Okoro, B. O., & Ekejiuba, A. O. D. (2026). Innovative Work Behaviour of Secretaries in Tertiary Institutions: Implications for Administrative Efficiency. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 467–483. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/20

Dr. Bernard Olu Okoro

Oluyesucan@gmail.com

Department of Office Technology and Management

Imo State Polytechnic, Omuma

Imo State, Nigeria

² Mr. Amos O. Dike Ekejiuba

Department of Office Technology and Management

Imo State Polytechnic, Omuma,

Imo State, Nigeria

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between secretaries’ innovative work behaviour (IWB) and administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions in Delta State, Nigeria. The objectives were to assess the levels of idea generation, idea promotion, and idea implementation among secretaries and to determine the predictive effect of these dimensions on administrative efficiency, measured through timeliness, accuracy, and coordination of tasks. A descriptive survey design was adopted, and data were collected from 285 secretaries using a structured questionnaire. Reliability of the instrument was confirmed with Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.87 for IWB and 0.89 for administrative efficiency. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) summarized the data, while multiple regression analysis examined the relationships among variables. Results revealed that secretaries demonstrated moderately high engagement in all IWB dimensions, with idea implementation being the strongest predictor of administrative efficiency (β = 0.30, p < 0.001). Idea generation (β = 0.28, p < 0.01) and idea promotion (β = 0.22, p < 0.01) also significantly influenced efficiency. The study concludes that secretaries’ innovative behaviours play a critical role in enhancing administrative performance. It recommends that tertiary institutions create supportive mechanisms, including training programs and formal channels for idea generation, promotion, and implementation, to optimize administrative outcomes. These findings contribute to the understanding of innovation-driven efficiency in administrative contexts and offer practical insights for higher education management in emerging economies.

Keywords: Innovative work behavior, secretaries, administrative efficiency, tertiary institutions

Introduction

In the contemporary knowledge-driven workplace, employees’ ability to innovate has become a vital source of organizational competitiveness, adaptability, and efficiency. Organizations are increasingly recognizing that innovation is not limited to product or technological breakthroughs but also includes individual-level behaviors that introduce new ideas, methods, or processes to improve performance (Afsar & Umrani, 2020; Prieto & Pérez-Santana, 2021). Within this context, innovative work behaviour (IWB)—defined as the intentional generation, promotion, and implementation of new and useful ideas within a work role or organization—has become a focal construct in organizational and behavioural research (De Jong & Den Hartog, 2010; Janssen, 2000).

Although much of the existing literature on IWB focuses on managerial or technical employees, the contribution of secretaries and administrative professionals to organizational innovation remains underexplored (Onwuchekwa & Ugochukwu, 2023). Secretaries in tertiary institutions play a strategic role in information processing, records management, communication, and coordination between academic and administrative departments. Their closeness to operational processes positions them as potential drivers of incremental innovation—the kind that enhances administrative systems, improves timeliness, and minimizes resource wastage (Adegbola, 2022; Mensah & Darko, 2021).

The concept of administrative efficiency refers to the extent to which administrative processes achieve institutional goals effectively, accurately, and promptly with minimal cost and effort (Drucker, 1999; Ogunyemi & Oni, 2021). In tertiary institutions, administrative efficiency is critical for ensuring smooth operations in teaching, research, and student services. It encompasses dimensions such as timeliness of task execution, accuracy and quality of work output, andeffective communication and coordination across departments (Eze & Okoli, 2022; Bello & Yusuf, 2023). When administrative functions are efficient, institutions can respond swiftly to internal and external demands, enhance accountability, and support academic excellence.

Recent empirical studies indicate that innovative work behaviour among administrative personnel is strongly linked to improvements in operational efficiency and service quality (Afsar, Masood, & Umrani, 2019; Okechukwu & Nwachukwu, 2024). Employees who actively generate ideas tend to identify new ways to streamline tasks; those who promote ideas influence acceptance and adoption of improved practices; and those who implement ideas drive tangible changes that enhance output quality and reduce delays (Scott & Bruce, 1994; De Spiegelaere et al., 2018). This process-oriented perspective positions IWB as a mechanism through which individual initiative translates into measurable organizational outcomes.

However, in many developing contexts such as Nigeria, institutional bureaucracy, limited technological infrastructure, and insufficient managerial support often hinder the translation of secretaries’ innovative behaviours into administrative gains (Onah & Eze, 2022; Asogwa, 2023). Despite increased emphasis on digital transformation and quality assurance in higher education, secretaries’ innovative potential is often underutilized due to hierarchical decision structures and inadequate empowerment (Okafor & Nwosu, 2021). This creates a research gap concerning how IWB among secretaries can be harnessed to improve administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions.

Consequently, this study investigates the innovative work behaviour of secretaries in tertiary institutionsand its implications for administrative efficiency in Imo State, Nigeria. It focuses on three key dimensions of IWB—idea generation, idea promotion, and idea implementation—and examines how they influence the core indicators of administrative efficiency, namely timeliness of task execution, accuracy and quality of output, and effective communication and coordination. By exploring these relationships, the study contributes to both theoretical and practical understanding of how non-academic staff can enhance institutional productivity through innovative engagement, thereby filling a critical gap in the literature on innovation and administrative performance in emerging economies.

Statement of the Problem

In contemporary higher education systems, administrative efficiency has become an indispensable element for institutional effectiveness, quality assurance, and sustainable performance. Tertiary institutions depend heavily on their secretarial and administrative workforce for timely documentation, communication, and coordination of academic and managerial activities. However, the efficiency of these processes increasingly relies on employees’ capacity to display innovative work behaviour (IWB)—that is, the ability to generate, promote, and implement novel ideas that improve work procedures and outcomes (De Jong & Den Hartog, 2010; Srirahayu, Sridadi, & Ekowati, 2023).

Despite global recognition of innovation as a driver of efficiency, evidence from developing contexts such as Nigeria remains scarceregarding how the innovative behaviour of secretaries contributes to administrative performance in tertiary institutions. Studies in public organisations suggest that innovative work behaviour enhances productivity and service delivery (Hashim, 2021; Abun, Macaspac, Valdez, & Julian, 2023), yet most of these investigations are concentrated in manufacturing, banking, or managerial occupations. Secretaries—who serve as critical links between management, academic units, and administrative structures—remain largely absent in innovation discourse within higher education (Ismail, Begum, & Kassim, 2023).

Empirical evidence also indicates that administrative systems in Nigerian tertiary institutions are often characterised by bureaucratic rigidity, limited technological adaptation, and weak motivation for creativity (Barkov, Markeeva, & Gavrilenko, 2024; Onah & Eze, 2022). Consequently, secretaries tend to follow established routines rather than develop and implement new methods that could enhance timeliness, accuracy, and coordination in administrative processes (Alvarez-Sández et al., 2023). The persistence of manual documentation, duplication of effort, and communication delays reduces institutional responsiveness and service quality.

Moreover, while global literature identifies idea generation, idea promotion, and idea implementation as the core dimensions of IWB (Scott & Bruce, 1994; Afsar & Umrani, 2020), little is known about how these behaviours manifest among secretaries in Nigerian tertiary institutions or the extent to which they translate into measurable administrative efficiency outcomes such as timely execution of duties, accurate record management, and effective interdepartmental coordination.

Therefore, a critical knowledge gap exists concerning the extent to which secretaries’ innovative work behaviours influence the administrative efficiency of tertiary institutions in Imo State. Addressing this gap is essential for developing evidence-based human-resource and innovation policies that can improve the performance of administrative systems and, by extension, the overall effectiveness of higher-education governance.

Research Objectives

The main objective of this study is to examine the relationship between innovative work behaviour and administrative efficiency of secretaries in tertiary institutions in Imo State.
Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. Determine the extent to which secretaries’ idea generation influences administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions in Imo State.
2. Assess the effect of idea promotion by secretaries on the timeliness and accuracy of administrative tasks in tertiary institutions.
3. Examine how idea implementation among secretaries contributes to effective coordination and overall administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions.

Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. To what extent does idea generation among secretaries influence administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions in Imo State?
2. How does idea promotion by secretaries affect the timeliness and accuracy of administrative activities in tertiary institutions?
3. In what ways does idea implementation among secretaries enhance coordination and administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions?

Research Hypotheses

H0₁: Secretaries’ idea generation has a significant effect on administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions in Imo State.

H0₂: Idea promotion by secretaries significantly influences the timeliness and accuracy of administrative operations.

H0₃: Idea implementation among secretaries significantly enhances coordination and overall administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions.

Literature Review

Innovative Work Behaviour

Innovative Work Behaviour (IWB) represents the intentional efforts of employees to generate, promote, and implement novel ideas, procedures, or solutions that enhance individual and organizational outcomes (De Jong & Den Hartog, 2010; Janssen, 2000). It is a behavioural construct that captures the process through which creativity is transformed into practical improvement in the workplace. De Jong and Den Hartog (2010) identified three interrelated stages—idea generation, idea promotion, andidea implementation—which together describe the full innovation process at the individual level. Contemporary scholarship highlights that IWB is shaped by individual attributes such as creative self-efficacy and proactivity, as well as contextual factors such as leadership support, autonomy, and innovation-oriented climates (Bos-Nehles, Renkema, & Janssen, 2017; Ismail, Begum, & Kassim, 2023).

Recent systematic reviews reveal that IWB enhances not only creativity but also organizational adaptability, service quality, and productivity across both private and public organizations (Srirahayu, Sridadi, & Ekowati, 2023; Hj Musneh, Ambad, & Roslin, 2021). Theoretical explanations often draw from the Componential Theory of Creativity—which links motivation, expertise, and creative thinking to innovation—and Social Exchange Theory, which posits that supportive and fair environments motivate employees to reciprocate through discretionary innovative acts (Janssen, 2000; Bos-Nehles et al., 2017). Within tertiary institutions, secretaries occupy strategic administrative roles that demand adaptability and creative problem-solving, making IWB an essential behaviour for improving office operations and administrative processes.

Administrative Efficiency

Administrative efficiency refers to the degree to which administrative systems convert available resources—time, labour, and information—into accurate, timely, and well-coordinated outputs with minimal waste (Beerkens, 2022; Alvarez-Sández, Velázquez-Victorica, Mungaray-Moctezuma, & López-Guerrero, 2023). It reflects not only speed and cost-effectiveness but also the quality, reliability, and coordination of administrative activities. In higher education, administrative efficiency supports institutional effectiveness by ensuring that documentation, communication, and service delivery occur seamlessly across departments.

Scholars generally conceptualize administrative efficiency around three measurable indicators: timeliness, accuracy (or quality), and coordination (Alvarez-Sández et al., 2023). Efficiency can be measured through process indicators—such as turnaround time, error rates, and stakeholder satisfaction—or via frontier methods such as Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) for benchmarking institutional performance (Wildani, Wibowo, Wulandari, & Dinanti, 2023; Salas-Velasco, 2024). Determinants of administrative efficiency include effective governance, performance management, digital transformation, and optimal administrative intensity (Tran, 2023; Frontiers in Education, 2024). As secretaries are directly responsible for communication, scheduling, and information management, their ability to operate efficiently is a critical determinant of overall institutional performance.

Linking Innovative Work Behaviour to Administrative Efficiency

The intersection between IWB and administrative efficiency lies in the capacity of innovative behaviours to transform administrative processes. When secretaries engage in idea generation, they identify creative ways to handle records, manage digital tools, or streamline document workflows—improving timeliness in service delivery. Through idea promotion, they advocate for new procedures or technologies that enhance accuracy, such as adopting digital documentation or automated scheduling systems. Finally, during idea implementation, secretaries apply and integrate these innovations into daily routines, thereby improvingcoordinationacross departments.

Empirical studies support this connection. Hj Musneh et al. (2021) found that IWB positively influences operational performance in service organizations, while Ismail et al. (2023) showed that knowledge sharing and empowerment predict IWB that leads to improved process outcomes in higher-education institutions. Similarly, Alvarez-Sández et al. (2023) emphasize that micro-level innovation within administrative units—such as the adoption of new process designs—significantly enhances administrative efficiency. Therefore, IWB can be viewed as both a behavioural input and a mechanism through which employees, particularly secretaries, drive efficiency and service excellence in tertiary institutions.

In the nutshell, innovative work behaviour provides the behavioural foundation for achieving administrative efficiency. Secretaries who consistently generate, promote, and implement novel administrative solutions contribute to timely, accurate, and coordinated service delivery, thus strengthening institutional effectiveness. This conceptual linkage underscores the relevance of studying IWB as a predictor of administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions in Imo State.

Methodology

This study employed a descriptive survey design to investigate the relationship between secretaries’ innovative work behaviour and administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions in Imo State. The design was appropriate because it allowed for systematic collection of data on respondents’ behaviours and perceptions in their natural work environment, particularly regarding the three dimensions of innovative work behaviour—idea generation, idea promotion, and idea implementation—and their effect on administrative efficiency, measured through timeliness, accuracy, and coordination.

The population comprised all secretaries in public tertiary institutions in Imo State, totaling approximately 1,250 individuals. A stratified random sampling approach was used to ensure proportional representation across universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education, resulting in a sample size of 300 respondents, determined using Taro Yamane’s formula for finite populations.

Data were collected using a structured questionnaire adapted from validated instruments in the literature. Innovative work behaviour items were based on De Jong and Den Hartog (2010) and Janssen (2000), while administrative efficiency items were derived from Alvarez-Sández et al. (2023). The questionnaire was piloted among 30 secretaries outside the sampled institutions, yielding Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.87 for IWB and 0.89 for administrative efficiency, indicating high reliability.

Ethical approval was obtained, and respondents were informed of the study’s purpose, voluntary participation, and confidentiality of their responses. Data collection was carried out both in person and electronically over three weeks.

Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 28. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, summarized responses, while multiple regression analysis examined the predictive relationship between IWB dimensions and administrative efficiency. Assumptions of regression were checked and met.

Results

This section presents the analysis of data collected from secretaries in tertiary institutions in Imo State, focusing on the relationship between innovative work behaviour (IWB) and administrative efficiency. Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 28, with descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) summarizing responses, followed by multiple regression to examine predictive relationships.

Innovative Work Behaviour –

Table1. Descriptive Statistics for Idea Generation

S/N	Item	N	Mean	SD
1	Propose new ways to handle routine tasks	285	4.15	0.60
2	Identify opportunities to improve processes	285	4.08	0.59
3	Develop creative solutions to recurring problems	285	4.12	0.61
4	Think of innovative methods to improve workflow	285	4.09	0.58
5	Suggest new ideas for administrative procedures	285	4.14	0.57
	Overall Mean	285	4.12	0.59

Table 4.1 presents the descriptive statistics for the five items measuring idea generation. Respondents reported high engagement across all items, with means ranging from 4.08 to 4.15 and an overall mean of 4.12 (SD = 0.59). This indicates that secretaries frequently develop new approaches to routine administrative tasks, actively seek opportunities for improvement, and suggest innovative solutions to recurring problems. The results confirm that idea generation is a key aspect of secretaries’ innovative behaviour in tertiary institutions.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Idea Promotion

S/N	Item	N	Mean	SD
1	Share ideas with colleagues and supervisors	285	4.05	0.60
2	Advocate for new office procedures	285	4.03	0.62
3	Encourage team members to implement ideas	285	4.07	0.59
4	Persuade others to consider suggestions	285	4.02	0.61
5	Communicate ideas effectively to gain support	285	4.06	0.61
	Overall Mean	285	4.05	0.61

For idea promotion, the five items also recorded high mean scores, ranging from 4.02 to 4.07, with an overall mean of 4.05 (SD = 0.61). These results suggest that secretaries actively communicate, advocate, and encourage colleagues to adopt new ideas, reflecting strong interpersonal engagement in promoting innovation. The findings indicate that secretaries not only generate ideas but also actively promote them, which is essential for translating creativity into actionable office improvements.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Idea Implementation

S/N	Item	N	Mean	SD
1	Apply new ideas in daily tasks	285	4.00	0.62
2	Ensure suggestions are put into practice	285	4.02	0.63
3	Implement innovative procedures	285	4.05	0.61
4	Integrate new ideas into office processes	285	3.98	0.64
5	Follow through to ensure effectiveness	285	4.04	0.61
	Overall Mean	285	4.01	0.62

The descriptive statistics for idea implementation show an overall mean of 4.01 (SD = 0.62), with individual item means ranging from 3.98 to 4.05. This confirms that secretaries often translate ideas into practical actions that improve workflow and office processes. Idea implementation scores demonstrate that secretaries actively convert innovative concepts into practical improvements, making this dimension a strong contributor to administrative efficiency.

Administrative Efficiency –

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics for Timeliness

S/N	Item	N	Mean	SD
1	Complete tasks within scheduled timelines	285	4.12	0.60
2	Respond promptly to requests	285	4.09	0.61
3	Submit reports on time	285	4.11	0.59
4	Prioritize tasks effectively	285	4.08	0.60
5	Manage time efficiently	285	4.10	0.59
	Overall Mean	285	4.10	0.59

The five items measuring timeliness revealed an overall mean of 4.10 (SD = 0.59). Respondents reported consistently completing tasks within scheduled timelines and responding promptly to requests, indicating effective time management.

Table 5. Descriptive Statistics for Accuracy

S/N	Item	N	Mean	SD
1	Ensure records and documents are accurate	285	4.06	0.57
2	Check work carefully to minimize errors	285	4.07	0.56
3	Verify information before processing tasks	285	4.04	0.56
4	Maintain high standards in documentation	285	4.05	0.55
5	Correct mistakes promptly	285	4.03	0.58
	Overall Mean	285	4.05	0.56

Accuracy scores ranged from 4.03 to 4.07, with an overall mean of 4.05 (SD = 0.56). Secretaries consistently maintained precision in records, documentation, and reporting.

Table 6. Descriptive Statistics for Coordination

S/N	Item	N	Mean	SD
1	Collaborate effectively with colleagues	285	4.08	0.58
2	Ensure smooth communication across departments	285	4.10	0.59
3	Coordinate activities to avoid duplication	285	4.09	0.57
4	Seek input from others to improve processes	285	4.07	0.59
5	Facilitate teamwork to achieve objectives	285	4.11	0.58
	Overall Mean	285	4.09	0.58

Coordination items recorded an overall mean of 4.09 (SD = 0.58), indicating that secretaries effectively collaborate, communicate, and coordinate activities across departments.

Predictive Relationship: Regression Analysis

Table 7. Multiple Regression Analysis

Predictor	B	SE B	β	t	p
Idea Generation	0.34	0.09	0.28	3.78	<0.01
Idea Promotion	0.27	0.08	0.22	3.38	<0.01
Idea Implementation	0.38	0.08	0.30	4.75	<0.001
R²	0.34
F	48.62				<0.001

To examine the effect of IWB dimensions on administrative efficiency, a multiple regressionanalysis was conducted. The model was statistically significant (F(3, 281) = 48.62, p < 0.001), explaining 34% of the variance in administrative efficiency (R² = 0.34). The regression results indicate that all three IWB dimensions significantly predict administrative efficiency. Idea generation (β = 0.28) and idea promotion (β = 0.22) positively influence efficiency by fostering timely, accurate, and coordinated task performance. Idea implementation (β = 0.30) has the strongest effect, confirming that the practical application of ideas is the most critical factor in enhancing administrative processes. These results affirm the study’s hypothesis that secretaries’ innovative work behaviours significantly improve administrative efficiency.

Discussion of Results

The findings of this study indicate that secretaries in tertiary institutions in Imo State demonstrate moderately high levels of all three dimensions of innovative work behaviour (IWB) — idea generation, idea promotion, and idea implementation — and that these dimensions jointly explain a significant portion of the variance in administrative efficiency (R² = 0.34). This supports the theoretical proposition that innovation at the individual level contributes meaningfully to process and performance outcomes within administrative systems.

First, the positive and significant effect of idea generation (β = 0.28, p < 0.01) on administrative efficiency substantiates the notion that the generation of novel ideas is a necessary precursor to improved performance. This aligns with literature showing that employee innovation behaviours such as seeking new methods, tackling recurring problems and thinking creatively are critical in public sector and knowledge‑driven organisations (Srirahayu, Sridadi, & Ekowati, 2023). In the context of secretarial work, the ability to identify and propose new administrative workflows likely reduces delays and supports timely task completion, which is reflected in the higher means for timeliness and coordination noted in this study.

Second, the significant influence of idea promotion (β = 0.22, p < 0.01) indicates that the advocacy, persuasion, and communication of ideas are instrumental in converting creative concepts into actionable process behaviours. The literature corroborates that championing new ideas and engaging others are key enablers of innovation in organisational settings (Hashim, 2021). In practical terms for secretaries, promoting new procedures likely enhances departmental buy‑in, which in turn supports smoother cross‑departmental coordination and fewer re‑works—thus contributing to greater administrative efficiency.

Third—and perhaps most strongly—the effect of idea implementation (β = 0.30, p < 0.001) on administrative efficiency underscores that the mere generation and promotion of ideas are not sufficient; it is the actual execution and institutionalisation of innovation that delivers the greatest efficiency outcomes. This finding is consistent with research showing that implementation is the phase where innovation behaviour translates into tangible performance benefits (Ismail, Begum, & Kassim, 2023). For secretaries, the implementation of new document workflows, digital scheduling systems or automated routing likely improves the accuracy of outputs and the speed of inter‑unit communication, as reflected in the high mean scores for accuracy (4.05) and coordination (4.09).

These results have several implications. They validate the process‑oriented model of IWB (idea generation → promotion → implementation) within the administrative secretarial context, reinforcing its applicability beyond technical or managerial roles. Moreover, they suggest that tertiary institutions seeking to enhance administrative efficiency should focus not only on encouraging new ideas but also on fostering channels for promotion and, crucially, mechanisms for implementation. In other words, institutional policies that support idea uptake (e.g., suggestion systems), allocate resources for pilot applications, and monitor follow‑through will likely yield stronger efficiency gains.

Additionally, the 34% variance explained suggests that while IWB is important, there remain other factors influencing administrative efficiency—such as technology infrastructure, institutional climate, staff training and resource allocation. For example, studies in Nigerian tertiary institutions emphasize that digital tools, automation and workflow redesign significantly enhance administrative performance (Nwafor Orizu et al., 2024). Hence, secretaries’ innovative behaviours must be complemented by enabling conditions.

In conclusion, the study confirms that secretaries’ innovative work behaviours are a significant driver of administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions, with idea implementation being the most potent predictor. These findings widen the literature on innovation behaviour to include administrative support staff and highlight actionable levers for institutional improvement in emerging‑economy educational settings.

Conclusions

The study examined the relationship between secretaries’ innovative work behaviour and administrative efficiency in tertiary institutions in Imo State. The results revealed that secretaries engage in high levels of idea generation, idea promotion, and idea implementation, with idea implementation being the most influential in enhancing administrative efficiency. The findings demonstrate that secretaries’ innovative behaviours significantly contribute to timeliness, accuracy, and coordination of administrative tasks.

It can be concluded that fostering innovative work behaviour among secretaries is a critical determinant of administrative efficiency. Generating ideas alone is insufficient; promoting and, most importantly, implementing those ideas drives measurable improvements in administrative processes. Furthermore, while innovative work behaviour explains a substantial portion of administrative efficiency, other factors such as technological infrastructure, workflow systems, and organizational support also play important roles. Overall, the study confirms that secretaries are pivotal in sustaining effective administrative operations when empowered to innovate.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are made:

• Institutionalize idea generation and sharing mechanisms: Tertiary institutions should establish formal channels, such as suggestion boxes, brainstorming sessions, and feedback platforms, to encourage secretaries to generate and share innovative ideas.
• Provide targeted training programs: Training in creative thinking, problem-solving, and project implementation should be provided to enhance secretaries’ capacity to turn ideas into actionable outcomes.
• Facilitate idea implementation: Management should provide the necessary resources, streamlined approval processes, and institutional support to ensure that innovative ideas are effectively implemented.
• Recognize and reward innovation: A system of recognition or incentives for secretaries who successfully implement innovative solutions can motivate sustained innovative behaviour.
• Leverage technology to support innovation: Institutions should adopt digital tools and workflow management systems to complement secretaries’ innovative efforts, enhancing efficiency in documentation, communication, and coordination.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their profound gratitude to all individuals and institutions that contributed to the successful completion of this study. First, I acknowledge the support and guidance of Dr. C. A. Ejeka, whose expertise and constructive feedback were invaluable in shaping the research.

The authors are deeply grateful to the management and staff of the tertiary institutions in Imo State who granted permission for data collection and participated in the study. Their cooperation and willingness to provide information were critical to the success of this research.

The author also acknowledges the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools, specifically ChatGPT (GPT-5 Mini, OpenAI), in supporting the development of the manuscript. The AI tool was used to assist with tasks such as structuring chapters, refining language, formatting tables, and generating prose content. All ideas, interpretations, analyses, and conclusions presented in this study remain the sole responsibility of the author. The use of AI was strictly as a support tool and did not influence the integrity or originality of the research findings.

Special thanks also go to my family and colleagues, whose encouragement and moral support provided the motivation needed to complete this work. Finally, we appreciate all authors whose scholarly works formed the foundation of this study; their research and publications were instrumental in guiding the theoretical and empirical framework.

To all who, in diverse ways, contributed to the completion of this research, I extend my sincere appreciation.

Ethics Statement

Ethical approval for this study was obtained from appropriate authority of the participating institutions.  The researchers also informed all the respondents about the purpose of the study, and participation was fully voluntary, with the right to withdraw at any time. Respondents’ details and responses were treated confidentially, and the data were used solely for academic purposes.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestas regards the conduct, authorship, or publication of this research. The study was carried out independently, without any financial or personal relationships that could have influenced the results or interpretations presented in this work.

 

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Chinuche, A. P., Arunaye, F. O., & Igberaharha, O. C. (2026). Analysis of the Influences of Habitual Utilization of E-Learning Facilities on the Academic Performance of Business Education Students in Delta State. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 287–305. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/7

¹Chinuche, Aaron Prince; Arunaye, Florence Oghenevorho² and Igberaharha, Omovigho Clever³

                                                                   ^1-3Department of Business Education

Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria.

Corresponding Author: igberaharhaoc@delsu.edu.ng

ABSTRACT

The utilization of e-learning facilities on the academic performance has received more attention by Business Education students. This study examined the analysis of the influences of habitual utilization of e-learning facilities on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State. Two research questions were answered and two null hypotheses were analyzed. In this study, the population of 1,374 business education students in Delta State was used. The sample of the population consisted of 272 respondents, which is 20% of the population, using the systematic random sampling technique. Influence of E-learning facilities assessment Questionnaire (IEFAQ) was used as the instrument for data collection. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions and t-test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level of significance.  The major findings were that habitual utilization of smart phone influenced academic performance of Business Education students in Delta State; and that habitual utilization of e-library facilities influenced the academic performance of business education students in Delta State.  E-learning induction or training is recommended for all categories of students’ especially freshers in our institutions. The induction or training programme should be organized in form of a seminar from time to time, at the beginning of each session or semester. Students’ should develop good/effective study habits by having a planned study programme at the beginning of each semester/session. This planned study programme should be strictly adhered to. This will make them to avert the ills in social media.

Keywords: E-learning, Habitual, Mobile Phones, E-library facilities, Business Education & Academic Performance

INTRODUCTION

Tertiary institutions are beginning to embrace e-learning and realizing the potential power and implications for using it, as it relates to students’ academic performance. E-learning involves the use of mobile technologies such as personal digital assistants and MP3/MP4 player and includes the use of web-based teaching materials and hypermedia in general, as rooms or web-sites, discussion boards, collaborative software, e-mail, blogs, wikis, text chart, computer aided assistant, educational animation, simulation, games, learning management software et cetera.  In line with this fact, higher educational establishments in particular have dramatically transformed their mode of operation. Today, the use of chalk and duster in our seminar rooms and lecture theatres are completely extinct on some campuses. In place of that, we now have interactive whiteboards powered by computers and projectors, learning management systems etc. Electronic learning (E-learning) has emerged and progressed drastically with the development of the internet and information and communication technologies.

According to Fry (2000), E-learning is the delivery of training and education via networked interactivity and distribution technologies. Thus, e-learning simply refers to as learning and communication exercises across computers and networks or for that matter any other electronic sources. Khan (2005) pointed that E-learning has been described in various ways as learning using a number of different technologies and methods for delivery e.g. Computer Based Training (CBT), Internet-based training (IBT), Web-based instruction (WBI), advanced distributed learning (ADL), distributed learning (DL), distance learning, online learning (OL), mobile learning (or m-learning) or remote learning and learning management systems (LMS).

In E-learning system, students are able to interact anytime from wherever with different instructional material (text, sound, pictures, video and so on) through Internet. In addition, learners can communicate with teachers and classmates both individually and as a group discussion with the use of message boards, instant message exchanges and video conferencing (Al-Ammari and Hamad, 2008). E-learning system is an inventive approach for delivering, learner-centered, interactive, and facilitated learning environment to anyplace, anyone, anytime by utilizing the features and resources of different digital technologies along with other types of learning materials suited for an open, distributed, and flexible learning environment (Khan, 2005).

Electronic learning is increasingly becoming the established practice with a wide array of positive outcomes. Over the past decade, e-learning, has moved from being a sheer project on the periphery to a central and integral part of some higher education operations. In fact, for some institutions it has become such an integral part of the institution that their institutional goals are reflected in their strategic plans and policies (Ellis, Jarkey, Mahony, Peat and Sheely, 2007). E-Learning means a lot of different things and it is understood differently by players with very different roles. The E-Content Report (2004) describes e-learning as “an umbrella term describing any type of learning that depends on or is enhanced by electronic communication using the latest Information and Communication Technologies (ICT).” Knowledge seekers no longer need to wait for information, training or instruction.

Undoubtedly, the survival of tertiary educational institutions in the 21st century will increasingly rely on various forms of electronic delivery system and communication facilities that are available in markets as requirements for educational flexibility. E-learning (EL) refers to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to enhance and or support learning in tertiary education. However this encompasses an ample array of systems, from students using e-mail and accessing course materials online while following a course on campus to programmes delivered entirely online. E-learning can be of different types. A campus-based institution may be offering courses, but using E-learning tied to the Internet or other online network (Lorraine, 2007).  

