329 crores was directed towards creating dedicated bus lanes, modern bus stations, and other necessary infrastructure elements.

The corridor, with its dedicated lanes and well-designed stations, was expected to improve the overall transportation experience for residents while contributing to the city’s sustainable development goals. However, the success of BRTS projects often depends on effective planning, public support, and continuous adaptation based on the evolving needs of the community.

Controversial Decision to Dismantle: The controversy surrounding the Bhopal BRTS escalated when, on December 25, 2023, Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Mohan Yadav ordered the scrapping of the BRTS corridor during a meeting held at the state secretariat. This decision was met with mixed reactions from the public, transportation experts, and local authorities.

Proponents of the decision argue that the BRTS corridor has not lived up to its expectations, citing concerns such as underutilization, operational inefficiencies, and negative impacts on existing traffic patterns. Additionally, there were financial considerations, with an additional Rs. 18.5 crores earmarked for the dismantling process. Critics, on the other hand, question the rationale behind scrapping a significant investment without exploring potential improvements or alternatives.

Public Representatives’ Perspective: Local public representatives supporting the decision to dismantle the BRTS corridor believe that the move will pave the way for a more convenient and adaptable local transport system. They argue that the current system has not effectively addressed the city’s diverse transportation needs and that a fresh approach is needed to enhance accessibility and efficiency.

Looking Forward: As the decision to dismantle the BRTS corridor unfolds, the fate of Bhopal’s public transportation system hangs in the balance. It remains to be seen whether the removal of BRTS will lead to a more convenient and effective alternative or if the city will face new challenges in addressing its growing transportation demands. The controversy underscores the complexities involved in urban planning and the importance of thoroughly assessing the long-term impact of transportation infrastructure projects on a community.

References

Chaurasia, D. (2014). Bus rapid transit system (BRTS): A sustainable way of city transport (Case Study of Bhopal BRTS). International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT) ISSN, 2249, 8958.

Jaiswal, A., Rokade, S., & Vijay, N. C. (2022, December). Assessment of Satisfaction Level for Bus Transit Systems in Bhopal. In International Conference on Transportation Planning and Implementation Methodologies for Developing Countries (pp. 431-448). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.

Khare, R., Villuri, V. G. K., & Chaurasia, D. (2021). Urban sustainability assessment: The evaluation of coordinated relationship between BRTS and land use in transit-oriented development mode using DEA model. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 12(1), 107-117.

Kolluru, H. K., Rajpal, S., Jha, S., & Jain, P. K. (2018). Bus rapid transit system in Bhopal city: A review. Education, 2019.

LODHI, A. S., & SHARMA, S. N. Framework for Road Safety Improvement Measures for Madhya Pradesh.

Sharma, A., Parida, M., Sekhar, C. R., & Kathuria, A. (2015). Capacity analysis of Bhopal BRTS using empirical and simulation model. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 11, 1575-1593.