The variables of e-learning concentrated on in this study are: Smartphones and e-library facilities. E-library is a way of accessing materials for learning through electronic technology. Mobile phones are advanced computing capabilities such as a personal digital assistant (PDA), a media player, a digital camera, a GPS navigation unit, a touch screen computer, a web browser, Wi-Fi, etc. According to Gardner (2012) the uses of e-learning facilities of which smart phones are more prevalent have become a norm in today’s society vis-à-vis tertiary institutions. The uses are beyond the control and individuals frequently check their mobile phones with less of conscious. This is known as habitual behavior in many of scholar. Habitual utilization of e-learning facilities is usually identified as the signal of the situation driven automatically that occurs as a result of experiences. Stronger response of habits is one of the concrete structures that can overcome behavioral intentions. Habit is repeating response with the frequency characteristics without any of goals or purposes that comes from thinking. Habit is active without consciousness with the minimum goals (Huang, 2014). Hence, habitual utilization of e-learning tends to have influence on students’ academic performance.

Stephenson (2001) posits that there is little systematic research into the overall effectiveness of e-learning as a learning medium despite the great interest in it. Therefore, against the background of the foregoing, it became imperative for the researcher to investigate an analysis of the influence of habitual utilization of e-learning facilities on the academic performance of business education students n Delta State, with the view of analyzing the influence business education students habitual utilization of some e-learning facilities on their academic performance.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to analyze the influence of habitual utilization of e-learning facilities on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State. Specifically, the study sought to determine the influence of habitual utilization of: 

1. Smart phone on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State
2. E-library facilities on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State

Research Questions

The following research questions were raised and answered in the study:

1. What are the influences of habitual utilization of smart phone on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State?
2. What are the influences of habitual utilization of e-library facilities on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated for the study and tested at 0.05 level of significance:

Ho₁:    There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female respondents on the influences of habitual utilization of smart phones on the academic performance of business education students.

Ho₂:    There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female respondents on the influences of habitual utilization of e-library facilities on the academic performance of business education students.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Habitual Utilization of Smart Phone and Students’ Academic Performance

Studies such as Jackson, Zhao, Kolenic, Fitzgerald, Harold, and Voneye (2014) and Ravichandran (2009) have proven that rampant use of social networking, texting and chatting on mobile phones result in lower grades and poor academic performance of students. While people of various ages find mobile phones convenient and useful, younger generations tend to appreciate them more and be more dependent on them. The researches have proven that some students have the habit of keeping their mobile phones on during classes and studies, even in the library, thereby distracting others.

Smart mobile phone is also helpful to the students for exchanging useful information with their classmates about their studies. Students use this fascinating magic device also in a very better way. Some of the studies proved that this technology has increased the academic performance. In this context the study tried to find out the positive effects on learning achievements of youth (Sundari, 2015).

The use of cell phones is on the increase with the global cellular phone market standing at 1.8 billion subscribers in 2007 and was estimated to increase to 3 billion by the year 2010 (Reid and Reid, 2007). It is estimated that 95 per cent of young people use web based enabled mobile phones in Japanese societies with voice calling being the commonly used and brings about 80 per cent revenue. This growth is not limited to Japan, but has been observed in African countries such as Namibia. Significant growth has also been observed in the use of Short Message Services (SMS), a trend observed among young cell phone users. The increasing use of SMS is predicted to dominate both traffic volume and is likely to boost revenue generation for cell phone operators.

As Ling (2004) puts it, the line between a computer and a smart phone is increasingly becoming blurred as smart phones now function as computers and are increasingly being used for academic purposes.Cell phones as communication devices serve a very potent and imperative role in the academic settings. Hendrikz et al (2009) carried out a study on the effects of SMS on distance student’s performance at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. The findings of this survey show that distance students who had academic rapport with their lecturers via SMS performed much better than those that did not use this platform. The finding of this study is significant in that it shows that cell phone use can aid the learning processes by simplifying the communication between students and their lecturers.

Ravichandran (2009) study shows that a mobile phone is a total blessing to human life as it provides a collection of communication media which add value to the quality of human life. A mobile phone is a combination of a clock for time management, a calendar to manage daily activities, a camera to take pictures and build memories, music player for entertainment, a radio to keep one informed of the latest happenings and is an Internet device to surf and download items and therefore, it is perceived as a mobile library.

Nonetheless, cell phones use can also be addictive according to Jones (2014). It can negatively impact on personal interactive skills of users, create emotional distance and discourage physical learning process. Although mobile phones provide a convenient form of information sources, they, however, lead to lackadaisical tendency as students don’t see the need of patronizing the libraries as information is readily available on their mobile phones.

Mobile phone has been popular since the late 1990s (Meek, 2006) and today, with seven (7) billion mobile connections worldwide and unique mobile subscriptions of over 3.5 billion (Twum, 2011), they are very popular with young people and are commonplace in our educational institutions. These phones are no more just voice communication tools. Functions like Short Message Service (SMS) or texting have become global phenomenon. Not many of us keep wallet photos of loved ones. Now we save photos in our mobile phones, and view them on a touch of the screen.

Research on the influence of mobile phone on our schools today has not been given much attention. There is the conflicting priority of young people, parents and teachers in relation to the mobile phone device, with teachers more concerned about issues such as discipline in the classroom and parents worried about means of contacting their children at every point in time. Researchers have discovered that the use of mobile phone in schools is problematic. As Ling and Helmerson (2000) states, the mobile phone is “at cross purpose with the mission of the school”. While in school students are supposed to take on their prescribed roles as students with full concentration on their studies and free from contact with the outside world. However, the mobile phone gives room to blending students’ roles with other roles thus distracting and disrupting the students’ academic work (Gergen, 2002; and Halpen, 2003;). In the past when fixed telephones were the norm in schools, there were minimum distractions and disruptions but presently with the invasion of mobile phone and the eagerness of parents to maintain contact with their wards, the device is becoming part of the classroom. Thus, the mobile phone has the power to undermine the schools’ authority and weaken their control over students as well as influences their level of academic performances.

Jackson, et al (2014) opined that mobile phones’ usage is negatively impacting students’ academic performance. This means that the students who spent more time using mobile phone are having low GPA. On how much time they spend using their mobile phones and in how many classes they use mobile phone, they found that there is negative relationship between these two questions with students GPA. That is the students who are using mobile phone almost 7-10 hours and those who use mobile phone during most of their classes are having low GPA. He also found that one of the most useful features of mobile phone is text messaging used by 67% students (female 37% and male 30%). Almost 81% of the students (female 46%, male 35%) used standard text messages as compared to multimedia messages or other. Forty-three percent (43%) of students (31% female and 13% male) say that they put their mobile phone on silent mode while attending classes.  Thirty-five percent (35%) of students (20% female and 15% male) say that they occasionally receive or send text messages while the class was in session. Fifty-five percent (55%) of students (35% female and 20% male) agree on policy that mobile phone should be kept by students but they should set it in vibration mode. Sixty-one percent (61%) of students (40% female, 21% male) say that they do not use night packages on their mobile phone. Forty-two percent (42%) of students (23% female, 19% male) say that they use day packages on their mobile phone. Sixty-seven percent (67%) of students (39% female, 27% male) say that they spent 10% of their pocket money on mobile phones. Fifty-six percent (56%) of students (32% female, 24% male) say that they sometimes use their mobile phone while doing their assignments.

Mobile phones are very common communication devices among University students. Almost every student of a university possesses one or more mobile phones. It is common phenomena among the teenagers (Cambell, 2006). It is affecting their social behaviour, health and budget (Ravichandran, 2009). However Ishii (2011) rejected the hypothesis of adverse effects of mobile phones on adolescents in Japan. But Jamal, Robbins and Tessler (2012) agree with the adverse effects of mobile phones on female students of Saudi Arabia. The use of mobile phones is increasing cost of education in the sense that in china about 22% of the University students change their mobile sets annually and 78% replace it after every two to three years (Khan, Khan and Amin, 2014).

Habitual Utilization of E-library Facilities and Students’ Academic Performance

Studies such as George (2011) and Lonsdale (2003) have shown that there is a strong connection between the students’ use of school e-library and their academic performance. Students that use the school e-library often perform better in test and examination than students who fail to use the school library. That school e-libraries have positive impact on students’ achievement. It contended that more than sixty (60) studies have been conducted in nineteen (19) U.S. States and one Canadian province. It maintained that the major finding of these studies is that students with access to well-supported school library media programme with a qualified school library media specialist scored higher on reading assessments regardless of their socio-economic statuses. Also, it observed that a study conducted in Ohio revealed that 99.4% of students surveyed believed that their school librarians and school media programmes helped them succeed in school. It cited Lonsdale (2003) who reported a similar conclusion in Australia.

Earlier, Dent (2006) conducted a research on the observations of school library impact at two rural Ugandan schools and submitted that the purpose of the study was to explore connections between the presence of a library and certain students’ academic engagement indicators, such as scholastic performance, reading and library use patterns.

According to International Federation of Library Association (2009) the followings are essential to the development of literacy, information literacy, learning and culture; and are core school library services:

1. Supporting and enhancing educational goals as outlined in the school mission and curriculum.
2. Developing and sustaining in children the habit and enjoyment of reading and learning, and the use of libraries throughout their lives.
3. Offering opportunity for experiences in creating and using information for knowledge, understanding, imagination and enjoyment.
4. Supporting all students in learning and practicing skills for evaluating and using information, regardless of form, format or medium, including sensitivity to the mode of communication within the community.
5. Providing access to local, regional, national and global resources and opportunities that expose learners to diverse ideas, experiences and opinions.
6. Organizing activities that encourage cultural and social awareness and sensitivity.
7. Working with students, teachers, administrators and parents to achieve the mission of the school.
8. Proclaiming the concept that intellectual freedom and access to information are essential to effective and responsible citizenship and participation in a democracy
9. Promoting reading and resources and services of the school library to the whole school community and beyond.

School e-library is very important in shaping students’ habit as regards reading for leisure, to pass examinations and to obtain information on different aspects of life (George, 2011). It is an inexhaustible store house of unrestricted information resources in diverse formats systematically organized for users. Thus, a school library cannot be separated from the school – parent institution and expect all round development of the students. Library users make use of library for different purposes. While some users use it for reading their notes and personal books, others use library to do assignments. Yet, others visit library to prepare for examination, recreation and relaxation.

Ogunbote and Odunewu (2008) cited Kumar (1991) and stated that the performance of students could be improved considerably if they use the library regularly. Students should therefore maximize the use of school e-libraries to their advantage since school libraries provide environment where the students can discover and develop their abilities and talents as well as improving their reading and study skills.

METHODOLOGY

The study adopted descriptive survey design. This design is considered most appropriate for the study because a survey design, utilizes questionnaire, observations, tests, and interviews as tools in obtaining information. The population was 1,374 business education students in the four State owned tertiary institutions in Delta State.  The population is made up of business education students from Delta State University Abraka (384), University of Delta, Agbor (297), College of Education, Mosogar (DELSU affiliate and regular NCE), (342), and College of Education Warri (DELSU affiliate and regular NCE) (351) in the 2024/2025 academic session.The sample for the study consisted of 272 respondents, which is 20% of the population. The systematic random sampling technique was used in arriving at the sample size. Influences of E-learning Facilities Assessment Questionnaire (IEFAQ) developed by the researcher, was used as the instrument for data collection.The validity of the research instrument was determined by three experts. Cronbach Alpha approach was used to determine the reliability, smart Phones cluster yielded 0.81 coefficient while e-library facility cluster yielded 0.91 coefficient. Mean and standard deviation were employed in answering the research questions, while t-test statistic was employed in testing the null hypotheses formulated at 0.05 levels of significance.

RESULTS

Results were presented in tables according to the research questions and hypotheses.

Research Question 1

What are the influences of habitual utilization of smart phone on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State?

The data collected to answer the research question is presented in Table I.

Table 1: Influences of Habitual Utilization of Mobile Phone

S/N	Items	N		SD	Decision
1.	Texting/chatting on mobile phone influence academic performance	272	2.66	0.69	Agree
2.	Keep mobile phone on during distracts students	272	2.83	0.93	Agree
3.	Diverts money meant for academics to buying recharge cards	272	2.68	0.96	Agree
4.	Distractions through my mobile phone during personal studies	272	2.91	0.86	Agree
5.	Mobile phones enhances the making of friends among students than real academic exercise	272	2.79	0.95	Agree
	Grand Mean		2.53		Agree

The result of the data analysis presented in Table 1 revealed that habitual utilization of mobile phone influences academic performance of business education students in Delta State. This is because, all the items in the above table obtained mean value above 2.50 and a grand mean of 2.53. The standard deviation values which ranged from .69 to .96 showed that the opinions of the respondents were not too far from the mean.

Research Question 2

What are the influences of habitual utilization of e-library facilities on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State?

The data collected to answer the research question is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Influence of Habitual Utilization of E-Library Facilities

S/N	ITEMS	N		SD	decision
6.	e-library usage influences students’ academic performance	272	2.77	0.92	Agree
7.	Lack of requisite e-library infrastructure influences my academic performance	272	2.76	0.84	Agree
8.	Non-cultivation of habitual use of the e-library influences my academic performance	272	2.79	0.77	Agree
9.	My institutional policies on the utilization of e-library influences my academic performances	272	2.75	0.77	Agree
10.	Lack of required competencies in using e-library influences my academic performance adversely	272	3.11	0.69	Agree
	Grand Mean		2.83		Agree

The result of data analysis presented in Table 2 revealed that habitual utilization of e-library facilities influences the academic performance of business education students in Delta State. This is because the grand mean of 2.83 obtained is greater than 2.50. The standard deviation values which ranged from .69 to .92 showed that the opinions of the respondents were not too far from the mean.

Test of Hypotheses

Ho₁:      There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female respondents on the influences of habitual utilization of smart phones on the academic performance of business education students.

Table 3:  Responses of Male and Female on the Influences of habitual utilization of Smart Phones on the Academic Performance of Business Education Students in Delta State

S/N	Gender	N		S.D	D.F	t-Cal	t- Critical	Decision
1.	Male	146	3.21	0.76
					270	7.94	0.030	Reject
	Female	126	2.39	0.93
2.	Male	146	3.08	0.80
					270	8.29	0.031	Reject
	Female	126	2.22	0.91
3.	Male	146	3.27	0.65
					270	8.15	0.000	Reject
	Female	126	2.50	0.90
4.	Male	146	3.19	0.80
					270	8.40	0.058	Reject
	Female	126	2.32	0.91
5.	Male	146	3.18	0.82
					270	8.93	0.723	Reject
	Female	126	2.30	0.80
	Grand Mean					8.34

The result of the t-test analysis presented in the Table 3 reveals that there were significant differences in the mean responses of male and female respondents on the influences of habitual utilization of smart phones on the academic performances of business education students in Delta State. This is because the t-calculated values obtained in all the items as shown on the table are greater than the t-critical values. Based on this, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis and concluded that there is a significant difference in the mean responses of male and female students on the influence of habitual utilization of smart phones on the academic performances of business education students n Delta State.

H₀₂:  There is no significant difference in the mean responses of Delta North and Delta Central Senatorial Districts respondents on the influences of habitual utilization of e-library facilities on the academic performance of business education students.

Table 4: Responses of Delta North and Delta Central Senatorial Districts Respondents on the Influences of habitual utilization of E-library Facilities on the Academic Performance of Business Education Students.

S/N	Zones	N		S.D	D.F	T-Calculated	T- Critical	Decision
6.	Delta North	146	3.04	0.74
					270	6.50	0.001	Reject
	Delta Central	126	2.42	0.82
7.	Delta North	146	3.05	0.63
					270	6.54	0.000	Reject
	Delta Central	126	2.48	0.80
8.	Delta North	146	2.95	0.67
					270	4.84	0.000	Reject
	Delta Central	126	2.51	0.80
9.	Delta North	146	3.05	0.70
					270	1.612	0.394	Reject
	Delta Central	126	3.10	0.67
10.	Delta North	146	3.08	0.73
					270	1.772	0.212	Reject
	Delta Central	126	3.23	0.62
	Grand Mean					4.252	0.1214	Reject

Theresult of the t-test analysis presented in Table 4 reveals that there is significant difference in the mean response of Delta north and Delta Central Senatorial Districts respondents on the influences of habitual utilization of e-library facilities on the academic performance of business education students in colleges of education in Delta State; this is because the t-calculated values obtained in all the items as shown on the table are greater than the t-critical value obtained in all the items. Based on this, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis and concluded that there is significant difference in their responses.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Influence of Habitual Utilization of Smart Phones on Students Academic Performance

The result of the data analysis presented in Table I revealed that habitual utilization of smart phone influences academic performance of business education students in Delta State.. The finding of this study is in line with that of Kibona and Mgaya (2015) who carried out a study on smart phone’ effects on academic performance of higher degree students: A case study of Ruaha Catholic University –Iringa, Tanzania. It was discovered that the use of smart phone was abuse to the point of addiction. It was becoming more problematic in Tanzania because most students whether higher degree students or low level students were more addicted to applications found on smart phones such as whatsApp, twitter, facebook and the like. The study aimed at finding out the impact of smart phones were surveyed regarding the use of smart phone to their academic performance. Data collected after survey were analyzed using SPSS and excel tools, and then. Percentage analysis was done to find the key contributors towards academic performance and smart phone usage or addiction.

Kibona and Mgaya’s study is related to this present-study in that both studies were on the “influence of mobile (smart phone) on the academic performance of students.  The findings of both study equally relates in that both studies focuses on students of higher institution of learning. The gap between the present study and the later was that they were not conducted in the same area. The sample and population of both studies are not the same.

Influence of Habitual Utilization of e-library Facilities on Business Education Students Academic Performance

The result of data analysis presented in table 2 revealed that habitual utilization of e-library facilities influence academic performance of business education students in Delta State. The finding of this study is in line with that of Ikyumen and Fiase (2016) who carried out a study on e-learning resources availability and level of preparedness for utilization of educators in tertiary teacher educational institution in Nigeria. Ikyumen and Fiase’s (2016) discovered that even though some institutions posseses e-resources, their educators are not adequately prepared in terms of skills and proficiency for their utilization. Ikyumen and Fiase’s study is related in that both studies focuses on the utilization of the availability of e-library facilities for effective academic performances in the tertiary institutions. The studies also related in that both studies uses questionnaire as the instrument for data collection. Both studies further related in that both research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation, while hypotheses were also tested using t-test statistical tools

CONCLUSION

The study was carried out in Delta State and focused on the analysis of the influences of habitual utilization of e-learning facilities on the academic performance of business education students in Delta State. It is however concluded that habitual utilization of smart phones, and e-library facilities influences academic performance of business education students in Delta State.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are made to stir students up towards a better academic performance:

1. E-learning induction or training is recommended for all categories of students’ especially fresher’s in our institutions. The induction or training programme should be organized in form of a seminar from time to time, at the beginning of each session or semester.
2. Students’ should develop good /effective study habits by having a planned study programme at the beginning of each semester / session. This planned study programme should be strictly adhered to. This will make them to advert the ills in social media
3. Students’ should learn to study their academic materials over and over again, as familiarity facilitates learning. This can be easily achieved when they are engaged in both personal and group study.
4. The positive side of social media should be harnessed by students towards a better academic performance.

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Construction of Integrated Packaged Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) on Turnkey Basis (Specialised Work)

The N.O.W. (National Objective Works) project for the Development of Land at Sector G7/G8, Narela, represents a significant step towards strengthening urban environmental infrastructure in one of Delhi’s rapidly developing sub-cities. A key component of this initiative is the design, supply, installation, construction, and operation of an integrated packaged-type Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) with a total treatment capacity of 7.87 MLD, based on Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) technology, located in Pockets 5, 6, and 7 of Sector G7/G8, Narela. This specialised work is being executed on a turnkey basis, ensuring end-to-end responsibility and long-term operational reliability.

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Background and Need for the Project

Narela has been planned as a major urban extension of Delhi, accommodating residential, institutional, and commercial developments. With increasing population density and urban activity, the generation of domestic wastewater has risen significantly. In the absence of adequate sewage treatment infrastructure, untreated sewage can lead to contamination of surface water bodies, groundwater pollution, public health risks, and environmental degradation.

The establishment of a decentralised, integrated STP at Sector G7/G8 directly addresses these challenges. The project is designed to ensure safe collection, treatment, and disposal or reuse of sewage, thereby supporting sustainable urban growth and compliance with environmental norms.

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Scope of Work under the STP Project

The project scope is comprehensive and covers the entire lifecycle of the sewage treatment system. It includes:

• Design and engineering of the STP based on projected sewage loads and effluent quality standards
• Supply and installation of packaged treatment units, mechanical and electrical equipment
• Civil construction works, including foundations, tanks, control rooms, and ancillary structures
• Integration of treatment processes for Pockets 5, 6, and 7, achieving a combined capacity of 7.87 MLD
• Testing, commissioning, and stabilisation of the plant
• Operation and maintenance (O&M) for the specified period under the turnkey arrangement

Being classified as specialised work, the project demands high technical expertise, precision engineering, and strict quality control.

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MBBR Technology and Its Advantages

The Sewage Treatment Plant is based on MBBR (Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor) technology, which is widely adopted for urban wastewater treatment due to its efficiency and compact design. In this system, specially designed bio-media are suspended within the aeration tank, providing a large surface area for microbial growth. These microorganisms break down organic pollutants in the sewage.

Key advantages of MBBR technology include:

• High treatment efficiency with consistent effluent quality
• Compact footprint, suitable for space-constrained urban areas
• Lower sludge generation, reducing handling and disposal costs
• Operational flexibility, capable of handling load fluctuations
• Ease of operation and maintenance, making it ideal for decentralised STPs

These benefits make MBBR technology particularly appropriate for residential pockets like those in Sector G7/G8, Narela.

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Turnkey Basis and Operational Responsibility

Execution on a turnkey basis means that a single specialised agency is responsible for delivering the complete STP—from concept and design to construction and operation. This approach minimises coordination issues, ensures accountability, and improves overall project efficiency.

Inclusion of operation within the project scope ensures that the plant does not remain underutilised after construction. Proper operation during the initial years helps stabilise biological processes, train personnel, and ensure compliance with prescribed discharge standards.

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Financial Details and Project Timeline

The estimated project cost for the Sewage Treatment Plant is ₹13.83 crore, reflecting the specialised nature of the work and the advanced treatment technology involved. The sanctioned cost stands at ₹12.58 crore, indicating careful financial structuring under the N.O.W. and UDF-aligned framework.

The project commenced on 08 February 2021, marking the start of implementation activities at the site. The investment underscores the importance of environmental infrastructure as a foundation for sustainable urban development.

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Environmental and Urban Significance

The STP at Sector G7/G8 plays a crucial role in improving the environmental performance of Narela. By treating sewage at the local level, it prevents pollution of downstream drains and water bodies, protects groundwater quality, and improves overall sanitation conditions.

Treated effluent from the plant can potentially be reused for horticulture, landscaping, flushing, and other non-potable purposes, reducing dependence on freshwater sources. This aligns with broader goals of water conservation and circular urban water management.

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Long-Term Benefits

The long-term benefits of this STP project include:

• Improved public health and sanitation standards
• Reduced environmental pollution
• Compliance with regulatory norms
• Support for future urban expansion in Narela
• Creation of resilient and self-sufficient urban infrastructure

By integrating treatment, operation, and maintenance within a single project framework, the initiative ensures durability and sustainability of assets.

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Conclusion

The N.O.W. project for the construction of an integrated packaged-type Sewage Treatment Plant at Sector G7/G8, Narela, is a vital infrastructure intervention supporting sustainable urban development in Delhi’s expanding periphery. With a treatment capacity of 7.87 MLD, adoption of MBBR-based technology, execution on a turnkey basis, and a project cost of ₹13.83 crore (sanctioned ₹12.58 crore), commenced on 08.02.2021, the project exemplifies a technically sound and environmentally responsible approach to wastewater management. It not only addresses present sanitation needs but also lays the foundation for a cleaner, healthier, and more resilient urban future for Narela.

The N.O.W. (National Objective Works) Up-gradation of the District Centre at Bhikaji Cama Place represents a comprehensive urban renewal initiative aimed at revitalising one of New Delhi’s important commercial and institutional hubs. Bhikaji Cama Place has long functioned as a district-level centre with offices, commercial establishments, public institutions, and heavy daily footfall. Over time, however, ageing infrastructure, fragmented public spaces, traffic congestion, and inadequate pedestrian amenities necessitated a holistic redevelopment approach. The up-gradation project has therefore been conceived as a UDF (Urban Development Fund) Project, ensuring structured financing, integrated planning, and long-term sustainability.

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Rationale and Need for Up-gradation

Bhikaji Cama Place occupies a strategic location in South Delhi, serving as a major employment node and transit-oriented commercial area. Despite its importance, the district centre faced several urban challenges such as deteriorated buildings, lack of organised commercial space, insufficient public amenities, poor-quality plazas, and inefficient circulation for pedestrians and vehicles. The absence of vibrant public realms and modern infrastructure limited the area’s potential as a contemporary district centre.

The N.O.W. up-gradation project addresses these shortcomings through comprehensive redevelopment on a Design, Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) basis, combined with Operation and Maintenance (O&M), ensuring that the assets created remain functional and well-maintained over time.

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Scope of Work under the Project

The project encompasses a wide range of infrastructure, architectural, and public realm interventions, transforming Bhikaji Cama Place into a modern, inclusive, and people-centric district centre.

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Construction of Offices and Shops

A key component of the project is the construction and reorganisation of office and shop spaces. These spaces are designed to meet contemporary functional, safety, and accessibility standards. By providing organised commercial infrastructure, the project helps rationalise activities, reduce clutter, and improve the overall business environment. Modern office and retail spaces enhance economic productivity and support long-term commercial viability.

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Public Toilets and Civic Amenities

Provision of modern public toilet facilities is an essential social infrastructure element in a high-footfall district centre. The toilets are designed with adequate capacity, hygiene standards, accessibility for persons with disabilities, water-efficient fixtures, and proper ventilation. These facilities significantly improve user comfort, dignity, and public health.

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Renovation of Bhikaji Cama Bhawan

The renovation of Bhikaji Cama Bhawan is an important heritage-linked and functional component of the project. Renovation works include structural improvements, façade enhancement, internal space upgrades, and modern service integration. The revitalised building strengthens the identity of the district centre while preserving its institutional and architectural significance.

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Plaza and Amphitheatre Development

To introduce vibrancy and social life into the district centre, the project includes the development of a central plaza and amphitheatre. These spaces serve as venues for public gatherings, cultural performances, informal meetings, and recreational activities. The plaza acts as a visual and social anchor for the area, transforming Bhikaji Cama Place from a purely functional commercial zone into an active public destination.

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Tensile Shading Structures

Given Delhi’s extreme climatic conditions, tensile shading structures are provided over plazas, walkways, and key pedestrian areas. These structures improve thermal comfort, encourage outdoor activity, and add a contemporary architectural character to the district centre.

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Development Works: Roads, Footpaths, and Parking

Comprehensive development works form the backbone of the up-gradation. Internal roads are improved with better surfacing, signage, and traffic management measures. Footpaths are redesigned to prioritise pedestrians, incorporating adequate widths, barrier-free access, tactile paving, and safe crossings.

Parking facilities are reorganised to reduce random on-street parking and improve traffic circulation. Structured and well-managed parking supports commercial activity while enhancing safety and efficiency.

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Horticulture and Landscape Works

Horticulture and landscaping play a crucial role in improving the environmental quality of Bhikaji Cama Place. The project includes tree plantation, landscaped plazas, green buffers, and planters, helping reduce heat stress, dust, and noise while improving visual appeal. Use of native and low-maintenance plant species ensures sustainability and ease of upkeep.

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Lifts, Escalators, and Universal Accessibility

To ensure inclusivity and ease of movement, lifts and escalators are integrated into key buildings and pedestrian connections. These features enhance accessibility for senior citizens, persons with disabilities, and visitors, aligning the district centre with universal design principles.

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Electrification and Allied Works

Up-gradation of electrical infrastructure includes energy-efficient LED lighting, decorative and façade lighting, underground cabling, and reliable power distribution systems. Allied works such as CCTV surveillance, fire safety systems, signage, and ICT infrastructure contribute to safety, security, and smart management of the district centre.

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EPC Mode and Operation & Maintenance

Execution on an EPC basis ensures single-point accountability for design quality, construction, timelines, and cost control. Inclusion of Operation and Maintenance within the project framework ensures that the newly created infrastructure remains functional, safe, and aesthetically maintained over the specified period, maximising value for public investment.

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Financial Details and Project Timeline

The estimated project cost for the up-gradation is ₹59.99 crore, while the sanctioned cost stands at ₹61.82 crore, reflecting the comprehensive scope of redevelopment works. The project commenced on 19 December 2019, marking the start of systematic transformation under the UDF framework. The scale of investment highlights the strategic importance of Bhikaji Cama Place as a district centre within New Delhi.

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Conclusion

The N.O.W. Up-gradation of the District Centre at Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi, represents a holistic urban renewal effort that integrates commercial redevelopment, public amenities, cultural spaces, improved mobility, landscaping, and modern infrastructure. Implemented as a UDF Project on EPC basis with O&M, it not only upgrades physical assets but also enhances livability, accessibility, and economic vitality. Once completed, the redeveloped Bhikaji Cama Place is poised to emerge as a modern, vibrant, and inclusive district centre, setting a strong example for sustainable and people-centric urban regeneration in New Delhi.

(ii) Up-gradation of District Centre, Nehru Place – Construction of MLCP at Modi Tower (UDF Project)

Multi Level Car Parking (MLCP) is an essential component of modern urban infrastructure, particularly in dense commercial districts where land availability is limited and parking demand is exceptionally high. An MLCP is a vertically developed parking structure designed to accommodate a large number of vehicles within a compact footprint by stacking parking floors. In cities like Nehru Place, where commercial intensity, daily footfall, and vehicular inflow are extremely high, MLCPs play a decisive role in managing traffic congestion, improving accessibility, and enhancing the overall urban environment.

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Concept and Importance of MLCP

The fundamental concept of an MLCP is efficient utilisation of scarce urban land. Instead of spreading parking across surface lots—which consume valuable land and disrupt urban activity—MLCPs provide structured, organised, and safer parking solutions. These facilities help decongest roads by reducing on-street and haphazard parking, thereby improving traffic flow and pedestrian safety.

MLCPs are particularly relevant in district centres and central business districts, where parking demand peaks during working hours. They also support public transport systems by enabling park-and-walk or park-and-ride behaviour, indirectly contributing to sustainable urban mobility.

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Urban Need for MLCPs in Commercial Districts

High-density commercial areas face multiple parking-related challenges:

• Chronic roadside parking leading to traffic bottlenecks
• Reduced carriageway capacity and unsafe pedestrian conditions
• Increased travel time and fuel consumption
• Visual clutter and poor urban aesthetics

An MLCP addresses these issues by centralising parking in a managed facility, freeing up surface space for better pedestrian infrastructure, landscaping, and public amenities.

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MLCP as Part of Urban Up-gradation Strategy

MLCPs are no longer seen as standalone parking structures. In contemporary urban projects, they are integrated into area up-gradation and redevelopment strategies, supporting commercial revitalisation, public realm improvement, and economic efficiency. When planned under structured funding mechanisms such as Urban Development Fund (UDF) projects, MLCPs also ensure financial discipline, lifecycle management, and long-term sustainability.

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(ii) Up-gradation of District Centre, Nehru Place

Construction of Multi Level Car Parking (MLCP) at Modi Tower (UDF Project)

The Construction of a Multi Level Car Parking (MLCP) at Modi Tower, Nehru Place is a key component of the broader up-gradation of the Nehru Place District Centre. This project has been taken up as a UDF Project and is being implemented on a Design, Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) mode, ensuring single-point responsibility and integrated delivery.

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Project Scope and Objectives

The primary objective of constructing the MLCP at Modi Tower is to systematically address the acute parking shortage in Nehru Place, which experiences one of the highest daily vehicular inflows in Delhi. The project aims to:

• Accommodate a large volume of cars in a structured manner
• Reduce roadside and surface parking
• Improve traffic circulation within the district centre
• Enhance pedestrian safety and walkability
• Support commercial activity through better accessibility

The MLCP is designed along with all associated development works and services, including internal circulation, ramps, lighting, fire safety systems, drainage, signage, and external area development.

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Financial Details and Project Timeline

The sanctioned project cost for the construction of the MLCP is ₹70.15 crore, reflecting the scale and complexity of the infrastructure. Out of this, ₹62.40 crore has been allocated towards execution of works under the EPC contract.

The project commenced on 14 June 2020, marking the beginning of on-site activities. The financial and temporal structuring under the UDF framework ensures better monitoring, accountability, and alignment with the overall redevelopment goals of Nehru Place.

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Design and Planning Features

The MLCP at Modi Tower is planned as a high-capacity, user-friendly parking facility, compatible with the dense commercial character of Nehru Place. Key design considerations include:

• Multi-level vertical configuration to maximise parking capacity within limited land
• Efficient ramp design for smooth entry and exit, minimising internal congestion
• Adequate clear heights and bay dimensions to accommodate different vehicle types
• Fire detection and firefighting systems, as per safety norms
• Energy-efficient lighting and ventilation, improving operational sustainability
• Universal accessibility provisions, including lifts and clear pedestrian pathways

The structure is designed to integrate seamlessly with the surrounding built environment while maintaining functional efficiency.

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EPC Mode and Development Works

Execution on EPC mode ensures that design optimisation, construction efficiency, and cost control are achieved under a single contractual framework. This approach reduces coordination issues between designers and contractors and accelerates project delivery.

In addition to the main parking structure, the project includes:

• Internal and external road development
• Stormwater drainage and utility integration
• Electrical works, signage, and traffic management systems
• Landscaping and interface treatment with surrounding areas

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Role of MLCP in Nehru Place Up-gradation

The MLCP at Modi Tower is a strategic intervention within the overall up-gradation of the Nehru Place District Centre. By removing a substantial volume of vehicles from surface roads, it allows the district centre to reclaim space for footpaths, plazas, landscaping, and safer circulation. This directly complements other redevelopment initiatives such as pedestrian improvements, public amenities, and commercial revitalisation.

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Conclusion

The construction of the Multi Level Car Parking at Modi Tower, Nehru Place, under the UDF Project, represents a critical step towards addressing one of the most pressing urban challenges in major commercial hubs—parking management. With a sanctioned cost of ₹70.15 crore, execution cost of ₹62.40 crore, and commencement on 14.06.2020, the project reflects a structured, well-financed, and strategic urban intervention. More than just a parking facility, the MLCP serves as a catalyst for traffic decongestion, pedestrian safety, and overall improvement in the functionality and image of Nehru Place as a premier district centre in New Delhi.

The up-gradation of the District Centre at Nehru Place, New Delhi, is a significant urban development initiative undertaken as part of a UDF (Urban Development Fund) Project. Nehru Place, known as one of Asia’s largest IT and electronics commercial hubs, has long been a vital economic centre of Delhi. However, decades of intense commercial activity, increasing footfall, traffic congestion, ageing infrastructure, and lack of quality public spaces have necessitated a comprehensive redevelopment and up-gradation. Phase-I of this project focuses on integrated urban renewal through Design, Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) basis, along with Operation and Maintenance (O&M), ensuring long-term functionality and sustainability.

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Background and Need for Up-gradation

Nehru Place District Centre experiences exceptionally high daily pedestrian and vehicular movement due to its concentration of offices, retail outlets, service centres, and transit connectivity. Over time, the area has faced challenges such as fragmented pedestrian movement, inadequate public amenities, poor-quality open spaces, insufficient parking management, and outdated electrical and utility infrastructure. The up-gradation project aims to transform Nehru Place into a safe, accessible, vibrant, and economically efficient district centre, aligned with contemporary urban design and infrastructure standards.

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Scope of Work under Phase-I

The Phase-I up-gradation includes a wide range of civil, electrical, landscape, and public realm interventions, executed on an EPC basis with integrated O&M. The major components are detailed below.

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Construction of Commercial Space

The project includes the development of organised commercial spaces to rationalise informal activities and enhance economic productivity. These spaces are planned with modern design standards, improved accessibility, and compliance with fire, safety, and structural norms. Well-planned commercial areas help decongest existing blocks, improve user experience, and increase revenue generation for long-term maintenance.

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Skywalk Development

One of the most critical components is the construction of a skywalk to ensure safe, uninterrupted pedestrian movement across high-traffic corridors. The skywalk connects major activity nodes, metro access points, parking areas, and commercial blocks, significantly reducing pedestrian-vehicular conflict. Designed with universal accessibility features such as ramps, lifts, and clear signage, the skywalk enhances walkability and inclusiveness, especially for elderly users, children, and persons with disabilities.

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Public Toilets and Urban Amenities

Provision of modern, hygienic public toilet facilities is a key social infrastructure component. These toilets are designed with adequate capacity, accessibility, water-efficient fixtures, proper ventilation, and mechanised maintenance systems. Such facilities are crucial in high-footfall commercial areas to ensure dignity, hygiene, and public health.

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Plaza and Amphitheatre Development

The project proposes the development of a central urban plaza and amphitheatre, transforming Nehru Place from a purely commercial district into a lively public realm. The plaza acts as a gathering space for office workers, visitors, and local communities, while the amphitheatre provides a venue for cultural events, performances, public meetings, and informal recreation. These elements contribute to placemaking, social interaction, and cultural expression within the district centre.

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Tensile Shading Structures

To address climatic comfort in Delhi’s extreme weather conditions, tensile shading structures are introduced across key pedestrian zones, plazas, and open areas. These lightweight yet durable structures provide protection from heat and rain while enhancing the visual identity of the district centre. Shaded spaces encourage longer pedestrian stay, increased street activity, and improved comfort.

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Development Works: Roads, Footpaths, and Parking

Comprehensive road and circulation improvements form a core part of the project. This includes resurfacing of internal roads, junction improvements, traffic calming measures, and better signage. Footpaths are redesigned with adequate width, non-slip surfaces, tactile paving, and barrier-free access to prioritise pedestrians.

Parking development focuses on organised, efficient, and safer parking systems, reducing random on-street parking and improving traffic flow. Improved parking management directly supports commercial activity and reduces congestion.

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Horticulture and Landscape Works

Horticulture and landscaping are essential to improving environmental quality in a dense commercial district. The project includes tree plantation, green buffers, planters, lawns, and landscaped open spaces, contributing to microclimate improvement, dust reduction, and visual relief. Native and low-maintenance plant species are preferred to ensure sustainability and ease of maintenance.

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Electrification and Allied Works

Up-gradation of electrical infrastructure includes modern street lighting, decorative lighting for plazas and facades, energy-efficient LED systems, underground cabling, and reliable power distribution networks. Allied works also cover ICT infrastructure, CCTV surveillance, public address systems, and safety installations, contributing to security and smart district management.

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EPC and Operation & Maintenance Framework

Executing the project on an EPC basis ensures single-point responsibility for design, quality, time, and cost control. Integration of Operation and Maintenance (O&M) within Phase-I ensures that assets created under the project remain functional, safe, and well-maintained for the intended period. This approach enhances accountability, lifecycle efficiency, and long-term value for public investment.

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Significance of the UDF Project

As a UDF Project, the up-gradation of Nehru Place District Centre demonstrates a structured approach to financing and implementing urban renewal. It aligns infrastructure investment with economic revitalisation, public realm improvement, and institutional efficiency. The project not only upgrades physical infrastructure but also strengthens Nehru Place’s role as a major commercial and employment hub in New Delhi.

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Conclusion

The Phase-I up-gradation of the District Centre at Nehru Place represents a holistic urban redevelopment initiative that integrates commercial growth, pedestrian safety, public amenities, cultural spaces, and environmental enhancement. Through components such as skywalks, plazas, amphitheatres, improved roads, parking, landscaping, and modern electrification—executed on an EPC basis with O&M—the project aims to transform Nehru Place into a vibrant, inclusive, and future-ready district centre. As a UDF Project, it sets a strong precedent for sustainable, well-managed, and people-centric urban renewal in Delhi and other metropolitan cities.

A UDF Project, commonly referred to as an Urban Development Fund (UDF) Project, is a structured financial and planning mechanism aimed at supporting urban infrastructure development in cities and towns. UDF projects are designed to bridge the gap between increasing urban infrastructure needs and limited availability of public funds by enabling planned investment, efficient resource utilisation, and long-term financial sustainability. Such projects are increasingly important in rapidly urbanising regions where demands for roads, water supply, sanitation, housing, transport, and public amenities are growing faster than municipal revenues.

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Concept of a UDF Project

The basic concept of a UDF project is to create a dedicated fund or financing framework that supports urban development initiatives through a mix of public funds, loans, grants, and sometimes private sector participation. Instead of relying solely on annual budget allocations, UDF projects provide a revolving or pooled financing mechanism that can be used to plan, implement, and maintain urban infrastructure projects in a systematic manner.

UDF projects are often linked with city development plans, master plans, or area-based development strategies, ensuring that investments are aligned with long-term urban growth objectives rather than ad-hoc infrastructure creation.

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Objectives of UDF Projects

The key objectives of a UDF project include:

• Strengthening urban infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, water supply systems, sewerage, drainage, and public transport facilities.
• Improving municipal financial capacity by enabling access to structured funding rather than uncertain grants.
• Promoting sustainable and inclusive urban development, particularly in smaller cities and towns that lack adequate investment.
• Encouraging planned urban growth, supported by proper technical, financial, and institutional frameworks.
• Enhancing service delivery, ensuring better quality, reliability, and coverage of urban services.

Through these objectives, UDF projects aim to improve overall urban livability and economic productivity.

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Key Components of a UDF Project

A typical UDF project consists of several interrelated components:

1. Infrastructure Development
This includes funding for physical infrastructure such as urban roads, flyovers, water supply networks, sewage treatment plants, stormwater drainage, solid waste management systems, street lighting, and public spaces.

2. Financial Structuring
UDF projects involve detailed financial planning, including project costing, funding sources, repayment mechanisms, and risk assessment. User charges, municipal revenues, and government support are often integrated into the financial model.

3. Institutional Strengthening
Capacity-building of urban local bodies is an important part of UDF projects. This includes improving project management, accounting systems, procurement processes, and technical expertise.

4. Planning and Technical Support
UDF projects are usually backed by detailed project reports (DPRs), feasibility studies, and technical designs to ensure cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and compliance with standards.

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Importance of UDF Projects in Urban Development

UDF projects play a crucial role in addressing chronic underinvestment in urban infrastructure. By providing predictable and structured financing, they enable cities to undertake large-scale and long-term projects that would otherwise be difficult to execute. This is especially important for essential services like water supply, sanitation, and mobility, which directly affect public health and economic activity.

Another important benefit is financial discipline. Since UDF projects often involve repayment or performance-linked funding, urban local bodies are encouraged to improve revenue collection, adopt user charges, and enhance operational efficiency.

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Challenges in UDF Project Implementation

Despite their advantages, UDF projects face several challenges:

• Limited financial capacity of municipalities, affecting repayment ability.
• Project delays, due to land acquisition, approvals, or weak institutional coordination.
• Inadequate technical expertise, leading to cost overruns or design inefficiencies.
• Equity concerns, if infrastructure investments are not distributed fairly across socio-economic groups.

These challenges highlight the need for strong governance, transparency, and stakeholder engagement.

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Conclusion

UDF projects represent a strategic approach to financing and managing urban development in a sustainable and planned manner. By combining infrastructure investment with financial and institutional reforms, they help cities move beyond short-term solutions towards long-term urban resilience and growth. When implemented with sound planning, accountability, and inclusiveness, UDF projects can significantly enhance the quality of urban infrastructure, strengthen municipal capacity, and contribute to balanced and sustainable urban development.

The construction of a Flyover-cum-ROB (Road Over Bridge) is a critical urban transport infrastructure intervention aimed at improving traffic flow, enhancing road safety, and eliminating conflicts between road and railway traffic. In rapidly urbanising cities, increasing vehicular volumes and expanding railway networks often result in severe congestion and safety hazards at level crossings. A flyover-cum-ROB addresses these challenges by carrying road traffic over railway tracks and intersecting roads, ensuring uninterrupted movement and efficient connectivity.

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Concept and Meaning of Flyover-cum-ROB

A Flyover-cum-ROB is a grade-separated structure that combines the functional features of a flyover and a Road Over Bridge. While a flyover allows traffic to pass over another road junction, a ROB specifically carries a road over a railway line. When both these requirements coincide—such as a road crossing a busy railway track near an intersection—the structure is designed as a composite facility known as a flyover-cum-ROB.

This integrated approach optimises land use, reduces construction redundancy, and addresses multiple traffic conflicts through a single infrastructure project.

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Need for Flyover-cum-ROB Projects

The need for flyover-cum-ROB projects arises from several urban transport challenges:

• Increasing vehicular traffic leading to frequent congestion at railway level crossings
• High accident risk due to road–rail conflict points
• Delays caused by train movement, affecting emergency services and public transport reliability
• Economic losses resulting from fuel wastage and travel time delays
• Urban growth, requiring uninterrupted connectivity across transport corridors

By eliminating level crossings, flyover-cum-ROB structures significantly enhance safety and operational efficiency.

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Planning Considerations

Planning a flyover-cum-ROB involves detailed technical and urban considerations:

• Traffic volume studies to assess current and future demand
• Geometric design standards, including vertical clearance over railway tracks and adequate gradients
• Railway coordination, ensuring compliance with railway safety norms and schedules
• Land acquisition and right-of-way management, especially in dense urban areas
• Utility shifting, including water pipelines, sewers, power lines, and telecom infrastructure
• Environmental and social impact assessment, particularly where residential or commercial properties are affected

Effective planning ensures minimal disruption during construction and long-term functional efficiency.

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Design and Structural Components

A flyover-cum-ROB typically consists of:

• Approach ramps designed with gradual slopes to accommodate all vehicle types
• Superstructure, often using reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete girders
• Substructure, including piers, abutments, and foundations designed for heavy loads
• Deck slab and wearing course to provide a durable riding surface
• Crash barriers, railings, and lighting for safety and visibility
• Drainage arrangements to prevent water accumulation on the deck

Structural design must account for dynamic loads, seismic forces, and long-term durability.

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Construction Methodology

Construction of a flyover-cum-ROB is complex due to proximity to active railway lines and high-traffic roads. Typical construction stages include:

1. Site preparation and traffic diversion planning
2. Foundation and substructure construction, often using pile foundations
3. Erection of girders, sometimes during night blocks approved by railway authorities
4. Deck slab casting and finishing works
5. Approach road construction and integration with existing network
6. Safety installations and final commissioning

Strict safety protocols are followed during construction to protect both workers and ongoing rail operations.

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Benefits of Flyover-cum-ROB

The advantages of constructing a flyover-cum-ROB include:

• Improved traffic flow with reduced delays and congestion
• Enhanced road and rail safety by removing level crossings
• Time and fuel savings, contributing to economic efficiency
• Reduced air and noise pollution due to smoother traffic movement
• Support for public transport reliability, especially buses and emergency vehicles

Such structures also contribute to long-term urban mobility planning.

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Challenges and Limitations

Despite their benefits, flyover-cum-ROB projects face challenges such as:

• High capital costs and funding constraints
• Construction-phase traffic disruption
• Coordination issues between multiple agencies
• Urban design concerns, including visual impact and pedestrian accessibility

These challenges highlight the need for integrated planning and stakeholder coordination.

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Conclusion

The construction of a Flyover-cum-ROB is a strategic solution for managing complex traffic interactions in growing urban areas. By combining the functions of a flyover and a road over bridge, it ensures safer, faster, and more reliable movement for both road and rail users. When planned and executed with technical precision, environmental sensitivity, and institutional coordination, flyover-cum-ROB projects significantly enhance urban mobility and contribute to sustainable transport infrastructure development.

Treated effluent water supply lines form a critical component of modern urban water management systems, especially in water-stressed regions. Treated effluent water refers to wastewater that has undergone primary, secondary, and in many cases tertiary treatment in sewage treatment plants (STPs) to make it suitable for non-potable uses. Dedicated treated effluent water supply lines are laid to transport this reclaimed water from treatment facilities to various end-use points such as parks, industries, power plants, and construction sites. Their use reflects a shift from a linear “use-and-dispose” water model to a more sustainable circular water economy.

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Purpose of Treated Effluent Water Supply Lines

The primary purpose of treated effluent water supply lines is to reduce dependence on freshwater sources such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater. By segregating potable and non-potable water systems, cities can ensure that high-quality freshwater is reserved for drinking and domestic needs, while treated wastewater is productively reused for activities that do not require drinking-water quality.

These pipelines are usually colour-coded (often purple or green) and clearly marked to avoid cross-connection with potable water lines, ensuring public health safety.

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Major Uses of Treated Effluent Water

1. Landscaping and Green Areas
One of the most common uses of treated effluent water is irrigation of parks, gardens, road medians, green belts, sports complexes, golf courses, and institutional campuses. Landscaping demands large volumes of water, and using treated effluent significantly reduces pressure on freshwater supplies while supporting urban green cover.

2. Industrial Use
Industries use treated effluent water for cooling systems, boiler feed (after additional treatment if required), process water, and equipment washing. Dedicated effluent supply lines to industrial areas help industries meet sustainability norms and reduce groundwater extraction.

3. Construction Activities
Treated effluent water is widely used for construction purposes such as concrete mixing (subject to quality standards), curing, dust suppression, and site cleaning. Construction demand is temporary but intensive, making reclaimed water an ideal substitute for freshwater.

4. Power Plants and Infrastructure Facilities
Thermal power plants, district cooling systems, and large infrastructure installations use treated effluent water for cooling and auxiliary services. This application has high potential for large-scale water reuse.

5. Urban Services and Municipal Uses
Municipal bodies use treated effluent water for street washing, drain cleaning, flushing of public toilets, firefighting reserves, and maintenance of public spaces.

6. Agriculture and Peri-Urban Farming
In some cases, treated effluent water is used for irrigating non-food crops, fodder, biofuel plantations, or agriculture after ensuring compliance with safety standards. This use helps support livelihoods while conserving freshwater.

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Importance and Benefits of Treated Effluent Supply Lines

Water Conservation:
Reusing treated wastewater reduces freshwater withdrawals from rivers and aquifers, helping address water scarcity.

Environmental Protection:
Diverting treated effluent for reuse reduces pollution load in rivers and lakes, improving overall water quality and aquatic ecosystems.

Energy and Cost Efficiency:
Supplying treated effluent locally through dedicated pipelines is often more energy-efficient and cost-effective than transporting freshwater over long distances.

Urban Resilience:
Cities with reclaimed water networks are better equipped to handle droughts and climate variability.

Compliance with Sustainability Goals:
Effluent reuse supports sustainable development goals related to water efficiency, sanitation, and environmental protection.

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Planning and Design Considerations

Proper planning of treated effluent water supply lines is essential to ensure safety, reliability, and acceptance:

• Segregated network design to prevent cross-contamination with potable water systems
• Quality standards based on end-use requirements (secondary or tertiary treated water)
• Storage infrastructure, such as balancing reservoirs and sumps, to manage supply-demand variations
• Pumping and pressure management, considering topography and distance
• Clear identification and signage of pipelines and outlets
• Monitoring systems for water quality, flow, and leakage

Public awareness and capacity-building among operators and users are equally important to build trust in reclaimed water systems.

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Challenges and Limitations

Despite clear benefits, treated effluent supply systems face challenges:

• Public perception issues, with resistance to using recycled water
• High initial investment for separate pipeline networks
• Operation and maintenance requirements, including regular quality monitoring
• Institutional coordination between water supply, sewerage, and urban development agencies

Addressing these challenges requires strong policy support, incentives for reuse, and transparent communication.

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Conclusion

Treated effluent water supply lines are a cornerstone of sustainable urban water management. By enabling safe and efficient reuse of wastewater, they help conserve freshwater, protect the environment, and support diverse urban, industrial, and infrastructural needs. As cities grow and water stress intensifies, integrating treated effluent supply networks into urban planning is no longer optional but essential. With proper design, regulation, and public engagement, treated effluent water can be transformed from a waste product into a valuable and reliable resource for long-term urban sustainability.

The restoration and rejuvenation of the River Yamuna floodplain has emerged as one of the most critical environmental and urban challenges in Delhi. The Yamuna River, despite being the lifeline of northern India and a river of immense cultural, ecological, and spiritual importance, has suffered severe degradation—especially along its urban stretch in Delhi. The floodplain, which once acted as a natural buffer for floods, groundwater recharge, and biodiversity, has been progressively encroached upon, polluted, and ecologically fragmented. Restoration and rejuvenation of this floodplain are therefore essential not only for the health of the river but also for the long-term sustainability and resilience of the city.

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Understanding the Yamuna Floodplain

A river floodplain is the low-lying area adjacent to the river channel that gets periodically inundated during high flows. In its natural state, the Yamuna floodplain performed several vital functions: it absorbed excess floodwater, filtered pollutants, supported wetlands and forests, recharged groundwater, and provided habitat for diverse flora and fauna. In Delhi, the Yamuna floodplain once extended over several kilometres in width, acting as a vast ecological corridor cutting across the city.

However, rapid urbanisation, infrastructure development, and unplanned land-use changes have drastically reduced the effective floodplain area. Roads, power plants, landfills, housing, and event spaces have replaced natural vegetation and wetlands, disrupting the river–floodplain relationship.

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Need for Restoration and Rejuvenation

The need for restoring and rejuvenating the Yamuna floodplain arises from multiple interlinked challenges:

• Severe water pollution, caused mainly by untreated and partially treated sewage entering the river.
• Loss of natural flood buffering capacity, increasing the risk of urban flooding.
• Declining groundwater levels, as floodplain recharge zones are blocked or paved.
• Degradation of biodiversity, with wetlands, bird habitats, and native vegetation disappearing.
• Public disconnection from the river, as access has become restricted or environmentally unsafe.

Floodplain restoration is therefore not merely an environmental exercise but a necessity for urban water security, climate adaptation, and public well-being.

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Key Components of Floodplain Restoration

1. Removal of Encroachments and Land-Use Regulation
A fundamental step in floodplain restoration is the identification and removal of illegal or incompatible land uses. This includes restricting permanent construction within the active floodplain and enforcing zoning regulations that prioritise ecological functions over commercial or real estate interests.

2. Ecological Restoration and Native Vegetation
Rejuvenation efforts focus on restoring native floodplain ecosystems such as grasslands, wetlands, and riparian forests. Native plant species are better adapted to periodic flooding and help stabilise soil, improve habitat quality, and enhance biodiversity. Recreating wetlands also aids in natural water purification and flood moderation.

3. Improving Water Quality
Floodplain restoration cannot succeed without addressing pollution at its source. Intercepting drains, upgrading sewage treatment plants, and ensuring environmental flows in the river are essential. Clean water allows restored floodplains to function effectively as living ecosystems rather than stagnant landscapes.

4. Reconnecting the River and Floodplain
Engineering interventions over the years have confined the river to a narrow channel. Rejuvenation involves allowing seasonal flooding in designated zones so that sediment deposition, nutrient cycling, and groundwater recharge can occur naturally.

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Social and Urban Dimensions

The Yamuna floodplain also has a strong social dimension. Historically, communities depended on it for agriculture, grazing, fishing, and seasonal livelihoods. Restoration efforts must balance ecological goals with social justice by ensuring that vulnerable groups are not unfairly displaced and that alternative livelihood opportunities are created.

At the same time, a restored floodplain can become a public ecological space—with controlled access for nature walks, environmental education, and low-impact recreation. This helps reconnect citizens with the river and builds public support for long-term conservation.

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Climate Resilience and Flood Management

With climate change increasing the frequency of extreme rainfall events, floodplain restoration is a key strategy for urban climate resilience. A healthy floodplain absorbs excess water during floods, reducing pressure on embankments and drainage systems. It also stores moisture during dry periods, improving water availability and microclimatic conditions.

In this sense, restoring the Yamuna floodplain is far more cost-effective and sustainable than relying solely on hard engineering solutions such as embankments and floodwalls.

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Institutional and Governance Challenges

Despite numerous policies, plans, and court directives, Yamuna floodplain restoration faces significant governance challenges:

• Multiple agencies with overlapping responsibilities
• Short-term, project-based approaches instead of long-term ecological planning
• Conflicts between development pressures and environmental protection
• Limited public awareness and participation

Effective restoration requires integrated river basin management, strong regulatory enforcement, scientific monitoring, and continuous public engagement.

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Conclusion

The restoration and rejuvenation of the Yamuna floodplain represent a decisive step towards reclaiming the river as a living system rather than a polluted drain. For Delhi, the floodplain is not vacant land waiting to be developed, but critical natural infrastructure that supports water security, biodiversity, flood protection, and urban livability. A healthy Yamuna floodplain can act as the city’s ecological spine—absorbing shocks, sustaining life, and reconnecting people with nature. While the challenges are complex, sustained political will, scientific planning, and community participation can transform the Yamuna floodplain into a resilient and vibrant landscape, ensuring that the river once again flows as a symbol of life, balance, and sustainability.

The Golf Course, Sector 24 Dwarka is envisioned as a major recreational and green infrastructure asset within the planned sub-city of Dwarka in Delhi. Set amidst a rapidly developing urban landscape, the golf course at Sector-24 represents more than just a sporting facility—it functions as an important open space, an environmental buffer, and a lifestyle destination that contributes to the overall quality of urban life. In the context of Delhi’s high density, limited green cover, and growing demand for recreational amenities, the development of a golf course in Dwarka carries significant planning, ecological, and social relevance.

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Urban Context and Location Significance

Dwarka was planned as one of Delhi’s largest sub-cities, with a structured sectoral layout, wide road networks, metro connectivity, and designated zones for residential, institutional, recreational, and utility uses. Sector-24 occupies a strategic location within Dwarka, close to major arterial roads and well connected to surrounding residential sectors. The placement of a golf course in this sector aligns with the planning principle of distributing large recreational and open spaces evenly across urban areas, rather than concentrating them only in the city core.

The golf course also serves as a visual and spatial relief in an otherwise built-up environment. For surrounding residential sectors, it provides an expansive green frontage, enhances microclimatic conditions, and contributes to higher environmental and aesthetic value.

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Concept of a Golf Course as Urban Open Space

Traditionally, golf courses are viewed primarily as elite sports facilities. However, in contemporary urban planning, they are increasingly recognised as multi-functional open spaces. The golf course at Sector-24, Dwarka fits into this broader understanding by acting as:

• A recreational sports facility for professional and amateur golfers
• A large urban green lung contributing to air quality and temperature regulation
• A buffer zone reducing noise and visual stress in surrounding areas
• A landmark space that enhances the identity of Dwarka as a premium, well-planned sub-city

Such facilities play an important role in cities like Delhi, where per capita open space availability is far below desirable standards.

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Design and Spatial Characteristics

The design of the golf course at Sector-24 is guided by the need to balance sporting requirements with environmental sensitivity and urban compatibility. Key spatial characteristics generally include:

• Large contiguous green areas with fairways, greens, and roughs designed to international or national standards
• Natural landscaping elements such as gentle contours, water bodies, and tree clusters
• Clubhouse and support facilities, including changing rooms, equipment storage, cafés, and administrative spaces
• Internal circulation systems for players, maintenance vehicles, and service access

The layout is typically low-rise and low-density, ensuring minimal visual obstruction and maximum landscape continuity. This openness differentiates the golf course from other urban land uses and reinforces its role as a passive and active recreational space.

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Environmental and Ecological Importance

One of the most critical contributions of the Sector-24 golf course lies in its environmental benefits. Large green tracts within cities help mitigate the urban heat island effect, improve air quality, and support urban biodiversity. The extensive vegetation cover absorbs carbon dioxide, filters dust and pollutants, and provides habitat for birds and small fauna.

If planned and managed responsibly, the golf course can also promote sustainable water management through rainwater harvesting, reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation, and efficient sprinkler systems. Landscaped water bodies can aid in groundwater recharge and stormwater management, particularly during monsoon periods.

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Social and Recreational Role

From a social perspective, the golf course contributes to the recreational hierarchy of Dwarka. Alongside neighbourhood parks, sports complexes, and city-level open spaces, it serves a specialised yet significant role. While golf itself may cater to a limited user group, the presence of the course enhances the overall recreational environment of the sub-city.

The development has the potential to host training programmes, amateur tournaments, and youth engagement initiatives, thereby broadening access to the sport. Indirectly, it also supports leisure activities, employment opportunities, and ancillary services related to sports and hospitality.

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Economic and Urban Development Impact

The golf course at Sector-24 also influences urban development and land value patterns. Proximity to well-maintained green and recreational spaces often leads to improved property values and attracts higher-quality residential and institutional development. This, in turn, contributes to a more balanced and desirable urban environment.

At the city level, such facilities enhance Delhi’s profile as a global metropolis with diverse recreational offerings. They also support sports tourism, events, and related economic activities.

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Challenges and Critical Concerns

Despite its benefits, the development of a golf course in a city like Delhi raises certain concerns:

• Land use efficiency, given the large area required for a single sport
• Water consumption, especially in a water-stressed region
• Equity and accessibility, as golf is often perceived as exclusive
• Maintenance costs, which are significantly higher than those of conventional parks

Addressing these concerns requires careful policy oversight, sustainable management practices, and integration with broader public open-space planning.

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Conclusion

The Golf Course at Sector-24, Dwarka represents an important urban intervention that combines recreation, environmental sustainability, and city-level identity. Within the planned framework of Dwarka, it functions as a major green asset, enhancing livability and environmental quality. While challenges related to resource use and inclusivity must be acknowledged, a well-planned and responsibly managed golf course can serve as a valuable component of Delhi’s urban open-space system. In the long run, the Sector-24 golf course has the potential to stand not only as a sporting facility but also as a symbol of balanced, green, and forward-looking urban development in the national capital.

The Dwarka Sports Complex is one of the most prominent sports and recreational infrastructures in West Delhi, playing a crucial role in promoting physical fitness, community interaction, and organised sports activities. Developed primarily under the planning framework of sub-city Dwarka, the sports complex represents a well-integrated sports zone that caters to diverse age groups, skill levels, and sporting interests. It reflects the growing recognition of sports and recreation as essential components of urban life rather than optional amenities.

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Concept of a Sports Zone in Urban Planning

In urban planning, a sports zone refers to a designated area within the city specifically planned for sports, physical activity, recreation, and wellness-related infrastructure. Such zones are vital for enhancing urban livability, improving public health, and fostering social cohesion. In high-density cities like Delhi, where open spaces are limited, planned sports complexes become critical public assets.

The Dwarka Sports Complex fits well within this concept, serving not only competitive athletes but also local residents seeking daily recreation, fitness training, and leisure activities. It aligns with planning principles that emphasise balanced land use, social infrastructure provision, and sustainable urban development.

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Location and Urban Context

Dwarka, envisioned as a planned sub-city of Delhi, was designed with sector-based development, wide road networks, metro connectivity, and dedicated institutional and recreational areas. The sports complex is strategically located to ensure easy accessibility from surrounding residential sectors, schools, and institutions. Proximity to metro corridors and arterial roads enhances its reach, making it a regional-level recreational facility rather than a neighbourhood-level one.

The presence of the sports complex adds significant value to the urban fabric of Dwarka, contributing to land-use balance and improving the quality of life for residents.

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Components and Facilities of the Dwarka Sports Complex

The Dwarka Sports Complex offers a wide range of indoor and outdoor sports facilities, making it a multi-functional sports zone. Key components typically include:

• Outdoor facilities such as football grounds, cricket pitches, athletics tracks, and multipurpose playfields.
• Indoor sports infrastructure, including badminton courts, table tennis halls, squash courts, and gymnasiums.
• Aquatic facilities, such as swimming pools for training, recreation, and competitions.
• Fitness and wellness amenities, including yoga halls, aerobics spaces, and modern gyms.
• Supporting infrastructure like changing rooms, spectator seating, lighting, parking areas, and landscaped open spaces.

These facilities are designed to accommodate both formal sporting events and informal recreational use, ensuring maximum utilisation throughout the day.

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Role in Promoting Sports and Physical Fitness

One of the most significant contributions of the Dwarka Sports Complex is its role in encouraging sports participation and active lifestyles. It provides structured training opportunities for children and youth, helping identify and nurture sporting talent at an early stage. Coaching camps, sports academies, and regular practice sessions contribute to skill development across various disciplines.

For adults and senior citizens, the complex offers safe and accessible spaces for walking, fitness training, yoga, and recreational sports. This inclusive approach supports public health objectives by reducing sedentary behaviour and lifestyle-related diseases.

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Social and Community Significance

Beyond physical activity, the sports complex functions as an important community space. It brings together people from different socio-economic backgrounds, fostering social interaction and a sense of belonging. Events such as local tournaments, sports meets, fitness drives, and cultural programmes transform the complex into a vibrant social hub.

In a city where public open spaces are often under pressure, the Dwarka Sports Complex provides a structured yet open environment where residents can engage positively with each other, strengthening community ties.

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Planning and Design Considerations

From a planning perspective, the sports complex demonstrates several good practices:

• Zoning and land-use efficiency, with clear demarcation of activity areas and support facilities.
• Safety and accessibility, through controlled entry points, lighting, and pedestrian-friendly internal circulation.
• Environmental considerations, including landscaped areas, tree cover, and potential for water-efficient practices.
• Scalability and adaptability, allowing facilities to be upgraded or expanded based on demand.

However, like many large public facilities, continuous maintenance and periodic upgrades are essential to retain functional efficiency and user satisfaction.

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Challenges and Scope for Improvement

Despite its strengths, the Dwarka Sports Complex faces some challenges:

• High user demand, leading to overcrowding during peak hours.
• Maintenance issues, particularly for outdoor fields and older infrastructure.
• Limited access for economically weaker groups, if user fees are perceived as high.
• Need for better integration with schools and local sports programmes, to enhance outreach.

Addressing these challenges through improved management, inclusive pricing strategies, and community partnerships can significantly enhance the complex’s impact.

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Conclusion

The Dwarka Sports Complex stands as a successful example of a planned sports zone within an urban context, contributing to physical fitness, social well-being, and overall urban livability. It demonstrates how dedicated sports infrastructure can go beyond competitive athletics to serve as a cornerstone of community life. As Delhi continues to grow and densify, such sports complexes will become increasingly important in ensuring that urban development remains people-centric, healthy, and socially inclusive. With sustained investment, effective management, and inclusive policies, the Dwarka Sports Complex can continue to inspire active living and sporting excellence for generations to come.

Economically Weaker Section (EWS) housing plays a vital role in addressing the housing shortage among low-income urban households in India. EWS houses are primarily meant for families with limited income who are often excluded from the formal housing market and are forced to live in informal settlements or substandard conditions. The Design & Build (D&B) model has emerged as an effective project delivery mechanism for EWS housing, enabling faster construction, cost control, and better coordination between design and execution.

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Understanding EWS Housing

EWS housing refers to dwelling units developed specifically for economically weaker sections of society, usually with a small unit size (generally 25–40 sq m carpet area) and basic but adequate living facilities. These houses typically include one multipurpose room, a small kitchen space, a toilet-bathroom, and provision for ventilation and natural light. The objective of EWS housing is not merely shelter provision but ensuring dignified, safe, and habitable living conditions with access to essential services such as water supply, sanitation, electricity, roads, and social infrastructure.

EWS housing projects are often developed by public authorities, urban local bodies, housing boards, or through public–private partnerships as part of affordable housing and slum rehabilitation initiatives.

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Concept of the Design & Build Model

The Design & Build model is a project delivery system in which a single agency or contractor is responsible for both the design and construction of the housing project. Unlike the traditional model—where design and construction are handled by separate entities—the D&B model integrates both functions under one contract. This approach is particularly suitable for EWS housing due to its emphasis on speed, standardisation, and cost efficiency.

Under this model, the client or government agency specifies performance requirements, unit sizes, quality standards, timelines, and cost limits. The design-build contractor then prepares detailed designs and executes construction accordingly.

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Design Principles for EWS Houses

Designing EWS houses under the D&B model requires a careful balance between affordability, functionality, and livability. Key design considerations include:

• Efficient space planning to maximise usability within limited carpet area. Multi-functional spaces are often adopted.
• Standardised layouts and modular design, which allow repetition and faster execution while maintaining quality.
• Adequate natural light and ventilation, achieved through window placement, orientation, and open corridors.
• Structural safety and durability, especially in multi-storey developments, using cost-effective but robust construction technologies.
• Provision of basic services, including water supply, sanitation, electricity, and drainage.
• Fire safety, accessibility, and disaster resilience, particularly important in high-density EWS housing clusters.

The D&B model allows contractors to optimise designs based on construction methods, materials, and sequencing, reducing wastage and cost overruns.

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Construction Aspects under the Design & Build Model

Construction of EWS houses using the D&B model often employs mass housing techniques such as precast components, monolithic concrete construction, or other fast-track technologies. These methods help achieve uniform quality, reduce construction time, and ensure structural consistency.

Key construction features include:

• Rapid project execution, as design and construction phases overlap.
• Better coordination, since the same agency handles drawings, approvals, and on-site work.
• Cost control, achieved through bulk procurement, standard materials, and optimised construction processes.
• Quality assurance, as the contractor is accountable for both design performance and construction output.

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Advantages of the Design & Build Model for EWS Housing

The D&B model offers several advantages when applied to EWS housing projects:

1. Time efficiency – Faster project delivery helps meet urgent housing demand.
2. Single-point responsibility – Reduces disputes between designers and contractors.
3. Cost effectiveness – Better integration leads to optimised designs and reduced variations.
4. Innovation potential – Contractors can introduce new materials and construction techniques.
5. Scalability – Suitable for large-scale EWS housing developments.

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Challenges and Limitations

Despite its benefits, the Design & Build model also presents certain challenges in EWS housing:

• Risk of compromised design quality if cost-cutting dominates decision-making.
• Limited community participation, as designs are often finalised quickly.
• Maintenance concerns, if post-construction management is not clearly defined.
• Need for strong monitoring, as public agencies must ensure compliance with quality and safety standards.

Addressing these challenges requires robust tender conditions, independent quality audits, and clear performance benchmarks.

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Conclusion

EWS houses developed under the Design & Build model represent a pragmatic and efficient approach to affordable housing delivery in India. By integrating design and construction, the model ensures speed, cost control, and accountability—key factors in meeting the massive housing needs of economically weaker sections. However, the true success of EWS housing lies not just in numbers but in quality, livability, and long-term sustainability. When supported by thoughtful design guidelines, strong institutional oversight, and inclusive planning, the Design & Build model can significantly contribute to creating humane, dignified, and resilient housing solutions for the urban poor.

The Delhi Cycle Walkway represents an important step towards building a more sustainable, healthy, and inclusive urban transport system in Delhi. As one of the most populous and congested metropolitan regions in the world, Delhi faces severe challenges related to traffic congestion, air pollution, road safety, and declining quality of life. In this context, the development of dedicated cycle walkways—often integrated with pedestrian paths—has emerged as a critical intervention to encourage non-motorised transport (NMT), reduce dependency on private vehicles, and create people-centric streets.

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Concept of the Delhi Cycle Walkway

A cycle walkway in Delhi refers to a dedicated, clearly demarcated corridor designed primarily for cyclists and often combined with pedestrian infrastructure, ensuring safe and comfortable movement for non-motorised users. These facilities are typically separated from motorised traffic through physical barriers, level differences, landscaping, or markings. The concept aligns with global best practices in urban mobility, where cycling and walking are treated as essential modes of transport rather than residual activities.

In Delhi, cycle walkways are planned along arterial roads, sub-arterial corridors, transit-oriented development (TOD) zones, institutional areas, and recreational stretches. The aim is not only to provide infrastructure but also to reshape travel behaviour by making cycling and walking safer, more attractive, and socially acceptable.

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Need for Cycle Walkways in Delhi

The need for cycle walkways in Delhi arises from multiple urban challenges:

1. High traffic congestion: With rapid growth in private vehicle ownership, Delhi’s road space is heavily dominated by cars and two-wheelers.
2. Air pollution: Vehicular emissions are a major contributor to poor air quality, making a strong case for zero-emission modes such as cycling and walking.
3. Road safety concerns: Pedestrians and cyclists constitute a significant share of road accident victims due to the absence of safe infrastructure.
4. First- and last-mile connectivity: Cycle walkways play a crucial role in connecting residential areas to metro stations, bus stops, and activity centres.
5. Public health: Encouraging active travel helps address lifestyle diseases and improves overall well-being.

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Design Features of Delhi Cycle Walkways

Delhi’s cycle walkways incorporate several important design elements:

• Dedicated cycle lanes with adequate width, typically ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 metres, depending on demand and right-of-way availability.
• Pedestrian footpaths alongside cycle tracks, ensuring conflict-free movement between walkers and cyclists.
• Physical segregation from motorised traffic using kerbs, bollards, railings, or green buffers.
• Universal accessibility features, such as ramps, tactile paving, and gentle gradients for persons with disabilities.
• Street furniture and amenities, including benches, lighting, signage, drinking water points, and shade trees.
• Safe crossings at intersections through raised tables, signals, and traffic calming measures.

These design components aim to create a comfortable and continuous network rather than isolated stretches of infrastructure.

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Integration with Public Transport and TOD

One of the most significant roles of cycle walkways in Delhi is their integration with public transport systems. Many cycle tracks are planned within transit influence zones to support metro and bus ridership. Cyclists can access stations quickly, park their bicycles at designated facilities, or use shared mobility services for first- and last-mile travel.

Within transit-oriented development areas, cycle walkways contribute to compact, mixed-use, and walkable neighbourhoods. They help reduce short motorised trips, increase active travel, and support sustainable land-use patterns.

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Social and Environmental Benefits

The Delhi Cycle Walkway offers a wide range of benefits:

• Environmental benefits: Reduced emissions, lower noise pollution, and improved urban microclimate.
• Social equity: Affordable mobility for low-income groups, students, and informal workers who rely on cycling and walking.
• Health benefits: Increased physical activity leads to better cardiovascular health and reduced stress.
• Economic efficiency: Cycling infrastructure is cost-effective compared to road widening or flyover construction.
• Urban livability: Streets with cycle walkways are often more vibrant, safer, and people-friendly.

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Challenges in Implementation

Despite its potential, the Delhi Cycle Walkway initiative faces several challenges:

• Encroachment and misuse by parked vehicles, street vendors, or utility installations.
• Discontinuity of networks, where cycle tracks abruptly end or lack safe intersections.
• Public perception, as cycling is still viewed by many as a non-prestigious mode of transport.
• Maintenance issues, including damaged surfaces, poor lighting, and inadequate cleanliness.
• Institutional coordination, as multiple agencies are involved in planning and implementation.

Addressing these issues requires strong enforcement, continuous monitoring, and public awareness campaigns.

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Conclusion

The Delhi Cycle Walkway is more than just a piece of transport infrastructure; it is a statement about the city’s vision for sustainable and inclusive mobility. By prioritising cyclists and pedestrians, Delhi can reduce its environmental footprint, enhance public health, and reclaim streets as shared public spaces. While challenges remain, consistent policy support, community participation, and integrated planning can transform cycle walkways into a backbone of everyday urban mobility. In the long run, a well-connected and well-maintained cycle walkway network has the potential to redefine how Delhi moves—cleaner, healthier, and more equitably.

In-situ rehabilitation is an urban development and housing strategy aimed at improving the living conditions of informal settlement residents at the same location where they currently reside, instead of relocating them to distant peripheral sites. The core idea behind in-situ rehabilitation is simple yet powerful: people should not lose their homes, livelihoods, social networks, or access to urban opportunities in the name of development. This approach has gained prominence in rapidly urbanising countries like India, where informal settlements are deeply integrated into the urban economy.

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Concept and Meaning of In-Situ Rehabilitation

The term in-situ literally means “in the original place.” In-situ rehabilitation therefore refers to redevelopment or upgrading of existing slums or informal settlements without displacing the residents outside the project area. The approach may involve rebuilding houses vertically, improving infrastructure, regularising land tenure, and providing basic services such as water supply, sanitation, electricity, drainage, and road access.

Unlike relocation-based resettlement, where communities are shifted to far-off locations, in-situ rehabilitation recognises that informal settlements are often located close to employment centres, transport corridors, and social amenities. Removing people from these locations can worsen poverty, increase travel costs, and disrupt established social systems.

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Objectives of In-Situ Rehabilitation

The primary objectives of in-situ rehabilitation include:

1. Improving housing quality by replacing unsafe, congested, or dilapidated structures with durable and planned housing units.
2. Ensuring tenure security, either through ownership rights, long-term leases, or occupancy certificates.
3. Upgrading urban infrastructure, including internal roads, drainage, sewerage, water supply, solid waste management, and street lighting.
4. Minimising displacement, thereby protecting livelihoods and social networks.
5. Promoting inclusive urban development, where low-income communities remain part of the city rather than being pushed to the margins.

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Process of In-Situ Rehabilitation

The implementation of in-situ rehabilitation generally follows a structured process:

1. Identification and Survey
The first step involves identifying eligible settlements and conducting detailed socio-economic and physical surveys. Household data, structure conditions, tenure status, and service availability are documented.

2. Community Participation and Consent
In-situ rehabilitation heavily relies on community participation. Resident consent is crucial, especially where redevelopment involves vertical construction and temporary relocation. Community engagement helps build trust and ensures that designs respond to real needs.

3. Planning and Design
Planning includes layout redesign, building typologies, density optimisation, and integration with the surrounding urban fabric. Design solutions often involve multi-storey buildings to accommodate the same population within limited land.

4. Temporary Transit Accommodation
During construction, residents may be shifted to nearby transit camps. Keeping these camps close to the original site is essential to minimise disruption.

5. Construction and Redevelopment
Housing units are constructed along with internal infrastructure and service networks. Quality control and adherence to safety standards are critical at this stage.

6. Allotment and Post-Occupancy Support
After completion, rehabilitated units are allotted to eligible beneficiaries. Post-occupancy support, such as maintenance systems and resident welfare associations, ensures long-term sustainability.

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Importance and Benefits of In-Situ Rehabilitation

In-situ rehabilitation offers several social, economic, and spatial advantages:

• Livelihood protection: Residents retain access to jobs, markets, and informal economic activities.
• Social continuity: Community bonds, cultural practices, and support systems remain intact.
• Reduced urban sprawl: Redevelopment within existing city areas limits outward expansion and infrastructure costs.
• Better utilisation of urban land: Central land is optimised rather than underutilised or encroached upon.
• Improved quality of life: Access to services, safer housing, and improved public spaces enhances living conditions.

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Challenges and Limitations

Despite its advantages, in-situ rehabilitation faces multiple challenges:

• Land ownership and legal disputes can delay or derail projects.
• High population density makes planning and construction complex.
• Financial viability is often dependent on cross-subsidy models, which may prioritise commercial interests.
• Temporary displacement issues arise when transit housing is inadequate or located far away.
• Maintenance concerns may emerge if residents lack capacity or institutional support post-redevelopment.

Additionally, poorly planned projects risk creating vertical slums if adequate open spaces, social infrastructure, and livelihood considerations are ignored.

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In-Situ Rehabilitation in the Indian Context

In India, in-situ rehabilitation has been promoted under national urban housing initiatives, particularly as part of slum redevelopment and affordable housing policies. Cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad, and Hyderabad have implemented varying models of in-situ redevelopment, with mixed outcomes. Successful projects are typically those where community participation, transparent governance, and contextual planning are prioritised.

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Conclusion

In-situ rehabilitation represents a progressive shift in urban planning—from eviction and relocation towards inclusion, dignity, and rights-based development. When executed thoughtfully, it not only transforms physical living conditions but also strengthens social equity and urban resilience. However, its success depends on sensitive planning, strong institutional frameworks, financial transparency, and meaningful community engagement. As cities continue to grow, in-situ rehabilitation will remain a critical tool for achieving sustainable and inclusive urban development.

1. External Development

External Development refers to all infrastructure facilities that are developed outside the individual plot or building boundary but are essential for the proper functioning of a project, township, or urban development. These facilities connect the project with the larger city or regional infrastructure network.

External development typically includes:

• External approach roads and access roads
• Water supply pipelines from municipal mains
• Sewerage and storm water connections to city networks
• External power supply lines and substations
• External drainage channels
• Street lighting in peripheral areas

The responsibility for external development may lie with the developer, government agencies, or be shared, depending on local development regulations. In large housing or mixed-use projects, external development ensures integration with city services, smooth mobility, environmental safety, and long-term sustainability. Poor external development often leads to traffic congestion, water shortages, flooding, and service failures.

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2. Electrification

Electrification involves the planning, installation, and commissioning of electrical infrastructure required to supply safe and reliable power to a project or area. It includes both external electrification and internal electrification.

Key components of electrification include:

• High tension (HT) and low tension (LT) power lines
• Electrical substations and transformers
• Distribution panels and switchgear
• Street lighting systems
• Backup power systems (DG sets, solar PV, batteries)

External electrification connects the project to the city or state electricity grid, while internal electrification distributes power within buildings, common areas, and services. Modern electrification planning also integrates renewable energy systems, energy-efficient lighting, and smart metering to reduce power consumption and operational costs.

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3. UGRs (Underground Reservoirs)

UGRs (Underground Reservoirs) are structures used for storage of potable or non-potable water below ground level. They form a critical part of water supply systems in residential, commercial, and institutional developments.

Functions of UGRs include:

• Storing municipal water for uninterrupted supply
• Acting as buffer storage during peak demand
• Supporting fire-fighting systems
• Storing treated water for reuse (flushing, landscaping)

UGRs are usually connected to overhead tanks (OHTs) through pumping systems. Proper design of UGRs ensures adequate capacity, water quality protection, ease of maintenance, and structural safety. They help ensure water security, especially in areas with intermittent municipal supply.

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4. STP (Sewage Treatment Plant)

A Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) is a facility designed to treat wastewater generated from residential, commercial, or mixed-use developments before disposal or reuse. STPs are mandatory in large developments under environmental and urban development regulations.

The treatment process generally includes:

• Preliminary treatment (screening and grit removal)
• Primary treatment (settling of solids)
• Secondary biological treatment (removal of organic matter)
• Tertiary treatment (filtration and disinfection)

Treated wastewater from STPs is reused for:

• Flushing toilets
• Landscape irrigation
• Cooling towers
• Road washing

STPs reduce pollution loads on city sewer networks, conserve freshwater resources, and support sustainable urban water management. Efficient operation and maintenance of STPs are crucial to avoid odor, health risks, and environmental violations.

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5. ESS (Electrical Substation / Energy Storage System)

The term ESS can have two meanings depending on project context:

(a) Electrical Substation

An Electrical Substation is a facility where voltage is transformed from high to low or vice versa to enable safe distribution of electricity. Substations include:

• Transformers
• Circuit breakers
• Control panels
• Protection systems

They ensure stable power supply, voltage regulation, and electrical safety within a project or township.

(b) Energy Storage System

In modern developments, ESS may also refer to Energy Storage Systems, which store electrical energy for later use. These systems:

• Improve power reliability
• Support renewable energy integration (solar, wind)
• Reduce peak load demand
• Provide backup during power outages

Energy storage systems play a growing role in sustainable and smart city projects.

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6. Other Supporting Infrastructure (“etc.”)

In addition to the above, large projects also include:

• Storm water drainage systems
• Solid waste management facilities
• Fire-fighting infrastructure
• Communication and ICT networks
• Utility corridors and service ducts

These systems collectively ensure functional efficiency, safety, environmental protection, and quality of life.

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Conclusion

External development and infrastructure components such as electrification, UGRs, STPs, and ESS form the backbone of any planned urban or infrastructure project. Their proper planning, design, and integration ensure sustainable service delivery, environmental compliance, and long-term operational efficiency. Together, these systems transform physical development into a livable, resilient, and well-functioning urban environment.

A turnkey project is a form of project delivery in which a single contractor or organization is made fully responsible for the design, execution, installation, testing, and commissioning of a project. The term turnkey signifies that the client only needs to “turn the key” to begin operations once the project is completed. Such projects are commonly used in construction, infrastructure development, industrial plants, power projects, information technology systems, and urban development works, where clients prefer minimal involvement during implementation.

In a turnkey arrangement, the client defines the broad requirements, objectives, and performance standards at the outset. Based on these requirements, the contractor undertakes the entire project lifecycle—from conceptual design to final handover. This approach contrasts with traditional project delivery methods, where design, construction, and supervision may be handled by multiple agencies, often increasing coordination challenges and risks for the client.

One of the most significant features of a turnkey project is single-point responsibility. The contractor is accountable for cost, time, quality, and functionality. If delays occur, costs escalate, or performance standards are not met, the responsibility lies with the contractor rather than being dispersed across consultants, suppliers, and subcontractors. This greatly reduces administrative and managerial burden for the client and ensures clearer accountability.

Another important characteristic of turnkey projects is fixed pricing. In many cases, the project is executed on a lump-sum or fixed-price basis. This provides cost certainty to the client and helps in better financial planning. Since the contractor bears the risk of cost overruns, they are motivated to plan efficiently, optimize resource use, and complete the project within the agreed budget and timeline.

Turnkey projects are especially beneficial when the client lacks technical expertise or sufficient manpower to manage complex projects. By transferring technical and operational risks to the contractor, the client can focus on strategic decisions rather than day-to-day execution. This makes turnkey contracts attractive for governments, public sector undertakings, and private developers undertaking large-scale or technically complex projects.

However, turnkey projects also have certain limitations. Since the contractor controls design and execution, the client may have limited flexibility to introduce changes once the project is underway. Any modification in scope or specifications often leads to cost and time implications. Therefore, it is crucial that the client clearly defines project requirements, performance criteria, and quality standards at the planning stage.

Another concern can be quality assurance. As contractors aim to maximize profit within a fixed price, there may be a tendency to reduce costs by selecting lower-quality materials or technologies, unless strict specifications, monitoring mechanisms, and penalties are included in the contract. Hence, well-drafted contracts and effective supervision remain essential even in turnkey projects.

In practice, turnkey projects are widely used in sectors such as highways, metro rail systems, water supply schemes, wastewater treatment plants, industrial units, and housing developments. In urban and infrastructure planning, turnkey projects help expedite implementation, reduce delays caused by inter-agency coordination, and ensure faster delivery of public assets.

In conclusion, a turnkey project is an efficient and client-friendly project delivery mechanism that emphasizes accountability, risk transfer, and timely completion. While it offers significant advantages in terms of simplicity, cost certainty, and reduced managerial effort, its success depends heavily on clear initial planning, comprehensive contracts, and robust performance specifications. When applied appropriately, turnkey projects can play a vital role in achieving efficient and sustainable development outcomes.

By Kavita Dehalwar

Estimation is a critical activity in construction and project management, as it directly influences decision-making, budgeting, scheduling, and resource allocation. The attached image clearly illustrates how estimating methods evolve from quick, perception-based approaches to highly detailed, fact-driven techniques, with a corresponding increase in accuracy and level of detail. This progression reflects the maturity of project information and the purpose for which the estimate is prepared.

The horizontal axis in the image represents a shift from perception to fact, while the vertical axis highlights the movement from “quick and dirty” estimates to high accuracy and detail. As projects move forward, estimation methods transition along this curve.

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1. Expert Judgment Estimate

At the earliest stage of a project, expert judgment is often the primary estimation method. This approach relies on the experience, intuition, and professional knowledge of experts who have worked on similar projects.

Characteristics:

• Based largely on perception and past experience
• Minimal data or documentation required
• Very fast and inexpensive

Applications:

• Conceptual planning
• Initial idea screening
• Early discussions with stakeholders

Limitations:

• Highly subjective
• Accuracy depends heavily on expert competence
• Difficult to justify quantitatively

This method is positioned at the far left of the image, emphasizing its low accuracy but high speed. It is useful for rough direction-setting rather than firm decision-making.

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2. Three-Point Estimate

The three-point estimate improves upon pure expert judgment by incorporating uncertainty into the estimation process. Instead of a single value, three scenarios are considered:

• Optimistic (O)
• Most likely (M)
• Pessimistic (P)

These values are combined to produce a weighted average estimate.

Characteristics:

• Accounts for risk and uncertainty
• More structured than expert judgment
• Still relatively quick

Applications:

• Risk assessment
• Early feasibility analysis
• Schedule and cost forecasting

Advantages:

• Reduces bias
• Encourages realistic thinking

Although still partially perception-based, this method moves slightly upward on the accuracy scale, as shown in the image.

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3. Comparative Estimate

A comparative estimate (also known as analogous estimation) uses historical data from similar completed projects as a reference.

Characteristics:

• Relies on documented past projects
• Adjustments made for size, location, complexity, and inflation
• Moderately accurate

Applications:

• Feasibility studies
• Preliminary budgeting
• Alternative evaluation

Strengths:

• Faster than detailed estimation
• More objective than judgment-based methods

Weaknesses:

• Accuracy depends on similarity of reference projects
• Adjustments may introduce errors

In the image, comparative estimates occupy the mid-zone, representing a balance between speed and reliability.

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4. Parametric Estimate

The parametric estimating method uses statistical relationships between variables to estimate cost or time. For example, cost per square meter, cost per bed, or cost per classroom.

Characteristics:

• Uses mathematical models and cost drivers
• Requires reliable historical data
• Scalable and repeatable

Applications:

• Large-scale projects
• Budget forecasting
• Institutional and infrastructure planning

Advantages:

• Higher accuracy than comparative estimates
• Data-driven and transparent

Limitations:

• Requires validated parameters
• Less effective for unique or complex designs

As shown in the image, parametric estimation is closer to the “fact” end of the spectrum, offering higher accuracy and greater confidence.

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5. Bottom-Up Estimate

The bottom-up estimate represents the most detailed and accurate estimation method shown in the image. It involves breaking the project into individual components or work items and estimating each separately before aggregating the total cost.

Characteristics:

• Item-by-item quantity take-off
• Detailed rate analysis
• High time and effort requirement

Applications:

• Tendering and bidding
• Final project approval
• Cost control during execution

Advantages:

• Highest accuracy
• Strong justification and traceability
• Suitable for contracts and audits

Disadvantages:

• Time-consuming
• Requires complete drawings and specifications

This method appears at the far right and highest point in the image, clearly indicating maximum accuracy, detail, and factual basis.

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The image conveys a powerful message: no single estimating method is universally best. Instead, the choice of method depends on:

• Project stage
• Availability of information
• Required accuracy
• Time and resources

Early-stage decisions benefit from fast, perception-based methods, while later stages demand rigorous, fact-based approaches. Attempting a bottom-up estimate too early can waste effort, while relying on expert judgment too late can lead to cost overruns.

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Conclusion

The progression of estimating methods—from expert judgment to bottom-up estimation—reflects the natural evolution of project information and decision needs. As shown in the image, accuracy and detail increase as estimates move from perception to fact. Effective project management lies in selecting the right estimation method at the right time, ensuring informed decisions without unnecessary complexity.

Understanding this hierarchy of estimating methods enables engineers, planners, and project managers to balance speed, accuracy, and reliability, ultimately contributing to successful project outcomes.

By Kavita Dehalwar

Construction estimates are prepared at different stages of a project depending on the level of information available. The main types are:

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1. Order of Magnitude Estimate

This is the earliest and roughest estimate prepared.

Purpose

• To get a broad idea of project cost
• Used for initial decision-making

Basis

• Past experience
• Cost of similar projects
• Very limited data

Accuracy

• ±30–40%

Use

• Project idea stage
• Go / No-go decision

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2. Feasibility Estimate

Prepared to assess whether the project is financially viable.

Purpose

• To evaluate economic feasibility
• To compare alternatives

Basis

• Approximate quantities
• Area or unit rates
• Preliminary layouts

Accuracy

• ±20–25%

Use

• Feasibility studies
• Investment appraisal

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3. Preliminary Estimate

Prepared once the basic design and layout are available.

Purpose

• To obtain administrative approval
• To estimate project budget

Basis

• Plinth area / floor area / cubic content method
• Approximate specifications

Accuracy

• ±15–20%

Use

• Budget sanction
• Planning stage decisions

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4. Substantive Estimate

Prepared after the design is finalized.

Purpose

• To obtain technical sanction
• To refine cost estimates

Basis

• Detailed drawings
• Updated specifications
• Refined quantities

Accuracy

• ±10–15%

Use

• Before tendering
• Final cost assessment

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5. Detailed Estimate

This is the most accurate and comprehensive estimate.

Purpose

• For tendering and execution
• To control project cost

Basis

• Item-wise quantity take-off
• Rate analysis using SOR
• Detailed specifications

Accuracy

• ±5–10%

Use

• Contract award
• Construction and payment

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Summary Table

Type of Estimate	Project Stage	Accuracy
Order of Magnitude	Concept stage	Very Low
Feasibility Estimate	Feasibility stage	Low
Preliminary Estimate	Planning stage	Medium
Substantive Estimate	Design finalization	Medium–High
Detailed Estimate	Execution stage	High

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Conclusion

As a project progresses, estimates become more detailed and accurate. Early estimates guide decisions, while detailed estimates ensure financial control and successful execution.

1. Plinth Area Method

This is the most commonly used preliminary estimation method.

Description

The cost of the building is estimated based on the plinth area (built-up area measured at floor level).

Formula

$$\text{Estimated Cost} = \text{Plinth Area} \times \text{Rate per sqm}$$Estimated Cost=Plinth Area×Rate per sqm

Features

• Rate includes walls, finishes, and basic services
• Based on past similar projects

Advantages

• Simple and quick
• Useful at planning stage

Limitations

• Less accurate
• Does not reflect design complexity

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2. Floor Area Method

Cost is estimated using floor area, excluding wall thickness.

Formula

$$\text{Estimated Cost} = \text{Floor Area} \times \text{Rate per sqm}$$Estimated Cost=Floor Area×Rate per sqm

Use

• Residential buildings with repetitive layouts

Difference from Plinth Area Method

Floor area is smaller, so rate per sqm is higher.

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3. Cubic Content Method

Cost estimation based on volume of the building.

Formula

$$\text{Estimated Cost} = \text{Volume} \times \text{Rate per cubic meter}$$Estimated Cost=Volume×Rate per cubic meter

Volume

$$\text{Length} \times \text{Breadth} \times \text{Height}$$Length×Breadth×Height

Advantages

• Considers height of rooms
• More accurate than area methods

Limitations

• Complex measurement
• Not suitable for buildings with varying heights

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4. Approximate Quantity Method

Estimation is based on percentage distribution of major components.

Typical Distribution

• Foundation & plinth: 10–15%
• Superstructure: 45–50%
• Finishing: 25–30%
• Services: 10–15%

Advantages

• Useful for budget comparison
• Quick feasibility analysis

Limitations

• Not item-specific
• Approximate accuracy

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5. Unit Rate Method

Cost is estimated per functional unit.

Examples

• Per classroom
• Per hospital bed
• Per hotel room

Use

• Institutional buildings

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6. Bay Method

Cost is calculated per structural bay.

Used For

• Industrial buildings
• Warehouses

Advantage

• Accounts for structural repetition

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7. Service Unit Method

Used where service demand defines cost.

Examples

• Cost per patient (hospital)
• Cost per student (school)

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8. Detailed Estimate Method

This is the most accurate method.

Process

• Quantity take-off for each item
• Rate analysis using SOR
• Preparation of abstract of cost

Accuracy

±5–10%

Use

• Tendering
• Final approval

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9. Comparison of Cost Estimation Methods

Method	Stage	Accuracy
Plinth Area	Preliminary	Low
Floor Area	Preliminary	Low–Medium
Cubic Content	Preliminary	Medium
Approximate Quantity	Feasibility	Medium
Detailed Estimate	Final	High

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10. Conclusion

• Preliminary estimates → Plinth / Floor / Cubic methods
• Feasibility studies → Approximate quantity method
• Execution & tendering → Detailed estimate method

By Kavita Dehalwar

1. Project Definition and Scope

The estimation process begins with a clear understanding of the project.

• Type of building: residential / commercial / institutional / industrial
• Nature of construction: new construction / addition / renovation
• Number of floors and plinth area
• Construction system: RCC framed / load-bearing / steel structure
• Level of finish: basic / standard / premium

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2. Collection of Drawings and Documents

Accurate estimation depends on complete technical inputs.

• Architectural drawings (plans, elevations, sections)
• Structural drawings (foundation, columns, beams, slabs)
• Service drawings (electrical, plumbing, HVAC, fire-fighting)
• Specifications and material standards
• Local schedule of rates (SOR/DSR)

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3. Measurement of Quantities (Quantity Take-Off)

Quantities are calculated item-wise using standard measurement rules (IS 1200).

3.1 Earthwork

• Excavation for foundations
• Backfilling and disposal

$$\text{Volume} = \text{Length} \times \text{Breadth} \times \text{Depth}$$Volume=Length×Breadth×Depth

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3.2 Foundation and Substructure

• PCC bed
• Footings
• Foundation masonry or RCC
• Plinth beam and DPC

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3.3 Superstructure

• RCC columns, beams, slabs, staircases
• Brick/block masonry
• Lintels and chajjas

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3.4 Finishing Works

• Plastering (internal & external)
• Flooring and tiling
• Painting and polishing
• Doors and windows

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3.5 Services

• Water supply and sanitary installations
• Electrical wiring and fittings
• Fire safety and HVAC (if applicable)

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4. Rate Analysis

Rates are derived for each item of work.

4.1 Components of Rate

• Material cost (cement, steel, bricks, sand, aggregates)
• Labour cost (skilled, semi-skilled, unskilled)
• Equipment and machinery charges
• Transportation and handling
• Wastage allowances

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4.2 Rate Calculation Formula

$$\text{Rate} = \frac{\text{Material} + \text{Labour} + \text{Equipment} + \text{Overheads}}{\text{Unit Quantity}}$$Rate=Unit QuantityMaterial+Labour+Equipment+Overheads​

Rates are taken from:

• Schedule of Rates (SOR/DSR)
• Market analysis (for non-scheduled items)

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5. Abstract of Cost (Cost Compilation)

Item-wise cost is summarized.$$\text{Total Cost} = \sum (\text{Quantity} \times \text{Rate})$$Total Cost=∑(Quantity×Rate)

Major heads:

• Substructure cost
• Superstructure cost
• Finishing cost
• Services cost

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6. Additions to Basic Cost

Additional percentages are added to arrive at final project cost.

6.1 Contingencies

• 3%–5% of estimated cost

6.2 Work-Charged Establishment

• 1.5%–2%

6.3 Contractor’s Profit

• 10%–15%

6.4 Taxes and Duties

• GST, royalty, cess (as applicable)

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7. Cost per Square Meter (Plinth Area Method)

Used for preliminary estimates.$$\text{Cost per sqm} = \frac{\text{Total Project Cost}}{\text{Plinth Area}}$$Cost per sqm=Plinth AreaTotal Project Cost​

This method is useful at the planning stage when detailed drawings are unavailable.

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8. Final Estimated Cost

The final construction cost includes:

• Civil works
• Services
• External development
• Professional fees (if included)

This figure is used for:

• Budget approval
• Tendering
• Financial planning

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9. Accuracy and Revision

• Preliminary estimate: ±15–20%
• Detailed estimate: ±5–10%
• Revised estimates prepared if cost exceeds sanctioned limit (usually 5–10%)

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10. Summary Flow of Estimation Process

1. Define project scope
2. Study drawings & specifications
3. Measure quantities
4. Analyze rates
5. Prepare abstract of cost
6. Add contingencies, profit, taxes
7. Arrive at final estimated cost

References

V Montes, M., M Falcón, R., & Ramírez-de-Arellano, A. (2014). Estimating building construction costs by production processes. The Open Construction & Building Technology Journal, 8(1).

Holm, L., & Schaufelberger, J. E. (2021). Construction cost estimating. Routledge.

Asal, E. M. (2014). Factors affecting building construction projects’ cost estimating. Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AASTMT), 95.

Fazeli, A., Dashti, M. S., Jalaei, F., & Khanzadi, M. (2021). An integrated BIM-based approach for cost estimation in construction projects. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 28(9), 2828-2854.

Ji, S. H., Park, M., & Lee, H. S. (2011). Cost estimation model for building projects using case-based reasoning. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 38(5), 570-581.

New-build apartments in Cyprus are having a moment—and it’s not hard to see why. Buyers get modern layouts, better energy performance than older stock, cleaner legal documentation (in many cases), and the kind of building amenities that make day-to-day life look and feel easier: elevators that don’t creak, underground parking that actually fits modern cars, storage rooms that are planned from day one, and communal spaces designed for how people live now.

But “new” doesn’t automatically mean “good.”

In Cyprus, the difference between a great new apartment and an expensive headache often comes down to one thing: the developer. Developers shape construction quality, project management, finishing specs, handover procedures, warranty handling, and—often—how smoothly paperwork progresses. A strong developer can make the buying experience predictable. A weak one can leave you chasing timelines, arguing over “included” features, or discovering that the building looks far less impressive after six months of real-life use.

This article covers the best new apartment property developers in Cyprus, what each is typically strongest at, and how to choose the right one depending on whether you’re buying for relocation, lifestyle, or investment.

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What “best new apartment developer” really means in Cyprus

When buyers say “best,” they often mean “most famous.” But the smartest buyers define “best” differently. For new-build apartments, the best developer is the one that consistently delivers:

1) Consistent build quality (not just a pretty showroom)

Show apartments are staged to perfection. The truth is in details you can’t photograph easily: wall straightness, waterproofing, window sealing, sound insulation between units, elevator reliability, and how communal areas age after people move in.

2) Modern, livable layouts

New-build apartments should feel efficient: open-plan living that isn’t awkward, bedrooms that actually fit real furniture, storage that doesn’t feel like an afterthought, and balconies that add value rather than “marketing square meters.”

3) Transparent specifications

Great developers provide clear, written specs that make it hard for misunderstandings to happen. You want to know exactly what’s included: kitchen quality, wardrobes, sanitary ware, thermal insulation, glazing type, A/C provisions, electrical capacity, and whether smart-home features are real or just brochure language.

4) Clean handover + after-sales process

Every new apartment will have snagging items. The difference is whether you get a structured process and fast fixes—or vague promises and delays. A professional after-sales team is a major “quality signal.”

5) Strong project selection in high-demand zones

A new apartment’s value is not only inside the unit. It’s also the neighborhood, access to amenities, and whether the building makes sense for how people live and rent in Cyprus today.

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Best new apartment developers in Cyprus (and who they’re best for)

Below are developers widely associated with modern residential delivery and strong new-build apartment pipelines. Each one fits a different buyer profile—so treat this as a matching exercise, not a popularity contest.

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1) bbf (often paired with a strong modern design identity)

If your goal is a new apartment that looks and feels “current Cyprus”—clean lines, modern finishes, lifestyle branding, and a strong emphasis on aesthetics—bbf is often one of the first names buyers consider, especially in markets where newer luxury and “new urban” living is in demand.

Why buyers like them for new apartments

• Strong design-forward positioning
• Modern building concepts and contemporary interiors
• Projects that often target the premium end of the new-build segment

Best for

• Buyers who want a modern “statement” apartment
• Investors targeting tenants who value style and building image
• Buyers shopping in higher-demand, newer lifestyle zones

What to double-check
Confirm thermal and glazing specs (design and performance must match Cyprus heat), and clarify what finishes are truly included versus upgrade packages.

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2) Prime Property Group (new-build focus with contemporary planning)

Prime Property Group is frequently discussed in the context of contemporary residential development and modern new-build apartment concepts. Buyers often shortlist them when they want updated layouts and a “new standard” feel—better use of space, cleaner finishing language, and projects aligned with modern expectations.

Why buyers like them

• Contemporary planning and modern finishes
• Projects that often feel tailored to today’s lifestyle
• Strong appeal for both end-users and rental markets in certain zones

Best for

• Buyers seeking modern living rather than “traditional apartment blocks”
• Investors who want strong tenant appeal in new-build stock

What to double-check
Ask for a detailed spec sheet and clarity on included kitchen/wardrobes, A/C provisions, parking allocation, and storage.

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3) Pafilia (master-planned living and new-build community feel)

Pafilia is one of the most recognized residential developers on the island and is widely associated with larger planned developments, particularly in markets where community-style living is a big selling point. While many people think first about Paphos, the broader idea matters: structured developments that often come with shared amenities and a cohesive environment.

Why buyers like them

• Organized projects with community planning
• Amenities and communal areas that feel intentionally designed
• A “turnkey” vibe that appeals to overseas buyers and lifestyle purchasers

Best for

• Buyers who want a managed community environment
• Buyers who value amenities like pools, gyms, and landscaped common areas
• Investors who want rental-friendly “resort-like” apartment settings

What to double-check
Communal fees and what they cover. Also confirm whether the apartment’s finish level matches the show unit or differs by phase.

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4) Aristo Developers (wide apartment selection and buyer-friendly processes)

Aristo is a major developer with a broad pipeline across Cyprus and strong presence in coastal markets. Many buyers like Aristo because it’s easier to compare multiple projects and locations without switching developers, which can reduce complexity when you’re buying from abroad.

Why buyers like them

• Variety of projects and layouts
• Often structured communication and purchase process
• Experience working with international buyers

Best for

• Buyers comparing multiple regions (coastal vs. suburban)
• Buyers who want a clearer process and predictable handover steps
• Investors seeking practical, rental-friendly new-build apartments

What to double-check
Snagging process and warranty details. Ask how defects are reported, typical response time, and what’s considered warranty-covered.

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5) Leptos Estates (legacy developer with new-build offerings)

Leptos is one of the longest-standing names in Cyprus development and has delivered many residential projects over the years. For buyers, the advantage of established developers is simple: you can often see how their completed buildings age and how communities function years after delivery.

Why buyers like them

• Long-term track record and recognizable brand
• Large base of completed projects (useful for real-life inspection)
• Residential planning that often suits year-round living

Best for

• Buyers who want stability and a long operating history
• Families and retirees planning permanent living
• Buyers who prefer “proven residential neighborhoods” over hype

What to double-check
Energy performance and insulation standards for the specific new project—don’t assume all “new builds” are equally efficient.

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6) Cyfield (construction strength and “engineering-first” confidence)

Cyfield is known as a major construction and development group, and buyers often associate that kind of profile with reliable structural execution. Not every buyer cares about trendy design. Many care about durability, technical soundness, and long-term building performance.

Why buyers like them

• Strong construction DNA
• Often perceived as more engineering-driven
• Appeals to buyers prioritizing solidity over styling

Best for

• Long-term owners who want durability and robust build fundamentals
• Buyers who prioritize structural integrity and predictability

What to double-check
Interior finishing packages and layout efficiency. Engineering strength is great—just make sure the apartment feels good to live in.

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7) D. Zavos Group (prime-zone projects and urban value positioning)

D. Zavos is a well-known name in Cyprus real estate development, often associated with projects in prime or high-demand zones, particularly around major cities. For new-build apartment buyers, this can matter: location and neighborhood value can do more for long-term returns than a slightly nicer countertop.

Why buyers like them

• Strong emphasis on prime locations and modern city living
• Projects that often appeal to professionals and long-term tenants

Best for

• Buyers focused on city-adjacent living and long-term resale value
• Investors targeting urban rental demand

What to double-check
Exactly what’s included in finishing level, and whether parking/storage is truly secure and assigned as you expect.

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8) Imperio (often connected with modern city-style apartment concepts)

Imperio is another developer frequently discussed in the context of new-build urban residential concepts and contemporary apartment living, especially in city-centric markets. Their projects often attract buyers seeking modern lifestyle positioning.

Why buyers like them

• Modern apartment product and building identity
• Strong appeal for professional tenants in urban areas

Best for

• Buyers seeking city living and tenant demand
• Investors focusing on newer, marketable apartment stock

What to double-check
Noise insulation, elevator specs, and building management plan—these matter hugely for apartments targeted at busy urban zones.

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“Best” also depends on the city: Cyprus markets are not identical

New-build apartment demand is different depending on where you buy:

Limassol

Typically higher prices and strong demand from professionals and international buyers. New apartments here often compete on design, amenities, and location convenience. Developers with strong modern branding tend to shine.

Nicosia

More local, year-round demand. Buyers often prioritize practicality, parking, and proximity to work/schools. Build quality and sound insulation matter a lot because living is less “holiday” and more daily routine.

Larnaca

A mix of lifestyle and investment demand, with buyers often targeting airport access, seaside living, and future growth expectations. New projects that balance price and livability tend to perform well.

Paphos

Strong international buyer presence and a wide variety of development styles. New apartments often compete on lifestyle, community amenities, and rental suitability.

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How to choose a new apartment developer in Cyprus (a buyer checklist that actually works)

If you want to buy wisely, focus on verification rather than marketing:

1) Visit completed projects by the same developer

Not the showroom. Not renderings. Walk around a building where people already live. Look at:

• Condition of communal areas
• Quality of tiling and paint over time
• Elevator reliability
• How the landscaping is maintained
• Whether parking and access feel practical

2) Demand the full written specification

You want clarity on:

• Window and glazing type
• Insulation approach (walls and roof)
• Sound insulation measures
• Kitchen and wardrobe inclusions
• Bathroom brand level
• A/C and heating provisions
• Electrical capacity and “smart” features

If it’s not written down, it’s not guaranteed.

3) Understand communal fees before you commit

New apartments often sell lifestyle: pools, gyms, security, landscaped areas. Those cost money to maintain. Ask for:

• Estimated service charges
• What’s included (pool, lift, security, gardens, insurance, cleaning)
• Who manages the building and how decisions are made

4) Ask about snagging like an adult, not like a hopeful buyer

Ask:

• How do I report defects?
• What’s the typical response time?
• How many snagging inspections are allowed?
• What is covered under warranty and what isn’t?

A good developer will answer clearly. A weak one will get vague.

5) Use an independent lawyer

This is essential. Your lawyer should protect your interests on the contract terms, specification annexes, delivery timelines, and legal safeguards. Don’t rely on “standard practice” assurances.

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Common mistakes buyers make with new-build apartments in Cyprus

Mistake 1: Buying the show apartment, not the actual unit
Your unit might have different orientation, sunlight, wind exposure, and noise profile. Always evaluate the real unit position.

Mistake 2: Ignoring parking and storage realities
In Cyprus, parking size and access can matter more than people expect. Confirm your parking is assigned, accessible, and legally part of what you purchase.

Mistake 3: Overpaying for amenities you won’t use
A gym and pool sound great—until you realize you’re paying for them yearly while barely using them. Be honest about lifestyle.

Mistake 4: Not checking how “new” performs in the Cyprus climate
Heat management is real. Glazing quality, shading, orientation, and ventilation make the difference between a comfortable home and a high electricity bill.

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Final thoughts: “Best” means the developer whose product matches your goal

The best new apartment developer in Cyprus isn’t one name. It’s the one that aligns with your priorities:

• If you want design-forward, premium new-build identity, look toward modern lifestyle developers.
• If you want planned communities and a turnkey environment, master-planned residential developers often fit best.
• If you want durability and long-term ownership confidence, construction-driven groups can make sense.
• If you want urban rental demand and resale fundamentals, focus on developers with strong city-zone positioning.

Your winning move is simple: pick a reputable developer, verify with completed projects, lock everything into written specifications, and protect yourself legally. Do that, and a new apartment in Cyprus becomes what it should be—an asset you enjoy living in, not a problem you manage.

Doing a postdoc in Europe with funding is one of the fastest ways to boost your research independence, build an international network, and advance your career. Below I’ve put together a practical, step-by-step guide you can follow — from finding openings to submitting a competitive application and managing visas/relocation — plus resources that regularly list funded opportunities.

1. Decide what type of funded postdoc you want

There are two common routes to a funded postdoc in Europe: (A) apply for an individual fellowship that pays your salary and research costs (e.g., Marie Skłodowska-Curie Postdoctoral Fellowships, national fellowships, Humboldt, etc.), or (B) join a research group that already has funding for a postdoc position (advertised by the host university or on job portals). Individual fellowships usually give you greater mobility and independence; employment positions give immediate integration into an existing team. Choose based on how much independence you want and how long you can wait for a competitive fellowship round. Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions

2. Start with the right places to search

Use pan-European and national portals to find funded positions and fellowships:

• EURAXESS Jobs & Funding — the central hub for research jobs and fellowships across Europe; set job alerts for “postdoc” and your subject area. EURAXESS
• Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) Postdoctoral Fellowships — large EU fellowships for researchers to move to a host in an EU Member State or Horizon Europe Associated Country. Read calls and timelines carefully.
• European Research Council (ERC) (for slightly more senior early-career grants) and national fellowship providers (e.g., Humboldt Foundation, DAAD, national research councils) for country-specific funding. ERC

Bookmark these and subscribe to alerts — many good opportunities are time-limited and competitive.

3. Prepare your application materials — what selection panels want

Common, high-impact items you’ll repeatedly use:

• Updated CV / academic résumé with publications, grants, teaching, and supervision experience.
• Research proposal (critical for fellowship applications): clear research question, methodology, timeline, expected output/impact, and how the host environment strengthens the project. MSCA and similar calls evaluate excellence, impact, and implementation.
• Cover letter / motivation statement tailored to the PI or fellowship.
• Two or three strong recommendation letters from supervisors or collaborators who can attest to your independence and potential.
• List of key publications and (if required) sample papers.
  Practice a concise “elevator pitch” (1–2 paragraph summary) of your project — you’ll need it when reaching out to potential hosts or writing short abstract boxes.

4. Network and contact potential supervisors strategically

If you plan to join a funded group or to submit a fellowship with a host, identify 5–10 potential supervisors whose recent work aligns with yours. Read their latest papers, then send a concise, personalized email that includes:

1. A one-sentence hook about why their lab is ideal for your project.
2. A two-line description of your background and key achievements.
3. A one-paragraph sketch of the research you want to do and how it complements their group.
   Attach a 1-page CV and a short one-page project summary. If they show interest, ask whether they can co-supervise or provide a letter of support — this is essential for many fellowships. Webinars and local EURAXESS events often provide direct contact opportunities with host institutions.

5. Tailor your research proposal for the fellowship or host

For individual fellowships (MSCA, national schemes), the research proposal is the single most important item. Address these explicitly:

• Excellence: significance, novelty, state of the art, and your track record.
• Impact: expected scientific, societal, and career development outcomes.
• Implementation: deliverables, work packages, timeline, and training plan.
  Follow the funding call template exactly: panels reject proposals that omit required sections or exceed page limits. Many funders publish “how to apply” and “6-step” guidance that you should follow line-by-line.

6. Manage deadlines and application logistics

• Fellowships often have fixed annual calls (note opening and deadline dates). University positions are posted year-round. Use calendars and reminders.
• Prepare supporting documents (degree certificates, transcripts, translations if needed) well before deadlines.
• If invited for interview, prepare a clear presentation (research plan + fit with host), and be ready to discuss career plans.

7. If accepted — getting ready to move

Once you have an offer or an award:

• Check funding details: salary, research allowance, duration, and start date. Fellowships sometimes allow mobility-related costs and training budgets.
• Visa and work permit: non-EU researchers will generally need a host-issued contract/letter and must apply for the appropriate visa (e.g., Researcher visa or Blue Card depending on country). EURAXESS country pages have practical national guidance.
• Housing, healthcare, and taxation: get pre-arrival guidance from your host institution’s international office.

8. Final tips that increase success

• Start early: building relationships and polishing fellowship drafts takes months.
• Get feedback: ask peers, your PhD supervisor, and (if possible) a grants office to review proposals.
• Highlight mobility and training: many European fellowships value international experience and clear training/career development plans.
• Apply widely: combine targeted university openings with at least one fellowship application per year.

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Securing a funded postdoc in Europe is competitive but eminently achievable if you combine targeted searching (EURAXESS and funder portals), careful proposal writing, proactive networking with potential hosts, and meticulous attention to call guidance and deadlines. Start now: set up EURAXESS alerts, shortlist host labs, and draft your one-page project summary — and then iterate with colleagues and mentors. Good luck!

Affiliation: Manchester Metropolitan University, United Kingdom

Profile Summary
Ibukun Oluwafunke Ladega-Adekeye is a researcher and academic affiliated with the Department of Health Professions at Manchester Metropolitan University in Manchester, United Kingdom. Manchester Metropolitan University is a leading public university known for its strong emphasis on applied research and professional education within its Faculty of Health and Education.

As part of her academic role, Ibukun contributes to research in occupational health, safety, and related public health domains. Her work focuses on evaluating how environmental and workplace health factors impact human wellbeing—highlighting intersections between health professions practice, safety management, and community health outcomes.

Research and Publications
Dr. Ladega-Adekeye has co-authored peer-reviewed research exploring gender disparities in noise exposure and hearing protection practices among workers in Nigerian construction sites, indicating her interest in occupational health risk factors across different populations.

She also serves as a corresponding author on studies assessing the impact of Occupational Safety, Health, and Environment (OSHE) professionals on workplace safety outcomes in high-risk industries such as the Nigerian oil and gas sector—emphasizing the role of safety professionals in risk mitigation and organisational health performance.

Academic Interests
Her research interests include:

• Occupational safety and health disparities
• Environmental risk exposures in workplace settings
• Safety culture and professional influence on workplace health outcomes
• Public health interventions in industrial and community environments

Through her work, Ibukun contributes to a broader understanding of how workplace conditions affect health and safety outcomes globally—supporting efforts to promote safer and more equitable work environments.

Professional Context
At Manchester Metropolitan University, the Department of Health Professions encompasses a variety of allied health disciplines (such as physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and speech and language therapy), fostering interdisciplinary research and teaching that addresses real-world health challenges.

Buying earrings online has never been easier—or more inspiring. With thoughtfully curated collections, transparent craftsmanship, and styles that range from everyday essentials to statement-making showstoppers, today’s best online jewelry shops offer a boutique experience without leaving home. Whether you’re building a minimalist ear stack, shopping for a meaningful gift, or hunting for a bold pair to elevate a special outfit, the right online store makes all the difference.

Below are five of the best online shops to buy earrings in the USA, selected for design quality, versatility, and overall shopping experience. Each offers something distinct, but all share a commitment to style you’ll actually want to wear again and again.

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1. Grandiani — Timeless Elegance Designed for Real Life

Grandiani earns the top spot for its refined approach to everyday jewelry. The brand is built around the idea that earrings should feel elegant without being fragile, stylish without being loud, and versatile enough to move seamlessly from morning to night.

The collection balances classic silhouettes with modern details. You’ll find polished 14k stud earrings that anchor an everyday look, softly contoured hoops that feel substantial but never heavy, and drop earrings designed to add movement and sophistication without overpowering your outfit. Grandiani’s aesthetic leans toward understated luxury—pieces that don’t chase trends but still feel current.

What truly sets Grandiani apart is wearability. These earrings are designed for real routines: long workdays, travel, dinners out, and everything in between. Comfort is clearly considered in the proportions and closures, making many styles suitable for all-day wear. For anyone who prefers jewelry that enhances rather than dominates their look, this brand consistently delivers.

The shopping experience also feels curated rather than overwhelming. Collections are thoughtfully edited, making it easier to choose a piece that fits your personal style or occasion. Grandiani is especially appealing if you want earrings that feel polished, gift-worthy, and timeless—without looking overly traditional.

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2. Mejuri — Fine Jewelry with a Modern, Everyday Mindset

Mejuri has redefined how people think about fine jewelry, and its earring collection reflects that philosophy perfectly. Instead of saving precious pieces for rare occasions, Mejuri encourages everyday wear—earrings that feel special but never impractical.

The brand focuses heavily on clean lines and contemporary shapes. Think slim gold hoops, delicate huggies, subtle diamond accents, and classic studs that work just as well with jeans as they do with tailored outfits. The designs are intentionally minimal, which makes them easy to layer or wear solo depending on your mood.

Mejuri is also popular among those building curated ear stacks. Many earrings are designed with proportion and harmony in mind, allowing multiple piercings to work together without visual clutter. The result is a cohesive, effortless look that still feels personal.

From a blog-reader perspective, Mejuri appeals to shoppers who value simplicity, quality, and versatility. If your goal is to invest in a few well-made earrings you’ll reach for constantly, this is a brand that consistently delivers on that promise.

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3. BaubleBar — Statement Earrings with Personality

For anyone who believes earrings should be fun, expressive, and occasionally dramatic, BaubleBar is a must-know destination. This brand thrives on color, scale, and creativity, offering earrings that instantly become the focal point of an outfit.

BaubleBar’s strength lies in its range. One day you might find oversized hoops with textured finishes; the next, playful drop earrings in bold hues or sculptural shapes inspired by fashion and pop culture. These are pieces made for moments—vacations, parties, weddings, and days when you want your accessories to do the talking.

Despite the bold designs, the brand does a good job of keeping earrings wearable. Many statement styles are engineered to feel lighter than they look, which matters when you’re wearing them for hours. BaubleBar is also a favorite for gifting, thanks to its eye-catching designs that feel celebratory right out of the box.

If your jewelry box is missing that “wow” factor, BaubleBar is where you’ll find it. It’s ideal for trend lovers and anyone who sees earrings as an extension of their personality.

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4. Catbird — Delicate, Artful, and Intentionally Crafted

Catbird offers a completely different experience from high-glam statement brands. Its earrings are subtle, poetic, and deeply intentional, appealing to those who prefer jewelry that whispers rather than shouts.

The designs often feature fine proportions, soft curves, and tiny gemstone details. These are earrings you might forget you’re wearing—until someone compliments them up close. Catbird is especially well-known for its delicate studs, threaders, and small hoops that feel personal and slightly unconventional.

A major draw for Catbird fans is the brand’s focus on ethical practices and thoughtful sourcing. While the designs are minimal, the philosophy behind them is rich, making each piece feel meaningful beyond its appearance. These earrings often resonate with people who want their accessories to align with their values as well as their style.

Catbird is perfect if you love subtlety, craftsmanship, and jewelry that feels intimate rather than performative. It’s a favorite among creatives, minimalists, and anyone who prefers refined details over bold trends.

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5. Gorjana — Effortless Style with a Relaxed, Modern Feel

Gorjana brings a laid-back sensibility to the world of earrings, offering designs that feel easy, warm, and approachable. The brand’s aesthetic is often described as relaxed elegance—pieces that look put together without trying too hard.

Earring styles here tend to focus on smooth finishes, organic shapes, and wearable sizes. Hoops are a standout category, ranging from slim everyday options to slightly chunkier styles that still feel refined. Studs and drop earrings follow the same philosophy: simple, flattering, and endlessly wearable.

Gorjana’s appeal lies in how naturally its earrings integrate into daily life. These are pieces you can throw on without overthinking, knowing they’ll work with whatever you’re wearing. They’re especially popular with people who want jewelry that enhances their look rather than defines it.

For readers looking for dependable, stylish earrings that suit a casual-to-polished lifestyle, Gorjana is a strong choice. It’s the kind of brand you return to when you want something new—but familiar.

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How to Choose the Right Online Earring Shop for You

With so many options available, choosing the right online shop often comes down to understanding your own style and priorities. Here are a few things to consider as you browse:

Lifestyle and Comfort
If you wear earrings daily, comfort and weight matter more than trendiness. Brands like Grandiani, Mejuri, and Gorjana excel in creating pieces that feel good from morning to night.

Style Personality
Minimalists may gravitate toward Catbird or Mejuri, while bold dressers will likely find more joy in BaubleBar. Knowing whether you prefer subtle accents or statement pieces helps narrow your options quickly.

Versatility vs. Impact
Some earrings are meant to be worn constantly; others are designed for specific moments. A well-rounded jewelry collection usually includes both. Investing in a few versatile staples and a couple of standout pairs gives you flexibility.

Gifting Needs
If you’re shopping for someone else, consider brands with a polished, universally appealing aesthetic. Timeless designs tend to be safer choices when you’re not certain of someone’s exact taste.

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Final Thoughts

The best online shops to buy earrings in the USA aren’t just about selection—they’re about intention, design, and how jewelry fits into real life. Whether you’re drawn to the refined elegance of Grandiani, the modern simplicity of Mejuri, the bold creativity of BaubleBar, the delicate artistry of Catbird, or the relaxed polish of Gorjana, each of these brands offers a distinct perspective on what earrings can be.

Md. Mokhdum Azam Mashrafi is an interdisciplinary researcher with a strong academic foundation in agricultural sciences and over fourteen years of professional experience in Bangladesh’s public-sector banking system. He currently serves as a Senior Officer at Janata Bank PLC, the second-largest government commercial bank in Bangladesh, where he has been working since October 2011. His professional career complements his academic pursuits by providing applied exposure to socio-economic systems, financial mechanisms, and development-oriented decision-making.

He holds an M.S. in Agricultural Extension and a B.Sc. (Hons.) in Agriculture from Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. His postgraduate research focused on farmer-centered constraint analysis, with particular attention to crop cultivation challenges, reflecting his long-standing interest in applied agricultural research and rural development. Earlier, he served as a Research Assistant in the Department of Agricultural Extension at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, contributing to nationally relevant research on constraints faced by farmers in crop production systems.

Mr. Mashrafi’s scholarly contributions extend beyond conventional disciplinary boundaries. His research interests and independent theoretical developments span plant energy–biomass modeling, sensory and physiological frameworks, universal life competency and efficiency systems, environmental mitigation strategies, and integrative mathematical and geometric models. He has proposed several original conceptual frameworks and equations, including the Unified Plant Energy–Biomass Framework, Life Energy–Growth and Working Capacity Models, Mashrafi Geometric Model, Electric Recycling Equation, and Planetary Life and Universe Creation Equations. His work reflects a systems-oriented approach linking biological, environmental, physical, and socio-economic processes.

In addition to agriculture and life sciences, his research addresses urban and environmental challenges, such as riverbank erosion mitigation through controlled wave-energy dissipation, urban waterlogging and traffic congestion management, and climate-responsive design concepts applicable to developing-country contexts. He also explores modern economic, marketing, and banking equations, bridging theoretical modeling with real-world institutional systems.

Mr. Mashrafi has received international academic exposure, including an Indian Government ICCR Scholarship, and has participated in professional training programs related to banking operations and financial instruments. He is a member of the Agricultural Extension in South Asia professional society and possesses strong analytical, statistical, and computational skills, with proficiency in SPSS, SAS, and agricultural research statistical packages.

His research philosophy emphasizes theory-driven innovation, methodological rigor, and real-world applicability, particularly in support of sustainable development, environmental resilience, and human–ecosystem interactions. He is committed to ethical research practice, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the dissemination of original ideas that contribute to evidence-based policy and practice.

Mr. Mashrafi is currently affiliated as a Research Associate with Track2Training, India, where he seeks to strengthen international academic collaboration, enhance research visibility, and contribute original interdisciplinary research to the global scholarly community.

By Kavita Dehalwar & Devraj Verma

Research Associates, Track2Training, India

Sustainable development and resilient transport systems form the backbone of well-functioning, future-ready cities. As urban populations expand and environmental pressures intensify, cities must adopt planning approaches that balance mobility needs, ecological responsibility, and social well-being. Modern urban planning is no longer only about accommodating growth—it is about guiding growth in a way that is resource-efficient, inclusive, safe, and adaptive to climate and socio-economic challenges.

1. Sustainable Development as a Foundation for Urban Planning

Sustainable development provides a long-term framework to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to thrive. In urban systems, this translates into strategies that promote efficient land use, environmental protection, social equity, and economic vitality.

Recent scholarship emphasizes the role of sustainable building practices, waste management innovation, and nature-based solutions in shaping resilient urban futures. For example, research on solid waste management and AI-enabled environmental planning (Sharma et al., 2024; Dehalwar & Sharma, 2026; Sharma et al., 2025) shows how technological interventions can improve resource efficiency and decrease ecological burdens. Similarly, studies on green buildings and prefabricated construction (Sharma et al., 2025) underscore how sustainable construction practices reduce emissions, enhance energy performance, and improve neighbourhood livability.

Urban planning also increasingly recognizes the interconnectedness of environmental health, climate adaptation, and social justice. Work by Lucero-Prisno et al. (2025), for instance, links climate disasters with migration, health impacts, and food security—reminding planners that sustainability includes human resilience and equity, not just environmental metrics.

2. Resilient Transport as a Catalyst for Sustainable Cities

Transportation is one of the most influential determinants of urban form, environmental quality, and social accessibility. A resilient transport system ensures that mobility is safe, reliable, adaptable, and environmentally responsible, even amid disruptions such as climate events or population surges.

A robust body of research highlights the importance of transport resilience within sustainable development. For instance, last-mile logistics using generative AI and digital twins (Sharma, 2025) demonstrates how advanced technologies can optimize electric vehicle integration and reduce carbon footprints. Similarly, studies on first- and last-mile accessibility in transit-oriented development (TOD) (Yadav et al., 2025) emphasize the need to design seamless connections that support public transport usage.

Pedestrian and road safety remain crucial components of resilient transport. The systematic review by Sharma and Dehalwar (2025) on urban pedestrian safety reveals significant gaps in policy and infrastructure that must be addressed to safeguard vulnerable road users. Moreover, surrogate safety analysis research (Sharma, Singh & Dehalwar, 2024) shows how advanced modelling can help planners prevent crashes before they occur.

3. Integrating Sustainability and Transport Resilience in Urban Planning

Good urban planning requires a holistic approach that unites sustainable development principles with resilient transport strategies. Transit-oriented development, in particular, emerges as a powerful mechanism to achieve this integration. Scholarly work (Sharma & Dehalwar, 2025; Sharma, Kumar & Dehalwar, 2024) demonstrates how TOD encourages compact, mixed-use growth, reduces car dependence, and stimulates economic development—creating greener and more inclusive cities.

Resilient transport systems also support sustainability by:

• Reducing emissions through shared mobility, electrification, and efficient public transit.
• Improving social equity by ensuring safe and accessible mobility for seniors, women, and marginalized groups (Sharma & Dehalwar, 2025; Dehalwar & Sharma, 2024).
• Enhancing disaster preparedness through robust infrastructure and adaptive planning.

Conclusion

Sustainable development and resilient transport are essential, mutually reinforcing components of good urban planning. Together, they enable cities to reduce environmental impacts, improve livability, promote social justice, and withstand future uncertainties. Integrating these principles into policies, infrastructure investment, and spatial planning will help cities transition toward healthier, safer, and more prosperous urban futures.

References

Lalramsangi, V., Garg, Y. K., & Sharma, S. N. (2025). Route choices to access public open spaces in hill cities. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 16(2), 283–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/09754253251388721

Lodhi, A. S., Jaiswal, A., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Assessing bus users’ satisfaction using discrete choice models: A case of Bhopal. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 9(11), 437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-024-01652-w

Sharma, S. N. (2025). Generative AI and digital twins for sustainable last-mile logistics: Enabling green operations and electric vehicle integration. In A. Awad & D. Al Ahmari (Eds.), Accelerating logistics through generative AI, digital twins, and autonomous operations (Chapter 12). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-7006-4.ch012

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). A systematic literature review of pedestrian safety in urban transport systems. Journal of Road Safety, 36(4), 55–78. https://doi.org/10.33492/JRS-D-25-4-2707507

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). A systematic literature review of transit-oriented development to assess its role in economic development of cities. Transportation in Developing Economies, 11(2), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-025-00245-1

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Examining the inclusivity of India’s National Urban Transport Policy for senior citizens. In D. S.-K. Ting & J. A. Stagner (Eds.), Transforming healthcare infrastructure (1st ed., pp. 115–134). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003513834-5

Sharma, S. N., & Dehawar, K. (2025). Review of land use transportation interaction model in smart urban growth management. European Transport / Trasporti Europei, 103, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17315313

Sharma, S. N., Kumar, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). The precursors of transit-oriented development. Economic and Political Weekly, 59(14), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10939448

Sharma, S. N., Singh, D., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). Surrogate safety analysis: Leveraging advanced technologies for safer roads. Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology, 31(4), 010320(1–14). https://doi.org/10.55766/sujst-2024-04-e03837

Yadav, K., Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2025). Assessing the factors affecting first and last mile accessibility in transit-oriented development: A literature review. GeoJournal, 90, 298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11546-8

Yadav, K., Dehalwar, K., Sharma, S. N., & Yadav, S. (2025). Understanding user satisfaction in last-mile connectivity under transit-oriented development in Tier 2 Indian cities: A climate-sensitive perspective. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science.

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Politics in the name of women’s reservation. Contemporary Voice of Dalit. https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X241262562

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Social injustice inflicted by spatial changes in vernacular settings: An analysis of published literature. ISVS e-journal, 11(9). https://isvshome.com/pdf/ISVS_11-09/ISVSej_11.09.07.pdf

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Urban growth prediction using CA–ANN model and spatial analysis for planning policy in Indore city, India. GeoJournal, 90(3), 139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11393-7

Patel, R. S., Taneja, S., Singh, J., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Modelling of surface run-off using SWMM and GIS for efficient stormwater management. Current Science, 126(4), 243–249. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v126/i4/463-469

Sharma, S. N. (2019). Review of most used urban growth models. International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 10(3), 397–405. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372478470

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2023). Council of planning for promoting planning education and planning professionals. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 43(4), 748–749. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X231204568

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (Eds.). (2026). Deltas resilience: Nature-based solutions for sustainable development in India. Springer Nature. https://link.springer.com/book/9783032072399

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). Challenges of environmental health in waste management for peri-urban areas. In M. Nasr & A. Negm (Eds.), Solid waste management (pp. 149–168). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60684-7_9

Lucero-Prisno, D. E. III, Ayuba, D., Akinga, A. Y., Olayinka, K. E., Precious, F. K., Ogaya, J. B., Sharma, S. N., … Kouwenhoven, M. B. N. (2025). Impact of climate disaster, migration and health risk on food security in Africa. In Advances in food security and sustainability. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.af2s.2025.08.003

Ogbanga, M. M., Sharma, S. N., Pandey, A. K., & Singh, P. (2025). Artificial intelligence in social work to ensure environmental sustainability. In M. Nasr, A. Negm, & L. Peng (Eds.), Artificial intelligence applications for a sustainable environment (pp. 1–??). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-91199-6_16

Sharma, S. N., Dehalwar, K., & Singh, J. (2024). Emerging techniques in solid waste management for a sustainable and safe living environment. In M. Nasr & A. Negm (Eds.), Solid waste management (pp. 29–51). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60684-7_3

Sharma, S. N., Dehalwar, K., Jain, S., & Pandey, A. K. (2025). An assessment of the applications and prospects of AI tools in solid waste management. In M. Nasr, A. Negm, & L. Peng (Eds.), Artificial intelligence applications for a sustainable environment. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-91199-6_4

Sharma, S. N., Lodhi, A. S., Dehalwar, K., & Jaiswal, A. (2024). Life cycle assessment of recycled and secondary materials in the construction of roads. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1326(1), 012102. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1326/1/012102

Sharma, S. N., Prajapati, R., Jaiswal, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). A comparative study of the applications and prospects of self-healing concrete / biocrete and self-sensing concrete. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1326(1), 012090. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1326/1/012090

Sharma, S. N., Singh, S., Kumar, G., Pandey, A. K., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Role of green buildings in creating sustainable neighbourhoods. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1519(1), 012018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1519/1/012018

Sharma, S. N., Dehalwar, K., Singh, J., & Kumar, G. (2025). Prefabrication building construction: A thematic analysis approach. In S. B. Singh, M. Gopalarathnam, & N. Roy (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Advances in Concrete, Structural, and Geotechnical Engineering—Volume 2 (pp. 405–428). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-0751-8_28

Your CV needs work. It must prove you can work alone. It must show you are disciplined. Remote jobs are competitive. Your application must stand out immediately. This guide will help. It focuses on digital skills and structure. The first step towards the new job is writing a CV. Begin the CV with a powerful professional summary. The relevant skills are brought out clearly in a good CV. You should always make your CV attractive to the job position you are applying for. An effective CV produces a strong impact on any hiring manager.

Understanding the Remote CV Difference

A remote CV is not like a normal one. It is not just about past jobs. You must prove you are trustworthy from a distance. Employers cannot see you in an office. Your document must build instant confidence. It shows you can manage time, talk clearly online, and use tools well. Think of your CV as your first work sample. Make it count.

Choosing the Correct CV Format

This is the standard choice. It lists your latest job first. Recruiters expect this layout. It is clear and simple. For remote roles, add a “Core Competencies” section near the top. Highlight key digital skills here. This section acts as a quick summary.

Writing a Powerful Professional Summary

Start with a strong summary. This is a short paragraph at the top. It should state your job goal. Mention your years of experience. Include your best remote-work traits. For example, say you are a “self-motivated digital marketer.” State that you have five years of remote experience. Say you excel in async communication. 

Showcasing Your Digital Tool Proficiency

You must list the tools you know. Do not just name them. Explain how you used them. For example, do not just write “Slack.” Write “Used Slack for daily team updates and client communication.” Mention project tools like Asana or Trello. Talk about video call software like Zoom. Include any industry-specific platforms.

Exhibiting Self-Management and Results.

Employers are concerned with productivity. Your CV must ease this worry. Indicate the achievements using bullet points. Concentrate on the achievements that you have made individually. Prefer using numbers as much as you can. As an illustration, “Grew web traffic by 30 percent with solo content management. Or “Handled single client accounts directly, with a 95% satisfaction rating. 

Organizing Your Work Experience.

Every job entry must have a definite framework. Thereafter, apply bullet points on accomplishments.  Use such words as “managed,” “created,” “increased,” or “implemented.” Make the sentences effective. Always correlate your work to a good outcome of the business.

Adding a Special Digital Competency Section.

Make a different category of skills. Name it as Technological Competencies. Include such subheadings as Communication Tools, Project management software and Industry-specific platform. Write your skills next to each of them. It is a very simple format to read. It assists the recruiters and automated systems in locating keys in a short time. 

Optimizing Applicant Tracking Systems.

The vast majority of companies filter CVs with the help of software. Such software is referred to as an Applicant Tracking System (ATS). You must beat the ATS. Create normal section headings, such as work experience. Do not use graphics, columns, or fancy fonts. It is best with a Word document or a PDF. 

The Function of a professional service.

Creating this CV is hard work. Many people seek expert help. Professional service can make a great difference. They know what the remote employers desire. And they understand how to make a CV successful. Purple CV is one such service. They not only create strong documents that are ATS-friendly. Their authors are experts in pointing out distant competencies. 

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Having a generic objective statement.
• Forgotten the remote tools you are familiar with.
• Composing lengthy and thick paragraphs of writing.
• Applying an unprofessional email address.
• Filling in a CV in a bad form.

Conclusion

The primary weapon for a remote job is your CV. Make it sharp and focused. It has to demonstrate that you can work anytime, everywhere. A good remote CV opens doors. It demonstrates the willingness to contribute on the first day, without any supervision. Get off on the right foot with your application.

By SN Sharma

Urbanization has evolved far beyond the traditional boundaries of cities. Today, planners, researchers, and policymakers increasingly differentiate between metropolitan areas and metropolitan regions—two terms that sound similar but represent very different spatial and functional realities. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for transport planning, governance, regional development, and infrastructure investment.

A metropolitan area typically refers to the dense, continuously built-up urban core of a city. It includes the central city and its immediately surrounding suburbs that form an unbroken urban footprint. This area is characterized by high population densities, concentrated employment, and intense land use. The boundaries of a metropolitan area are often defined using measurable urban criteria such as built-up continuity, commuting flows into the core city, and population density thresholds. Functionally, metropolitan areas represent the primary sphere of daily urban activity—where people live, work, commute, and access essential services.

In contrast, a metropolitan region represents a much broader, multi-nodal spatial system. It encompasses not only the metropolitan area but also smaller towns, peri-urban zones, rural-urban fringes, satellite townships, industrial clusters, and emerging growth corridors that maintain strong economic or infrastructural linkages with the core city. The region may span several districts or administrative boundaries and is often shaped by transportation networks, supply chains, migration patterns, and shared labor markets. Metropolitan regions are therefore functional, economic territories, not merely morphological ones.

One of the key differences lies in scale. While a metropolitan area is limited to an urbanized zone, a metropolitan region may include territories tens or even hundreds of kilometers away from the core city, provided they are tied together through flows of people, goods, capital, and information. For example, in India, the Delhi Metropolitan Area includes Delhi and contiguous urban areas such as Noida, Ghaziabad, and Gurugram. However, the broader National Capital Region (NCR)—a classic metropolitan region—extends far beyond these cities into districts of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan that share socio-economic connectivity with Delhi.

Another important distinction is complexity. Metropolitan regions feature polycentricity—multiple nodes of economic activity—making regional governance and service delivery more complicated. Issues such as transport integration, disaster management, housing, migration, and environmental regulation require coordination across various authorities and jurisdictions. On the other hand, metropolitan areas, although dense, tend to be more administratively cohesive and easier to manage with unified urban governance systems.

From a planning perspective, the metropolitan area helps in micro-level urban design, zoning, public transport coverage, and service delivery, whereas the metropolitan region is vital for macro-level strategies such as regional mobility planning, logistics, affordable housing provision, environmental conservation, and long-term spatial growth management.

In summary, while a metropolitan area represents the urban core, a metropolitan region encompasses the entire ecosystem of interconnected settlements surrounding that core. Together, these two spatial concepts help urban planners and policymakers better understand the structure, dynamics, and challenges of modern urbanization.

References

Sharma, S. N. (2025). Understanding Metropolitan Areas and Metropolitan Regions: A Comparative Analysis. Preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202512.0110.v1

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Urban growth prediction using CA–ANN model and spatial analysis for planning policy in Indore city, India. GeoJournal, 90(3), 139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11393-7

Sharma, S. N. (2019). Review of most used urban growth models. International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 10(3), 397–405. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372478470

By Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Head of Research, Track2Training, New Delhi, India

As cities expand and mobility demands intensify, urban planners face a dual challenge: improving safety on urban roads while ensuring that transport systems remain accessible, efficient, and environmentally sustainable. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)—a planning approach that integrates land use with high-quality public transport—has emerged as a crucial framework for addressing this challenge. Recent research in India and globally demonstrates that TOD can significantly influence travel behaviour, enhance road safety, and support inclusive mobility for diverse user groups.

TOD as a Foundation for Safe and Sustainable Mobility

TOD promotes compact, mixed-use development around transit nodes, encouraging walking, cycling, and public transport use. Sharma, Kumar, and Dehalwar (2024) emphasize that the precursors of TOD—density, diversity, design, destination accessibility, and distance to transit—directly shape how people move through cities. These built-environment elements can reduce dependence on private vehicles, lower congestion, and minimize exposure to crash risks.

The interaction between land use and transportation has long been central to sustainable planning. In their comprehensive review, Sharma and Dehawar (2025) note that land-use–transportation interaction (LUTI) models serve as crucial tools for managing growth in rapidly urbanizing contexts, allowing planners to simulate how changes in land use or transit accessibility affect travel patterns and safety outcomes.

Driving Safety and the Role of Advanced Technologies

Urban road safety remains a major concern, especially in developing economies. Leveraging emerging technologies, Sharma, Singh, and Dehalwar (2024) use surrogate safety analysis to illustrate how video analytics, sensor networks, and automated conflict detection can help identify high-risk intersections long before crashes occur. Such evidence-based techniques allow cities to shift from reactive to preventive safety management.

Beyond traditional engineering, the application of digital twins and generative AI is transforming last-mile logistics and safety planning. Sharma (2025) demonstrates that data-rich simulation models can optimize delivery routes, reduce carbon emissions, and enhance operational safety, offering insights that can be extended to passenger transport environments as well.

Pedestrian Safety: A Core Pillar of TOD

A key objective of TOD is to improve non-motorized mobility. In a major systematic review, Sharma and Dehalwar (2025) highlight that pedestrian safety is influenced not only by infrastructure but also by perception, behaviour, land-use mix, and enforcement quality. Evidence suggests that well-designed footpaths, shorter crossing distances, active street edges, and better lighting significantly improve walkability and reduce conflicts between pedestrians and vehicles.

Research from hill cities further indicates that terrain plays an important role in access behaviour. Lalramsangi, Garg, and Sharma (2025), studying route choices to public open spaces in hilly terrains, found that safety, slope gradient, visual continuity, and comfort strongly affect walking decisions—factors that must be integrated into TOD design guidelines for topographically complex cities.

Public Transport Satisfaction: The Missing Link in Road Safety

Safe roads rely heavily on strong public transport networks that draw commuters away from private vehicles. Using discrete choice models, Lodhi, Jaiswal, and Sharma (2024) assessed bus user satisfaction in Bhopal and showed that reliability, wait times, comfort, and stop-level accessibility determine whether commuters continue using buses or shift to riskier, private modes. Their findings underscore that safe mobility cannot be designed through infrastructure alone—service quality is equally essential.

In TOD zones, first- and last-mile access is critical. Yadav, Dehalwar, and Sharma (2025) synthesize global evidence to show that connectivity gaps often reduce the effectiveness of TOD, pushing users toward unsafe informal modes. A complementary study by Yadav et al. (2025) highlights that climate-sensitive design—such as shaded pathways and heat-resilient materials—significantly influences last-mile satisfaction in Tier-2 Indian cities. Addressing these factors enhances both safety and transit adoption.

Policy Insights: Planning for Inclusivity and Safety

Urban transport policies must evolve to reflect demographic diversity. In their analysis of India’s National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP), Sharma and Dehalwar (2025) argue that senior citizens face multiple mobility barriers—from unsafe crossings to limited access to public transport—and that policies must explicitly integrate age-friendly planning, universal design, and senior-sensitive safety audits.

Similarly, the growing body of TOD literature synthesized by Sharma and Dehalwar (2025) demonstrates that TOD not only improves mobility but also contributes to local economic development by reshaping land markets, stimulating commercial activities, and supporting job creation around transit nodes.

Conclusion: Integrating Safety, Behaviour, and Design for Future Cities

Urban planning is increasingly moving toward evidence-driven, multimodal frameworks where land use, transport design, user satisfaction, and safety are interlinked. The emerging Indian literature—spanning pedestrian behaviour, bus satisfaction, LUTI modelling, TOD precursors, and digital safety analytics—provides a strong foundation for rethinking how cities can become safer and more sustainable.

Driving safety is no longer a standalone engineering issue; it is a product of integrated planning. TOD offers a robust pathway to achieve this integration by reshaping urban form around transit access, promoting non-motorized mobility, and enabling safer, more efficient movement for all.

References

Lalramsangi, V., Garg, Y. K., & Sharma, S. N. (2025). Route choices to access public open spaces in hill cities. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 16(2), 283-299.  https://doi.org/10.1177/09754253251388721

Lodhi, A. S., Jaiswal, A., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Assessing bus users’ satisfaction using discrete choice models: A case of Bhopal. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 9(11), 437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-024-01652-w

Sharma, S. N., Kumar, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). The precursors of transit-oriented development. Economic and Political Weekly, 59(14), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10939448

Sharma, S. N., Singh, D., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). Surrogate safety analysis: Leveraging advanced technologies for safer roads. Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology, 31(4), 010320(1–14). https://doi.org/10.55766/sujst-2024-04-e03837

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). A systematic literature review of pedestrian safety in urban transport systems. Journal of Road Safety, 36(4). https://doi.org/10.33492/JRS-D-25-4-2707507

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). A systematic literature review of transit-oriented development to assess its role in economic development of cities. Transportation in Developing Economies, 11(2), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-025-00245-1

Sharma, S. N., & Dehawar, K. (2025). Review of land use transportation interaction model in smart urban growth management. European Transport / Trasporti Europei, 103, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17315313

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Examining the inclusivity of India’s National Urban Transport Policy for senior citizens. In D. S.-K. Ting & J. A. Stagner (Eds.), Transforming healthcare infrastructure (1st ed., pp. 115–134). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003513834-5

Sharma, S. N. (2025). Generative AI and digital twins for sustainable last-mile logistics: Enabling green operations and electric vehicle integration. In A. Awad & D. Al Ahmari (Eds.), Accelerating logistics through generative AI, digital twins, and autonomous operations (Chapter 12). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-7006-4.ch012 

Yadav, K., Dehalwar, K. & Sharma, S.N. (2025). Assessing the factors affecting first and last mile accessibility in transit-oriented development: a literature review. GeoJournal 90, 298 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11546-8 

Yadav, K., Dehalwar, K., Sharma, S.N. & Yadav, Surabhi (2025). Understanding User Satisfaction in Last-Mile Connectivity under Transit-Oriented Development in Tier 2 Indian Cities: A Climate-Sensitive Perspective. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 

In today’s rapidly evolving industrial landscape, organizations must navigate complex technical challenges while maintaining operational reliability, regulatory compliance, and long-term sustainability. Engineering and managed service solutions play a critical role in helping businesses meet these demands with confidence. A leading example is Bowtie Engineering, a trusted provider of integrated engineering and consulting services known for delivering safety-driven solutions across industries. Their commitment to technical excellence positions them as a go-to partner for companies seeking dependable support. Learn more about their expertise in HVAC system optimization and other energy-efficiency innovations.

The Growing Importance of Engineering and Managed Services

As industries expand, so do the technical complexities behind their infrastructure. Whether it is manufacturing plants, data centers, healthcare facilities, or commercial buildings, each relies on sophisticated engineering systems that require ongoing monitoring, precise calibration, and expert oversight.

Engineering services ensure that systems are designed, installed, and maintained according to stringent safety and quality standards. Meanwhile, managed services offer continuous operational support—helping businesses reduce downtime, improve cost efficiency, and remain compliant with local, national, and international regulations. Together, these services create a powerful framework that supports sustainable, high-performance operations.

What Makes Bowtie Engineering Stand Out

Bowtie Engineering is distinguished by its multidisciplinary approach, combining expert engineering consulting with reliable managed service solutions. Their team brings decades of experience in electrical safety, energy systems, risk assessment, and infrastructure management—delivering tailored solutions that reduce hazards while boosting productivity.

Key strengths of Bowtie Engineering include:

1. Comprehensive Engineering Services

Bowtie Engineering specializes in designing and assessing complex systems, including electrical infrastructure, building systems, and industrial equipment. Their solutions are grounded in internationally recognized standards, ensuring that every recommendation enhances the safety and reliability of client operations. From conducting arc flash studies to developing safety programs or optimizing HVAC efficiency, their engineers provide insights that translate into measurable improvements.

2. Reliable Managed Service Solutions

In addition to consulting, Bowtie Engineering offers ongoing managed services that help organizations stay ahead of maintenance challenges. These services include continuous system monitoring, compliance management, documentation updates, and safety audits. Such proactive support ensures businesses can focus on core operations while Bowtie Engineering handles the technical details.

3. Focus on Safety and Compliance

Industries with high regulatory demands benefit greatly from Bowtie Engineering’s deep understanding of compliance standards. Their experts help clients strengthen workplace safety, mitigate risks, and maintain adherence to codes such as NFPA, OSHA, NEC, and ISO frameworks. This reduces liability and supports long-term operational continuity.

4. Energy Efficiency and HVAC Optimization

Energy management is a growing priority for modern businesses. Bowtie Engineering provides strategic guidance for improving energy efficiency, reducing operational costs, and optimizing building performance. Their resource on HVAC system optimization outlines practical steps to enhance energy efficiency—an essential factor for sustainability-focused organizations.

Why Businesses Benefit from Engineering + Managed Services Integration

Combining engineering expertise with managed service support offers several long-term advantages:

• Enhanced system reliability through preventive maintenance
• Reduced operational costs via energy-efficient solutions
• Minimized downtime with proactive system monitoring
• Greater compliance with industry regulations
• Safer workplace environments supported by hazard assessments and safety planning
• Long-term scalability as systems evolve with technology

By integrating both services, companies build a robust technical foundation that keeps their operations safe, efficient, and future-ready.

Conclusion

Engineering and managed service solutions have become essential pillars for organizations committed to safety, compliance, and operational excellence. With industry leaders like Bowtie Engineering setting high standards for quality and reliability, businesses gain the expert guidance they need to operate confidently in an increasingly complex technical environment. Through a combination of engineering innovation, safety-focused consulting, and dedicated managed services—including specialized knowledge in HVAC system optimization—Bowtie Engineering continues to empower organizations to achieve stronger, smarter, and more sustainable operations.

(For B.Arch Students – Submission Date: 5 December 2025)

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1. Report Specifications

• Length: 20 pages (strict)
• Format:
  • Microsoft Word (.doc/.docx)
  • PDF version exported from the Word file
• Page Size: A4
• Orientation: Portrait
• Margins: 1 inch (2.54 cm) on all sides
• Font Style: Times New Roman or Calibri
• Font Size:
  • Body: 11–12 pt
  • Headings: 14–16 pt (Bold)
• Line Spacing: 1.15 or 1.5
• Text Alignment: Justified
• Image Placement: Centered or inline; captioned
• Citation Style: Any accepted academic format (APA, MLA, Harvard)

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2. Suggested Structure of the 20–Page Report

Below is a recommended page-by-page outline to ensure good composition and academic flow.

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Page 1 – Cover Page

• Title of the report
• Name of tourist place
• Student’s name
• Enrollment number
• Course: B.Arch (Year/Semester)
• College name
• Submission date: 5 December 2025
• Institutional logo (optional)
• Background image/design related to the site

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Page 2 – Certificate / Declaration Page

• Standard declaration statement that the report is original
• Signature of student
• Signature of faculty (optional or as per institute format)

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Page 3 – Acknowledgement

• Thanking guide, department, institution, etc.

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Page 4 – Table of Contents

• Use auto-generated Word Table of Contents
• Include page numbers
• List figures, photos, and tables separately (optional)

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Page 5 – Introduction to the Tourist Place

• Brief overview
• Relevance in architecture, culture, tourism
• Purpose of selecting this site

Include 1–2 photographs.

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Page 6 – Historical Background

• Origins, evolution, important timelines
• Associated personalities or architects
• Heritage status (if applicable)

Include old photographs or maps.

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Page 7 – Location & Connectivity

• City + local context
• Accessibility by public transport
• Analyze urban surroundings

Include:

• Location map
• Google Earth aerial view
• Site context map

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Page 8 – Architectural Significance

• Architectural style
• Period influences
• Cultural symbolism

Include façade or architectural detail photos.

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Page 9 – Site Plan & Layout Analysis

• Site plan (scaled)
• Circulation paths
• Zoning diagram
• Landscape elements

Use labeled diagrams or sketches.

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Page 10 – Floor Plans & Spatial Organization

• Floor-wise plans
• Functional zoning
• Vertical/horizontal circulation

Add clear plan images.

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Page 11 – Elevations & Sections

• At least two elevations
• Sectional drawings
• Highlight materials, heights, openings

Add precise CAD drawings (if allowed).

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Page 12 – Structural System

• Load-bearing / frame structure
• Materials used
• Construction techniques

Include structural diagrams.

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Page 13 – Material Study

• Primary and secondary materials
• Texture, weathering, thermal properties
• Sustainability and availability

Add close-up material photographs.

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Page 14 – Architectural Elements

Discuss elements such as:

• Arches, columns, domes, roofs
• Courtyards, verandahs
• Columns, beams, fenestrations

Add detail sketches/photos.

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Page 15 – Lighting & Ventilation

• Natural vs. artificial lighting
• Ventilation strategy
• Environmental responsiveness

Include diagrams with sun path or ventilation arrows.

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Page 16 – Landscape & Surroundings

• Green areas, water bodies
• Hardscape/softscape materials
• Interaction with the built environment

Insert site photographs.

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Page 17 – Visitor Experience

• Circulation of visitors
• Facilities and amenities
• Interpretive signage and information systems
• User behavior patterns

Add candid visitor movement photos (if allowed).

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Page 18 – Comparative Analysis

Compare with:

• A similar site in another city
• Global examples of similar architectural typologies
• Highlight comparisons through a table or diagram

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Page 19 – Challenges, Conservation & Recommendations

• Present issues: crowding, weathering, maintenance
• Proposed improvements
• Conservation guidelines
• Sustainability strategies

Include concept sketches or diagrams.

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Page 20 – Conclusion + References

• Summary of architectural importance
• Your learnings as a B.Arch student
• Future relevance
• Properly formatted reference list
• Photo credits

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3. Visual & Layout Guidelines

• Use high-resolution images (minimum 300 dpi).
• Maintain consistent style for image captions:
  • Figure 1: Front elevation of the structure
• Use page headers/footers for name, page number, and title.
• Maintain a clean, professional layout.
• Avoid overcrowding pages — balance text and images.

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4. Technical Requirements for Word File

• Include:
  • Table of Contents
  • Auto-numbered figures/tables
  • Page numbers
• Ensure diagrams are embedded (not pasted as low-quality screenshots).
• Use Styles in Word for headings and subheadings.

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5. Technical Requirements for PDF File

• Export using “Save As PDF” in Word (Print to PDF reduces quality).
• Ensure all images appear crisp.
• Check page alignment and orientation.
• File name format:
  YourName_TouristPlaceReport_BArch_2025.pdf

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6. Evaluation Criteria

Component	Weightage
Depth of research	20%
Architectural analysis	25%
Drawings, diagrams & visuals	20%
Report organization & clarity	15%
Originality & insights	10%
Formatting & submission quality	10%

🏙️ By Dr. Kavita Dehalwar

Migration to urban centers is one of the most significant demographic phenomena of the modern era, reshaping the global landscape and driving unprecedented urbanization. The movement, often from rural areas or smaller towns (internal migration) or from other countries (international migration), is primarily fueled by the perception of greater economic opportunities, better access to education, advanced healthcare facilities, and a higher quality of life—the so-called “pull factors.” As a result, cities become magnets, experiencing rapid and often exponential population growth. This massive demographic shift creates a complex interplay of challenges and benefits, profoundly impacting both the composition of the urban population and the capacity of existing infrastructure.

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The Dynamic Impact on Urban Population

The influx of migrants dramatically alters the size, density, and structure of the urban population, leading to both dynamic socio-economic benefits and formidable management challenges.

Rapid Population Growth and Density

The most immediate and apparent impact is the accelerated population growth in destination cities, frequently outpacing the natural birth rate. This results in increased population density, especially in core urban centers and, critically, in informal settlements or slums. The UN projects that by 2050, 68% of the world’s population will live in urban areas, with a significant portion of this growth occurring in Asia and Africa due to migration.

Demographic Shifts

Migration is often selective, tending to involve younger, working-age individuals. This skews the age and gender structure of the city:

• A Younger Workforce: Cities gain a large pool of young, employable labor, which is a powerful engine for economic growth, especially in labor-intensive sectors like construction, manufacturing, and services.
• Gender and Skill Distribution: While historically male-dominated, contemporary migration sees an increasing fraction of female migrants, often seeking employment in sectors like garment manufacturing or domestic work. The skill profile is diverse, ranging from highly skilled professionals filling technological and managerial gaps to unskilled labor for manual jobs.
• Cultural Diversity: Migration enriches the urban social fabric by introducing new cultures, languages, traditions, and perspectives, fostering innovation and cosmopolitanism. This is often referred to as a “social remittance” where migrants transmit new ideas and practices back to their origin communities.

Socio-Economic Challenges

However, rapid, unplanned population growth from migration often leads to severe socio-economic strain:

• Informal Settlements and Slums: When affordable housing is scarce, migrants are pushed into informal settlements (slums and shantytowns), which lack basic amenities, legal security, and are often located in high-risk areas. This creates pockets of concentrated deprivation.
• Strain on Public Services: The sharp increase in population puts immense pressure on social services like public schools, hospitals, and emergency services. This strain can lead to overcrowding, long wait times, and a decline in the overall quality of service delivery for all residents.
• Employment and Inequality: While cities offer jobs, the supply of unskilled labor can exceed demand, leading to underemployment, exploitation, and the growth of the informal economy. This exacerbates socio-economic inequality, as migrants often occupy the lowest rungs of the economic ladder with minimal social security or legal protection.

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The Compounding Strain on Infrastructure

Urban infrastructure is the backbone of a city’s functionality, encompassing everything from transport systems and utilities to housing. Migration-driven population surges place a direct and often overwhelming burden on these systems, leading to congestion, environmental degradation, and reduced quality of life.

Housing and Urban Sprawl

The most critical infrastructural challenge is housing scarcity. The inability of the formal housing market to absorb the massive influx of people leads to:

• Housing Price Inflation: Increased demand drives up rent and property prices, pushing the poor and even middle-class residents further out.
• Vertical vs. Horizontal Growth: Cities struggle to balance dense vertical development with horizontal urban sprawl. Sprawl consumes valuable agricultural land, increases the cost of extending services, and often leads to higher per capita carbon emissions.

Transportation and Congestion

A larger population necessitates more movement, overwhelming existing transport networks:

• Traffic Congestion: Roads, public transit systems (metros, buses), and parking facilities become severely congested. This results in longer commute times, reduced economic productivity, increased fuel consumption, and higher air pollution.
• Need for Mass Transit: Cities are forced to rapidly invest in, or expand, mass transit infrastructure, such as new metro lines and dedicated bus corridors, a process that is time-consuming and capital-intensive.

Utilities and Environmental Stress

The basic utility systems are severely strained by the sudden increase in users:

• Water and Sanitation: Providing clean, potable water and adequate sanitation to a rapidly expanding, and often densely packed, population becomes a monumental task. This often leads to intermittent supply, poor water quality, and unsafely managed sanitation systems, particularly in informal settlements, creating public health risks like waterborne disease outbreaks.
• Waste Management: The volume of solid and liquid waste generated increases proportionally. Inadequate waste collection and disposal systems result in overflowing landfills, environmental pollution, and the contamination of local ecosystems.
• Energy Supply: Power grids face peak demand challenges, leading to frequent power outages and the need for immediate, large-scale investment in energy production and distribution infrastructure.

Environmental Degradation

Migration-fueled urbanization is closely linked to environmental stress:

• Urban Heat Island Effect: Increased building density and paved surfaces absorb and retain heat, contributing to the Urban Heat Island effect, making cities significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas.
• Air and Water Pollution: Greater numbers of vehicles, industrial activities, and unmanaged waste discharge lead to higher concentrations of air pollutants and the contamination of surface and groundwater.

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Managing Migration for Sustainable Urbanization

To truly harness the economic and social potential of migration while mitigating its infrastructural fallout, cities must adopt a paradigm of inclusive and proactive urban planning.

Policy and Planning Imperatives

1. Integrated Planning: Urban planning must move beyond reactionary measures and embrace long-term, integrated strategies that forecast migration patterns and allocate resources accordingly across housing, transport, and utilities.
2. Affordable Housing: A focused effort to create a supply of affordable and social housing is paramount to prevent the proliferation of slums and to promote the socio-economic integration of migrants.
3. Decentralization and Secondary Cities: Promoting balanced regional development and investing in the infrastructure and economic hubs of smaller, secondary cities can help distribute the incoming migrant population and alleviate the pressure on megacities.
4. Inclusivity in Governance: Policies should aim to integrate migrants fully into the social and economic life of the city, ensuring they have access to social security, healthcare, and education, regardless of their formal status. This also involves combating xenophobia and discrimination.

In conclusion, migration is the lifeblood of urban growth, supplying the demographic dividend necessary for economic dynamism. However, the speed and scale of this movement demand responsive, resilient, and inclusive urban governance. Failure to match population growth with commensurate infrastructure development and social services risks turning cities—the supposed engines of prosperity—into centers of overcrowding, inequality, and environmental decay. The challenge for the 21st century lies in transforming rapid migration from a source of strain into a force for sustainable and equitable urban development.

References

Tacoli, C., McGranahan, G., & Satterthwaite, D. (2015). Urbanisation, rural-urban migration and urban poverty (Vol. 1). London: Human Settlements Group, International Institute for Environment and Development.

Bogin, B. (1988). Rural-to-urban migration. Biological aspects of human migration, (2), 90.

Mazumdar, D. (1987). Rural-urban migration in developing countries. In Handbook of regional and urban economics (Vol. 2, pp. 1097-1128). Elsevier.

Selod, H., & Shilpi, F. (2021). Rural-urban migration in developing countries: Lessons from the literature. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 91, 103713.

Bhattacharya, P. C. (1993). Rural–urban migration in economic development. Journal of economic surveys, 7(3), 243-281.

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2023). Ethnographic Study of Equity in Planning–Case of Slums of Ranchi. Available at SSRN 5400581.

Sharma, S. N. (2024). Role of Demography & Rahul Gandhi in Karnataka State Election Results. Track2Training.

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Social Injustice Inflicted by Spatial Changes in Vernacular Settings: An Analysis of Published Literature.

Lucero-Prisno, D. E., Ayuba, D., Akinga, A. Y., Olayinka, K. E., Precious, F. K., Ogaya, J. B., … & Kouwenhoven, M. B. N. (2025). Impact of climate disaster, migration and health risk on food security in Africa. Advances in Food Security and Sustainability.

Ogbanga, M. M., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Climate Change and Mental Heat. EduPub. New Delhi

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2023). Planning and Development of Housing in Urban Fringe Area: Case of Bhopal (MP). GIS Business, 18(1), 1-14.

Sharma, S. N., Chatterjee, S., & Dehalwar, K. (2023). Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Challenges and Opportunities. Think India Journal, 26(1), 7-15.

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2023). Fundamentals of Area Appreciation and Space Perceptions.

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Urban growth prediction using CA-ANN model and spatial analysis for planning policy in Indore city, India. GeoJournal, 90(3), 139.

Sharma, S. N. (2005). Evaluation of the JnNURM Programme of Government of India for Urban Renewal. Think India Journal, 8(2), 1-7.

Kumar, G., & Sharma, S. N. (2022). Evolution of Affordable Housing in India.

Sharma, S. N. (2018). Review of National Urban Policy Framework 2018. Think India Journal, 21(3), 74-81.

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2023). Fundamentals of Area Appreciation and Space Perceptions A Textbook for Students of Architecture and Planning. Available at SSRN 5437257.

Lodhia, A. S., Jaiswalb, A., & Sharmac, S. N. (2023). An Investigation into the Recent Developments in Intelligent Transport System. In Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (Vol. 14).

1. Initial Population (P₀)

The initial population refers to the number of people living in a specific area at the beginning of the study period. It serves as the baseline from which all demographic changes—such as births, deaths, or migration—are measured. Understanding the initial population is essential because all future calculations of population growth or decline depend on this starting point, making it the foundation of demographic analysis.

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2. Current Population (Pₜ)

The current population is the total number of people living in an area after considering changes that occurred during a specific time period. It is calculated by adding births and subtracting deaths (and sometimes adding net migration). This value reflects the present demographic condition of the population and is helpful for planning resources, infrastructure, and social services.

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3. Births (B)

Births represent the total number of live babies born in a population during a specified time period, usually one year. The number of births contributes positively to population growth and can be influenced by cultural, social, economic, and health-related factors. High or low birth numbers significantly impact future population size, labor force availability, and demographic composition.

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4. Birth Rate (b)

The birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population within a given year. It standardizes birth counts to allow comparison between populations of different sizes. A high birth rate indicates rapid population growth, while a low birth rate may suggest demographic ageing or declining fertility. This indicator is essential for long-term planning in health, education, and economic sectors.

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5. Deaths (D)

Deaths refer to the total number of people who die within a specific period in a population. This number reduces the population size and is influenced by healthcare quality, disease prevalence, environmental conditions, and age structure. Understanding mortality patterns helps governments and planners identify health challenges and improve public health strategies.

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6. Death Rate (d)

The death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. It helps measure the overall level of mortality in a population and allows for comparisons across different regions or time periods. A high death rate may indicate poor health conditions or an ageing population, whereas a low death rate often reflects improved health systems and living standards.

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7. Natural Growth Rate (r)

The natural growth rate is the difference between the birth rate and the death rate, expressed per 1,000 people. It shows whether a population is naturally increasing or decreasing, excluding the effects of migration. A positive natural growth rate means the population is growing, while a negative rate indicates decline. This measure helps in forecasting future population trends.

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8. Time Period (t)

The time period represents the duration—such as months or years—over which population changes are measured. It is crucial for determining the speed of population change and evaluating demographic trends over time. Shorter periods help track immediate changes, while longer periods show long-term patterns useful for strategic planning and policy development.To calculate the current population based on the birth rate and death rate, you can use the following standard demographic formula:

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✔ Formula for Current Population

1. Basic Formula

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✔ Using Birth and Death Rates

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✔ If Calculating Over Multiple Years (Geometric Growth Model)

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✔ Example

Initial population: 100,000
Birth rate: 25 per 1000
Death rate: 8 per 1000

So the new population = 101,700.

By Devraj Verma

Abstract

This article examines emerging perspectives in sustainable transport planning by integrating research on accessibility, inclusivity, and technology-driven urban development. Drawing on studies by Sharma, Dehalwar, Lodhi, Garg, and others, it synthesizes key findings from recent works on transit-oriented development (TOD), land use–transport interaction models, and user-centric evaluation of public transport systems. The discussion highlights innovative approaches such as AI-assisted safety analysis, behavioral route choice modeling, and resilience-oriented infrastructure design. Emphasis is placed on inclusivity for senior citizens, equitable mobility, and integration of green building principles within transport systems. The article argues that future mobility planning must balance efficiency with environmental responsibility and social justice, ensuring adaptive, resilient, and accessible cities. It concludes that sustainable transport requires interdisciplinary collaboration, robust institutional frameworks, and evidence-based policymaking to shape cities that are livable, equitable, and climate-resilient.

Keywords: Sustainable Mobility, Transit-Oriented Development, Accessibility, Inclusivity, Urban Resilience

Rethinking Mobility for Sustainable Cities

Modern transport planning is undergoing a profound transformation. No longer confined to traffic management or infrastructure expansion, it now sits at the intersection of technology, urban form, environmental responsibility, and social equity. Scholars such as Sharma, Dehalwar, Lodhi, and Garg have contributed significantly to this evolving discourse, emphasizing a holistic vision where accessibility, sustainability, and inclusivity shape the future of mobility systems. Their work across journals like Transportation in Developing Economies, European Transport, and Environment and Urbanization ASIA offers a roadmap for reimagining how transport networks can anchor sustainable urban futures.

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Accessibility and Human Behavior in Mobility

In hilly urban settings, accessibility challenges often determine the extent to which public open spaces are used. The study by Lalramsangi, Garg, and Sharma (2025) in Environment and Urbanization ASIA captures this relationship by analyzing how topography, route choices, and perceived safety influence pedestrian movement. Their work reveals that the decision to walk is both spatially and psychologically driven. For urban designers, such findings are crucial—they highlight that enhancing accessibility requires more than infrastructure; it demands understanding human-environment interactions that promote equitable mobility.

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Transit-Oriented Development: Linking Transport and Economy

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has emerged as a critical framework for integrating transport with urban economic growth. Sharma and Dehalwar (2025) systematically reviewed TOD literature in Transportation in Developing Economies and found that compact, mixed-use development around transit nodes stimulates economic activity while reducing car dependency. Complementary research by Sharma, Kumar, and Dehalwar (2024) in Economic and Political Weekly explored the foundational drivers of TOD, arguing that successful implementation depends on regulatory coordination and spatial equity. These studies suggest that TOD is not merely an infrastructure strategy—it is a socioeconomic transformation tool for sustainable urbanization.

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Modeling Smart Growth through Land Use–Transport Interaction

Understanding how transport and land use interact remains fundamental to city planning. In European Transport, Sharma and Dehawar (2025) evaluated Land Use–Transport Interaction (LUTI) models, emphasizing their predictive power in managing smart urban growth. LUTI models combine spatial data, AI, and policy scenarios to guide sustainable development. Kumar et al. (2025) further advanced this approach in GeoJournal using a CA-ANN model to project Indore’s urban expansion. The synergy between artificial intelligence and spatial analysis marks a paradigm shift—urban planners can now simulate and visualize the long-term impacts of policy decisions on mobility and land distribution.

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Inclusive Transport Systems for Aging Populations

Equity in transport planning requires addressing the mobility needs of vulnerable groups. Sharma and Dehalwar (2025), in their chapter for CRC Press, assessed India’s National Urban Transport Policy through the lens of senior citizen inclusivity. Their analysis found that despite policy intentions, implementation gaps persist in design, accessibility, and service delivery. Recommendations include adopting universal design principles and developing age-friendly last-mile connectivity. The research echoes Dehalwar and Sharma’s (2024) earlier arguments on spatial justice, which call for mobility systems that ensure no demographic is excluded from urban opportunities.

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Evaluating Public Transport Performance: A User-Centric Perspective

Sustainability in public transport hinges on user satisfaction. Lodhi, Jaiswal, and Sharma (2024) employed discrete choice modeling in Innovative Infrastructure Solutions to measure satisfaction levels among bus users in Bhopal. They identified comfort, reliability, and travel time as dominant predictors of commuter loyalty. This behavioral modeling approach shifts planning from supply-oriented frameworks to demand-sensitive systems, encouraging agencies to design policies grounded in commuter perceptions. Such insights are indispensable for cities aspiring to enhance public transport ridership and reduce private vehicle use.

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Pedestrian Safety and Technological Interventions

Safety remains one of the most pressing issues in urban transport systems. In the Journal of Road Safety, Sharma and Dehalwar (2025) synthesized literature on pedestrian safety, revealing how urban form and traffic behavior correlate with crash patterns. They advocate for sensor-based monitoring and data analytics to predict and mitigate risks. Parallel work by Sharma, Singh, and Dehalwar (2024) in the Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology showcased surrogate safety models that identify risk-prone intersections before accidents occur. Together, these efforts underscore a shift toward proactive, technology-enabled safety planning.

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Integrating Environmental Sustainability and Infrastructure

Sustainable transport extends beyond mobility—it connects deeply with environmental systems and urban architecture. Research by Sharma et al. (2025) in IOP Conference Series demonstrated how green buildings and energy-efficient neighborhoods can reduce transport energy demand. Similarly, Sharma, Lodhi, and colleagues (2024) evaluated the life cycle impacts of road materials, advocating for recycled content to lower carbon emissions. These studies highlight that transportation cannot be sustainable in isolation; it must align with ecological construction practices, waste reduction strategies, and renewable energy transitions.

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Artificial Intelligence: The New Frontier in Urban Systems

Artificial intelligence is transforming the management of both transport and urban waste. Sharma, Dehalwar, and Pandey (2025) explored AI applications in solid waste management, identifying efficiency gains in routing and logistics—concepts equally transferable to bus route optimization. Meanwhile, Ogbanga et al. (2025) connected AI with social work for environmental sustainability, reinforcing the ethical dimension of digital transformation. Together, these studies mark a move toward AI-integrated urban ecosystems, where predictive analytics drive cleaner, safer, and more responsive mobility systems.

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Building Institutional Capacity for Planning

Institutional reform and education underpin successful transport planning. Sharma and Dehalwar (2023) proposed creating a Council of Planning in the Journal of Planning Education and Research to strengthen professional standards and policy implementation. By fostering collaboration between academia and government, such frameworks can bridge the gap between theoretical innovation and practical application.

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Toward Resilient and Equitable Urban Transport

The concept of resilience—preparing cities to adapt to environmental and social challenges—has become central to mobility planning. Dehalwar and Sharma’s forthcoming Springer Nature book (2026), Deltas Resilience: Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable Development in India, illustrates how green infrastructure and water-sensitive design can make transport systems more adaptive to floods and climate impacts. Coupled with their 2024 work on spatial injustice, this perspective asserts that resilience and equity must be co-prioritized for sustainable transport futures.

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Conclusion

The collective scholarship of Sharma, Dehalwar, Lodhi, Garg, and collaborators offers a compelling narrative of transformation in transport research. From behavioral route choice studies in hill cities to economic analyses of TOD and AI-driven safety systems, these works converge on a single principle: transport planning must integrate technology, environment, and equity. Modern mobility cannot be measured solely by speed or capacity—it must ensure accessibility, minimize environmental harm, and promote inclusivity.

As cities navigate climate uncertainties and population pressures, transport planning must evolve as an adaptive science, guided by evidence, empathy, and innovation. The studies reviewed here reaffirm that the future of urban transport lies in balance—between growth and conservation, efficiency and justice, technology and humanity.

References

Lalramsangi, V., Garg, Y. K., & Sharma, S. N. (2025). Route choices to access public open spaces in hill cities. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/09754253251388721

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). A Systematic Literature Review of Transit-Oriented Development to Assess Its Role in Economic Development of City. Transportation in Developing Economies, 11(2), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-025-00245-1

Sharma, S. N., & Dehawar, K. (2025). Review of Landuse Transportation Interaction Model in Smart Urban Growth Management. European Transport, Issue 103, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17315313

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Examining the Inclusivity of India’s National Urban Transport Policy for Senior Citizens. In D. S.-K. Ting & J. A. Stagner, Transforming Healthcare Infrastructure (1st ed., pp. 115–134). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003513834-5

Lodhi, A. S., Jaiswal, A., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Assessing bus users satisfaction using discrete choice models: A case of Bhopal. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 9(11), 437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-024-01652-w

Sharma, S. N., Kumar, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). The Precursors of Transit-oriented Development. Economic and Political Weekly, 59(14), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.10939448

Sharma, S. N., Singh, D., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). Surrogate Safety Analysis- Leveraging Advanced Technologies for Safer Roads. Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology, 31(4), 010320(1-14). https://doi.org/10.55766/sujst-2024-04-e03837

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). A systematic literature review of pedestrian safety in urban transport systems. Journal of Road Safety, 36(4). https://doi.org/10.33492/JRS-D-25-4-2707507

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Urban growth prediction using CA-ANN model and spatial analysis for planning policy in Indore city, India. GeoJournal, 90(3), 139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11393-7 

Sharma, S. N. (2019). Review of most used urban growth models. International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 10(3), 397-405. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372478470_Review_of_Most_Used_Urban_Growth_Models 

Ram Suhawan Patel, Sonia Taneja, Jagdish Singh, & Shashikant Nishant Sharma. (2024). Modelling of surface run-off using SWMM and GIS for efficient stormwater management. Current Science, 126(4), 243–249. http://dx.doi.org/10.18520/cs/v126/i4/463-469 

Lucero-Prisno III, D. E., Ayuba, D., Akinga, A. Y., Olayinka, K. E., Kehinde Precious, F., Ogaya, J. B., Sharma, S. N., Opina, E. J., Sium, A. F., Barroso, C. J. V., Xu, L., Guinaran, R. C., Bondad, J., & Kouwenhoven, M. B. N. (2025). Impact of climate disaster, migration and health risk on food security in Africa. In Advances in Food Security and Sustainability. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.af2s.2025.08.003 

Dehalwar, K. and Sharma, S.N. (eds.) (2026). Deltas Resilience: Nature-based Solutions for Sustainable Development in India. Switzerland: Springer Nature. Available at: https://link.springer.com/book/9783032072399. 

Sharma, S. N., Dehalwar, K., & Singh, J. (2024). Emerging Techniques of Solid Waste Management for Sustainable and Safe Living Environment. In M. Nasr & A. Negm (Eds.), Solid Waste Management (pp. 29–51). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60684-7_3

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). Challenges of Environmental Health in Waste Management for Peri-urban Areas. In M. Nasr & A. Negm (Eds.), Solid Waste Management (pp. 149–168). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60684-7_9

Sharma, S.N., Dehalwar, K., Jain, S., Pandey, A.K. (2025). An Assessment of the Applications and Prospects of AI Tools in Solid Waste Management. In: Nasr, M., Negm, A., Peng, L. (eds) Artificial Intelligence Applications for a Sustainable Environment. Green Chemistry and Sustainable Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-91199-6_4 

Ogbanga, M.M., Sharma, S.N., Pandey, A.K., Singh, P. (2025). Artificial Intelligence in Social Work to Ensure Environmental Sustainability. In: Nasr, M., Negm, A., Peng, L. (eds) Artificial Intelligence Applications for a Sustainable Environment. Green Chemistry and Sustainable Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-91199-6_16

Sharma, S. N., Singh, S., Kumar, G., Pandey, A. K., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Role of Green Buildings in Creating Sustainable Neighbourhoods. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1519(1), 012018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1519/1/012018

Sharma S N, Dehalwar K, Singh J and Kumar G 2025 Prefabrication Building Construction: A Thematic Analysis Approach Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Advances in Concrete, Structural, and Geotechnical Engineering—Volume 2 ed S B Singh, M Gopalarathnam and N Roy (Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore) pp 405–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-0751-8_28 

Sharma, S. N., Prajapati, R., Jaiswal, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). A Comparative Study of the Applications and Prospects of Self-healing Concrete / Biocrete and Self-Sensing Concrete. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1326(1), 012090. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1326/1/012090

Sharma, S. N., Lodhi, A. S., Dehalwar, K., & Jaiswal, A. (2024). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Recycled & Secondary Materials in the Construction of Roads. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1326(1), 012102. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1326/1/012102

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2023). Council of Planning for Promoting Planning Education and Planning Professionals. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 43(4), 748–749. Scopus. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X231204568

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Social Injustice Inflicted by Spatial Changes in Vernacular Settings: An Analysis of Published Literature. ISVS e-journal, Vol. 11, Issue 9. https://isvshome.com/pdf/ISVS_11-09/ISVSej_11.09.07.pdf

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Politics in the Name of Women’s Reservation. Contemporary Voice of Dalit, 2455328X241262562. https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X241262562 

A building is a structured space designed for human habitation, work, recreation, or storage, and it comprises several essential elements that ensure stability, functionality, safety, and aesthetics. Understanding building elements is fundamental for architecture, civil engineering, and urban planning, as they define the form, function, and performance of a structure.

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1. Definition of Building Elements

Building elements are the individual parts or components of a building that perform specific structural, functional, or aesthetic roles. These elements can be broadly classified into:

1. Structural Elements: Support the load of the building.
2. Non-Structural Elements: Provide enclosure, comfort, and aesthetic appeal.
3. Service Elements: Enable utilities and functionality.

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2. Primary Building Elements

A. Foundations

• Purpose: Transfer the load of the building to the underlying soil safely.
• Types:
  • Shallow Foundations: Spread footing, strip footing, raft foundation.
  • Deep Foundations: Pile foundation, caissons.
• Importance: Prevents settlement, tilting, or collapse.

B. Walls

• Purpose: Provide enclosure, privacy, security, and support for floors and roofs.
• Types:
  • Load-bearing walls: Carry the weight of floors and roofs.
  • Non-load-bearing walls: Serve as partitions or enclosures.
• Materials: Brick, stone, concrete blocks, timber, or lightweight panels.
• Functions:
  • Structural support (for load-bearing walls)
  • Thermal insulation and soundproofing
  • Protection from weather

C. Columns and Pillars

• Purpose: Vertical structural members that transfer loads from beams and slabs to foundations.
• Materials: Reinforced concrete, steel, stone, or timber.
• Characteristics:
  • Strength and stability
  • Can be decorative in architectural design

D. Beams

• Purpose: Horizontal elements that support loads from slabs, walls, or roofs and transfer them to columns or walls.
• Types:
  • Simply supported, cantilever, continuous, or T-beams.
• Materials: Reinforced concrete, steel, or timber.
• Function: Prevent structural sagging and provide rigidity.

E. Floors / Slabs

• Purpose: Provide horizontal surfaces for movement, work, or habitation.
• Types:
  • Solid slab, ribbed slab, hollow-core slab, or composite slab.
• Functions:
  • Support live and dead loads
  • Insulate against heat, sound, and moisture
  • Provide durability and aesthetic finish

F. Roofs

• Purpose: Protect the building from rain, sunlight, wind, and temperature extremes.
• Types:
  • Flat roof, pitched roof, gable, hip, dome, or shell roof.
• Materials: Tiles, concrete, metal sheets, or thatch.
• Functions: Weatherproofing, thermal comfort, and sometimes structural support.

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3. Secondary Building Elements

A. Doors

• Provide access, security, and ventilation.
• Types include hinged, sliding, folding, or revolving doors.
• Materials: Wood, steel, aluminum, or glass.

B. Windows

• Allow light, ventilation, and visual connection.
• Types: Casement, sliding, awning, or skylights.
• Materials: Wood, aluminum, PVC, or glass.

C. Stairs

• Facilitate vertical circulation between floors.
• Types: Straight, spiral, dog-legged, or cantilever stairs.
• Materials: Concrete, steel, timber, or glass.

D. Partitions

• Non-load-bearing elements dividing interior spaces.
• Types: Brick, glass, gypsum board, or timber partitions.

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4. Service Elements / Utilities

• Electrical Systems: Wiring, lighting, and distribution boards.
• Plumbing and Sanitation: Pipes for water supply, drainage, and sewage.
• HVAC Systems: Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.
• Fire Safety and Security: Alarms, sprinklers, and emergency exits.

Impact: These elements ensure comfort, functionality, and safety of the building occupants.

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5. Functions of Building Elements

1. Structural Stability: Columns, beams, walls, and foundations provide strength and load-bearing capacity.
2. Environmental Protection: Roofs, walls, and windows shield occupants from weather.
3. Safety: Doors, windows, and fire exits ensure security and emergency evacuation.
4. Aesthetics and Comfort: Floors, partitions, and finishes contribute to visual appeal and usability.
5. Utility Provision: Service elements support water, electricity, HVAC, and waste management.

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6. Materials Used in Building Elements

Element	Common Materials
Foundation	Stone, brick, reinforced concrete
Wall	Brick, stone, concrete blocks, timber
Beam & Column	Steel, reinforced concrete, timber
Slab / Floor	Reinforced concrete, steel, timber
Roof	Tiles, metal sheets, concrete, thatch
Doors & Windows	Wood, steel, aluminum, PVC, glass
Partitions	Brick, gypsum board, glass, timber

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Conclusion

Building elements form the fundamental components of any structure, combining structural integrity, functionality, and aesthetics. Understanding these elements is essential for architects, engineers, and planners to design safe, durable, and comfortable built environments. The integration of traditional materials with modern construction technologies ensures that buildings meet both functional and environmental requirements.

Physical planning, also called spatial or urban planning, involves organizing land use, infrastructure, and urban growth to create functional, sustainable, and livable environments. As cities face rapid urbanization, climate change, technological advancement, and socio-economic transformations, the future of physical planning will need to adapt, innovate, and become more inclusive. Below is a detailed exploration of trends, challenges, and directions shaping the future of physical planning.

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1. Integration of Technology in Planning

• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing:
  • Enable planners to analyze land use, environmental constraints, and population density in real-time.
  • Help simulate urban growth scenarios and optimize land allocation.
• Building Information Modelling (BIM):
  • Facilitates design, construction, and management of infrastructure with accurate data.
  • Supports efficient resource utilization and disaster preparedness.
• Smart Cities and IoT Integration:
  • Physical planning will increasingly incorporate sensor networks, real-time data, and predictive analytics.
  • Enables traffic management, energy efficiency, waste management, and environmental monitoring.

Impact: Technology will make planning data-driven, dynamic, and adaptive, shifting from static master plans to continuous, flexible spatial strategies.

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2. Sustainable and Resilient Urban Form

• Climate-Responsive Planning:
  • Rising temperatures, floods, and sea-level rise require resilient urban layouts, flood control, and green infrastructure.
  • Integration of parks, urban forests, wetlands, and water-sensitive urban design to mitigate environmental risks.
• Compact, Mixed-Use Development:
  • Future urban form will prioritize walkable neighborhoods, mixed land use, and reduced travel distances.
  • Encourages reduced carbon footprint, efficient infrastructure, and vibrant street life.
• Green Buildings and Eco-Cities:
  • Use of energy-efficient construction, renewable energy, and sustainable materials.
  • Adoption of LEED or IGBC standards for new developments.

Impact: Physical planning will evolve toward ecologically balanced, low-carbon, and resilient urban landscapes.

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3. Inclusive and Participatory Planning

• Citizen Engagement:
  • Future planning will emphasize community participation, social equity, and stakeholder consultations.
  • Digital platforms will enable feedback on zoning, transport, and infrastructure projects.
• Affordable Housing and Social Infrastructure:
  • Address urban inequalities through inclusive planning, ensuring access to housing, healthcare, education, and recreation.
  • Integration of informal settlements into the urban fabric instead of marginalization.

Impact: Urban spaces will be designed to reflect diverse needs, promote equity, and enhance quality of life.

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4. Multi-Scalar and Regional Planning

• City-Region Approach:
  • Cities will be planned as part of larger urban agglomerations, considering commuting patterns, environmental systems, and regional resources.
  • Focus on satellite towns, industrial corridors, and transportation networks to reduce urban stress.
• Interdisciplinary Collaboration:
  • Physical planning will involve urban designers, transport engineers, environmental scientists, and economists.

Impact: Planning will shift from isolated city-centric approaches to holistic, integrated regional strategies.

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5. Flexible and Adaptive Urban Design

• Dynamic Land Use Policies:
  • Future planning will adopt flexible zoning, allowing changes based on economic, demographic, or environmental needs.
• Adaptive Reuse:
  • Old industrial zones, heritage buildings, and underutilized land will be repurposed for housing, commerce, or cultural spaces.
• Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure:
  • Buildings and infrastructure will be designed to withstand floods, earthquakes, and climate events.

Impact: Urban areas will become more resilient, multifunctional, and capable of evolving with changing demands.

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6. Transport-Oriented Development (TOD) and Mobility Planning

• Integration of Public Transport:
  • Cities will focus on metro, BRT, and non-motorized transport corridors to reduce congestion and pollution.
• Autonomous and Electric Vehicles:
  • Impact street layouts, parking norms, and road safety standards.
  • Promote shared mobility, smart traffic management, and reduced dependency on private vehicles.

Impact: Future urban form will be compact, connected, and mobility-oriented, reducing carbon emissions and enhancing accessibility.

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7. Policy and Governance Innovations

• Decentralized Planning:
  • Empower local governments and municipalities for context-specific decision-making.
• Integrated Development Plans:
  • Alignment of housing, transport, health, education, and environment in a single cohesive framework.
• Financial Innovations:
  • Use of municipal bonds, PPPs, and land value capture to fund infrastructure.

Impact: Governance will become transparent, accountable, and financially sustainable, supporting long-term urban development.

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8. Future Urban Form Characteristics

Feature	Description
Smart and Data-Driven	Cities using GIS, IoT, and predictive analytics for planning
Sustainable and Resilient	Green infrastructure, renewable energy, disaster preparedness
Compact and Mixed-Use	Walkable neighborhoods, integrated land uses, reduced travel
Inclusive	Affordable housing, social infrastructure, participatory design
Adaptive	Flexible zoning, adaptive reuse, infrastructure upgrades
Regionally Integrated	City-region planning, satellite towns, transport corridors

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Conclusion

The future of physical planning is technologically advanced, environmentally sustainable, socially inclusive, and regionally integrated. It will move from static, rigid master plans to adaptive, data-driven, and citizen-centric planning. Cities of the future will prioritize resilience, mobility, efficient land use, and quality of life, balancing economic growth with ecological sustainability and social equity.

Urban finance refers to the mechanisms through which municipalities and urban local bodies (ULBs) generate revenue, mobilize resources, and finance urban infrastructure and services. Effective urban finance is critical for sustainable city development, provision of civic amenities, and urban governance. Taxation systems form the backbone of urban finance, supplemented by grants, fees, loans, and public-private partnerships.

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1. Sources of Urban Finance

Urban finance is derived from own-source revenues (taxes and user charges) and transfers from higher levels of government.

A. Own-Source Revenues

1. Taxes: Levied directly by municipalities on property, services, or commerce.
2. User Charges / Fees: Payments for services like water supply, waste management, street lighting, and parking.
3. Fines and Penalties: For violations of building codes, traffic rules, or municipal regulations.

B. Transfers / Grants

1. Central and State Government Grants: Financial support through schemes like Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT, and JNNURM.
2. State Finance Commission Recommendations: Share of state revenues allocated to ULBs for decentralized governance.

C. Borrowings

• Municipal Bonds: Debt instruments issued by cities to fund infrastructure.
• Loans: From commercial banks or development agencies for capital projects.
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Investment in urban infrastructure with shared risks and returns.

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2. Taxation Systems in Urban Areas

Urban local bodies levy direct and indirect taxes to fund infrastructure, public services, and development activities.

A. Property Tax

• Definition: Tax on ownership of land and buildings within municipal limits.
• Significance: Primary and stable source of municipal revenue in India.
• Calculation: Based on annual rental value, capital value, or unit area value methods.
• Example: Municipal Corporations of Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore collect property tax for funding local services.

B. Professional / Occupation Tax

• Levied on individuals earning income from profession, trade, or employment.
• Provides revenue to municipal bodies for local service delivery.

C. Entertainment and Advertisement Tax

• Charged on cinemas, amusement parks, events, billboards, and hoardings.
• Helps fund cultural, recreational, and urban amenities.

D. Octroi / Local Entry Tax (Mostly Phased Out)

• Charged on goods entering a municipal area.
• Historically a significant source of revenue, now largely replaced by state-level GST.

E. Goods and Services Tax (GST) Share

• A portion of central and state GST revenue is transferred to municipalities as statutory grants.

F. Toll and User-Based Taxes

• Includes road tolls, parking fees, and market fees for using municipal infrastructure.

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3. Non-Tax Revenues

• User Charges for Utilities: Water supply, sanitation, drainage, and electricity.
• Development Charges / Betterment Levy: Levied on new constructions or land development, reflecting the increase in land value due to infrastructure provision.
• Lease/Rent of Municipal Property: Markets, community halls, municipal buildings, and land.

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4. Municipal Bonds and Capital Financing

• Municipal Bonds: Long-term debt instruments issued by ULBs to finance roads, water supply, sewage treatment, and public transport projects.
• Example: Ahmedabad, Pune, and Bengaluru have successfully issued municipal bonds.
• Advantages: Provides large-scale capital for infrastructure projects, reduces dependency on grants.

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5. Challenges in Urban Finance

1. Low Tax Base: Poor property tax compliance and under-registration of property ownership.
2. Dependence on Grants: ULBs rely heavily on central/state transfers, limiting financial autonomy.
3. Inadequate Pricing of Services: Water, sanitation, and solid waste management often underpriced.
4. Limited Borrowing Capacity: Restrictive debt norms and creditworthiness issues.
5. Urban Informality: Informal settlements and commercial activities often remain untaxed.

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6. Recent Reforms in Urban Finance

• Property Tax Modernization: GIS-based mapping, e-payment systems, and rationalization of rates.
• Introduction of Municipal Bonds: Empowering ULBs to raise long-term capital.
• Digital Payment Platforms: For tax collection, water bills, and user charges.
• Betterment Charges / Development Levies: Financing infrastructure through land value capture mechanisms.
• Performance-based Grants: Incentivizing efficient municipal governance under schemes like AMRUT and Smart Cities Mission.

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7. Role of Urban Finance in City Development

• Infrastructure Provision: Roads, drainage, water supply, street lighting, parks, and public transport.
• Service Delivery: Waste management, health facilities, education, and emergency services.
• Urban Expansion and Planning: Funding new townships, industrial zones, and housing projects.
• Financial Sustainability: Reduces dependency on state/capital subsidies, enabling autonomous city governance.

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Conclusion

Urban finance and taxation systems are the backbone of sustainable city development. Property tax, professional tax, user charges, municipal bonds, and grants collectively fund infrastructure, public services, and urban growth. Modern reforms, such as digital property tax, municipal bonds, and performance-based grants, aim to strengthen ULBs’ financial autonomy. Effective urban finance ensures that cities can plan, expand, and provide quality services, making them livable, resilient, and economically vibra

Urban and regional planning in India is guided by a complex framework of policies, programs, laws, and local regulations that aim to regulate land use, development, housing, environmental protection, and civic amenities. These instruments provide legal, administrative, and technical guidance for planners, authorities, and developers.

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1. Planning Policies in India

Planning policies are guidelines and strategic frameworks issued by the government to direct urban, regional, and sectoral development.

A. National Urban Policy (NUP)

• Provides a vision for sustainable urban development in India.
• Focuses on livable cities, inclusive growth, affordable housing, urban transport, and environmental sustainability.
• Encourages public-private partnerships (PPP) in infrastructure and service delivery.

B. National Housing Policy

• Aims to provide affordable housing for all, especially the urban poor.
• Promotes slum rehabilitation, low-cost housing, and rental housing schemes.
• Guides state and municipal authorities on housing standards, financing, and urban design.

C. National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP)

• Encourages sustainable, safe, and efficient urban transport systems.
• Advocates for mass transit, pedestrian-friendly streets, and traffic decongestion measures.

D. National Environment Policy (NEP)

• Integrates environmental sustainability into planning.
• Requires Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) for large-scale projects.
• Promotes green building norms, pollution control, and resource efficiency.

E. Smart City Mission Guidelines

• Provide policy framework for smart, technology-enabled urban development.
• Focus areas: ICT, urban mobility, energy efficiency, e-governance, and citizen services.

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2. Planning Programmes in India

Planning programmes are practical initiatives and schemes for implementing government policies at city or regional level.

Programme	Objective	Key Features
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM, 2005)	Urban infrastructure improvement and governance reform	Modernization of water, sewage, roads; reforms in municipal governance
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)	Housing for all by 2025	Affordable housing, subsidies, urban slum redevelopment
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT, 2015)	Urban infrastructure and water supply	Sewerage, water supply, green spaces, stormwater management
Smart Cities Mission (2015)	Create 100 smart cities	Technology-enabled services, efficient urban management
HRIDAY (Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana)	Preserve cultural heritage	Heritage conservation, tourism infrastructure, urban renewal

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3. Planning Acts in India

Acts provide the legal authority for urban and regional planning. They define roles of planning authorities, enforcement mechanisms, and regulatory compliance.

Act	Year	Purpose / Relevance
Town and Country Planning Act	Varies by state (e.g., Maharashtra 1966, UP 1973)	Empowers state planning authorities to prepare development plans, regulate land use, and control building activities
Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act (ULCRA)	1976 (repealed 1999)	Controlled land hoarding, redistributed land for development
Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act (RERA)	2016	Regulates real estate sector, protects buyers’ interests, ensures project transparency
Land Acquisition Act	2013	Governs land acquisition for public purpose, including urban development
Environment Protection Act	1986	Provides framework for environmental regulation and EIAs in urban projects
Air & Water Pollution Control Acts	1981 / 1974	Regulate emissions, water pollution, and environmental compliance in urban development
Indian Easements Act	1882	Governs rights of way, access, and use of land in urban planning

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4. Municipal and Local Bye-Laws

Bye-laws are regulations enacted by municipal authorities to control day-to-day urban development. They ensure safety, hygiene, proper land use, and compliance with master plans.

Common Urban Planning Bye-Laws

• Building Bye-Laws:
  • Define height restrictions, floor area ratio (FAR), setbacks, parking, and open spaces.
  • Ensure safety and uniformity in urban structures.
• Zoning Regulations:
  • Control residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational land use.
  • Prevent conflicts between incompatible land uses.
• Subdivision and Layout Bye-Laws:
  • Regulate plot sizes, street widths, street lighting, and drainage.
• Heritage and Conservation Bye-Laws:
  • Protect historic buildings, monuments, and heritage precincts.
• Environmental Bye-Laws:
  • Regulate tree cutting, water management, solid waste disposal, and pollution control.
• Fire and Safety Regulations:
  • Include fire exits, firefighting equipment, and emergency planning in buildings.

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5. Integration of Policies, Acts, and Bye-Laws

• National policies set the vision and objectives (e.g., housing, environment, smart cities).
• Programmes implement policies through practical projects and schemes (e.g., AMRUT, PMAY).
• Acts provide the legal authority for planning and enforcement.
• Bye-laws operationalize the acts at municipal and local levels, ensuring compliance and safety.

This multi-tiered framework ensures that planning in India addresses population growth, urbanization, environmental concerns, and socio-economic development in a regulated and sustainable manner.

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Conclusion

India’s urban planning framework combines policies, programmes, legal acts, and municipal bye-laws to guide planned urbanization, sustainable infrastructure, and citizen welfare. From national-level strategies like the Smart Cities Mission to local building regulations, the system ensures that urban growth is regulated, inclusive, and environmentally sensitive, balancing development needs with social, economic, and ecological priorities.

Urban and town planning in India has evolved through a combination of indigenous traditions, colonial interventions, and modern planning principles. Several leading international and Indian planning masters have contributed to shaping Indian cities and towns, introducing concepts such as modern civic planning, zoning, public health, regional development, and sustainable urbanism. Their influence spans from the pre-independence period to post-independence city-building programs.

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1. Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928) – Garden City Influence

• Contribution to India:
  • Howard’s Garden City concept inspired the planning of suburbs and satellite towns in India during the early 20th century.
  • Advocated self-contained towns with green belts and balanced residential, industrial, and agricultural zones.
• Indian Examples:
  • Lutyens’ Delhi incorporated elements of green spaces and planned neighborhoods.
  • Chandigarh and several industrial townships adopted Howard-inspired garden city principles with segregated zones and green belts.
• Impact:
  • Introduced sustainable urban forms and human-centric planning in Indian cities.

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2. Sir Patrick Geddes (1854–1932) – Regional and Civic Planning

• Contribution to India:
  • Known as the father of Indian urban planning, Geddes was instrumental in introducing systematic urban planning in India.
  • Emphasized the “survey before plan” approach, integrating topography, climate, culture, and social conditions into planning.
  • Advocated for regional planning and civic design rather than ad hoc urban development.
• Indian Projects:
  • Prepared master plans for Madras (Chennai), Nagpur, Lucknow, and Jaipur in the 1910s–1920s.
  • Introduced town planning education in India, influencing generations of planners.
• Impact:
  • Pioneered sociological and regional approach to Indian urban development.
  • Laid the foundation for professional town planning in India.

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3. Le Corbusier (1887–1965) – Modernist Planning

• Contribution to India:
  • Applied modernist urban design principles to Indian contexts, emphasizing zoning, open spaces, and rational layouts.
• Indian Projects:
  • Designed the master plan of Chandigarh, India’s first planned capital city post-independence (1950s).
  • Introduced sector-based planning, wide roads, and integration of administrative, residential, and commercial zones.
• Impact:
  • Chandigarh became a global model of modernist urban planning, combining functionality, aesthetics, and climate-sensitive design.

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4. Charles Correa (1930–2015) – Contextual and Human-Centered Planning

• Nationality: Indian
• Contribution: Pioneer of modern Indian architecture and urban design, blending traditional Indian forms with contemporary planning principles.
• Key Projects:
  • Navi Mumbai: Planned as a satellite city to Mumbai using modern town planning principles.
  • Kanchenjunga Apartments, Mumbai: Emphasis on climate-responsive and high-density urban housing.
  • Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur: Integrated cultural heritage and civic space planning.
• Impact:
  • Advocated for human-scale urbanism, respect for local culture, and climate-sensitive planning.
  • Influenced post-independence Indian urbanism, balancing modernity with context.

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5. Joseph Bazalgette (1819–1891) – Sanitation and Public Health Influence

• Indirect Contribution to India:
  • British engineers applied Bazalgette’s sanitation and sewerage systems in colonial Indian cities.
• Indian Examples:
  • Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai implemented modern drainage, sewage, and water supply systems during the British period.
• Impact:
  • Introduced the importance of health, hygiene, and infrastructure planning in Indian urban contexts.

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6. Norman Foster and Modern Architects (Late 20th Century)

• Contribution:
  • Introduced high-tech urban infrastructure, sustainable architecture, and master planning principles in Indian cities.
• Examples:
  • Mumbai International Airport: Modern transport-oriented planning.
  • Integrated townships and corporate parks in Delhi NCR and Bangalore.
• Impact:
  • Modernized urban infrastructure, integrating global planning standards with Indian urban realities.

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7. Charles Dickens’ Social Reform Influence (Indirect)

• While not a planner, social reformers and writers influenced Indian town planning by highlighting industrial urban living conditions, encouraging planned housing and civic amenities in industrial towns like Jamshedpur and Bhilai.

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8. Other Key Contributors in Indian Planning

Planner	Contribution to Indian Planning	Notable Projects
Joseph Allen Stein	Integration of landscape with architecture	Ahmedabad campus designs
B.V. Doshi	Modern Indian architecture and city design	IIM Bangalore, Aranya Housing, Indore
H.K. Mewada	Town planning & urban redevelopment	Jaipur, Gandhinagar
Jawaharlal Nehru (Visionary)	National planning initiatives	Chandigarh, New Towns post-independence

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Key Impacts of These Masters on Indian Planning

1. Modern City Layouts: Introduction of grid and sector-based planning, separating residential, industrial, and administrative zones.
2. Green Spaces and Health: Incorporation of parks, gardens, and civic amenities to improve public health.
3. Regional Planning: Linking urban growth with regional transport, water supply, and economic planning.
4. Human-Centered Design: Emphasis on livable neighborhoods, cultural context, and social equity.
5. Infrastructure Development: Systematic planning of sewage, roads, and public utilities in cities and industrial towns.

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Conclusion

Indian urban and town planning evolved through the combined influence of international masters and visionary Indian architects/planners. From Howard’s Garden City and Geddes’ sociological approach to Le Corbusier’s modernist Chandigarh and Charles Correa’s contextual urbanism, planning in India reflects a blend of global principles with local culture, climate, and social needs. These contributions have shaped India’s post-independence city-building, satellite towns, and modern urban infrastructure, providing a roadmap for sustainable, functional, and livable urban environments.

If you’ve ever stared at a blank wall wondering what size, orientation, or color to choose for your next piece of art, you’re not alone. Wall décor decisions can be surprisingly paralyzing—there’s the scale of furniture to consider, ceiling height, natural light, and the existing palette. Yet, when chosen and placed thoughtfully, canvas art becomes the simplest route to transform a space without major renovation. The secret lies in curating pieces that feel balanced, intentional, and true to your home’s mood.

1. Start with Proven Layouts and “Safe Bet” Picks

Decision fatigue is real—cut it down by starting with  curated bestsellers in wall art. These are crowd-tested formats and palettes that repeatedly work: landscape above sofas and consoles; portrait for narrow columns or between windows; square for symmetry over dressers. As a sizing rule, aim for two-thirds to three-quarters of the furniture width and hold the center near 145 cm from the floor. Keep gaps between frames 5–8 cm for breathing room, and repeat one frame finish—black, oak, or white—so the set reads cohesive.

This simple geometry works in almost any style of home, whether it’s coastal, mid-century, or modern urban. It also ensures that your art feels integrated, not floating. Landscapes tend to anchor longer furniture, while portraits or vertical abstracts lend rhythm to tall, narrow spaces. If you’re unsure where to start, these curated bestsellers are your design safety net—elegant, versatile, and scale-friendly.

2. Layer Art with Texture and Lighting

Once you’ve nailed placement, texture becomes your next ally. Matte canvas absorbs light beautifully, avoiding glare that often plagues glass-framed prints. Try layering frames in front of each other on a console table or shelf for a casual, collected look. This approach adds depth and narrative—perfect for eclectic or bohemian spaces.

Lighting, too, deserves attention. Adjustable wall sconces or slim picture lights can softly wash the canvas, enriching colors and details after dark. Even warm-toned LED strips tucked behind frames can create a gallery-inspired halo effect. The key is subtlety—your art should feel naturally integrated, never over-staged.

3. Seasonal Rotations Keep Spaces Fresh

Rooms feel new again when you swap a single hero piece each season. Explore just-dropped canvas prints to pull in current hues—cobalt, olive, and terracotta are trending this year—and mirror one tone in your textiles or ceramics. Canvas’ low-glare surface keeps color true under both daylight and warm lamplight, ensuring your art feels alive throughout the day.

For open-plan homes, a new oversized landscape can quietly re-anchor the dining or seating zone without moving furniture. In smaller apartments, swapping a square or portrait canvas above a console or bedside can change the room’s entire mood line in minutes. This rhythm of renewal keeps your décor dynamic—inviting, not static—and reflects the evolving energy of your lifestyle.

4. Make Art Part of Everyday Living

The most inspiring interiors treat art not as an afterthought but as a living part of daily life. It should complement the rhythm of how you move through your space—welcoming you at the entryway, softening a hallway, or framing morning light near your breakfast nook. A well-chosen collection can elevate even rented spaces, where paint or fixtures can’t be changed.

Don’t be afraid to experiment: mix abstracts with photography, blend neutral tones with one accent color, or pair minimalist prints with rich wood textures. Over time, these combinations evolve into your visual autobiography—art that grows with you from latest wall art releases.

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In short: balance proportions, respect light, and rotate pieces with intention. Your walls don’t need a total makeover to feel fresh; they just need thoughtful curation and a touch of seasonal rhythm. With smart picks and mindful placement, your home can reflect both timeless style and personal evolution—all through the quiet power of canvas art.

The evolution of urban and regional planning has been shaped by the vision, innovation, and principles of key masters and pioneers across history. These planners contributed ideas that addressed challenges of industrialization, urban congestion, social inequities, and aesthetic design, laying the foundations for modern planning practices. Below is a detailed overview of the contributions of major figures in the field of planning.

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1. Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928) – Garden City Concept

• Nationality: British
• Major Contribution: Founder of the Garden City Movement (1898)
• Key Ideas:
  • Integrate town and country benefits to create healthy, self-contained communities.
  • Plan cities with limited populations (20,000–30,000) surrounded by green belts to prevent sprawl.
  • Zoning for residential, industrial, and agricultural areas, connected by efficient transport networks.
  • Emphasis on social welfare, open spaces, and community facilities.
• Impact:
  • Real-world examples: Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City in England.
  • Inspired suburban planning worldwide and influenced modern concepts of sustainable urbanism.

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2. Daniel Burnham (1846–1912) – City Beautiful Movement

• Nationality: American
• Major Contribution: Proponent of the City Beautiful Movement in the United States.
• Key Ideas:
  • Emphasis on monumental architecture, wide boulevards, and civic beauty.
  • Use urban aesthetics to promote civic pride, social harmony, and moral upliftment.
  • Integrate public parks, squares, and grand civic centers into city layouts.
• Impact:
  • Led the planning of Chicago (1893 World’s Fair) and Washington, D.C. (McMillan Plan).
  • Influenced urban renewal projects and civic center designs in many North American cities.

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3. Le Corbusier (1887–1965) – Radiant City

• Nationality: Swiss-French
• Major Contribution: Pioneer of modernist urban planning and the Radiant City (Ville Radieuse) concept.
• Key Ideas:
  • High-rise towers surrounded by green open spaces for sunlight, ventilation, and recreation.
  • Functional separation of residential, commercial, and industrial zones.
  • Roads and highways designed to segregate pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
• Impact:
  • Influenced the planning of cities like Chandigarh (India).
  • Introduced modernist principles emphasizing efficiency, standardization, and rational design.

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4. Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959) – Broadacre City

• Nationality: American
• Major Contribution: Advocate of decentralized urban planning with an emphasis on integration with nature.
• Key Ideas:
  • Low-density, spread-out communities blending residential areas with agricultural land.
  • Every family owns a small plot of land; emphasis on self-sufficiency.
  • Cities connected by road networks rather than dense urban centers.
• Impact:
  • Influenced suburban planning, garden suburbs, and concepts of human-scale urbanism.

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5. Patrick Geddes (1854–1932) – Regional Planning and “Civics”

• Nationality: Scottish
• Major Contribution: Pioneer in regional planning and sociological approaches to urbanism.
• Key Ideas:
  • Introduced “Survey before Plan”: understanding the region’s social, economic, and environmental context before designing.
  • Emphasized the interdependence of city and region, linking urban planning with environmental, economic, and social factors.
  • Advocated for conservation, public health, and civic education.
• Impact:
  • Influenced regional planning theory worldwide.
  • Considered the father of modern sociological urban planning.

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6. Arturo Soria y Mata (1844–1920) – Linear City Concept

• Nationality: Spanish
• Major Contribution: Designer of the Linear City (Ciudad Lineal).
• Key Ideas:
  • Organize cities along a central transportation axis (e.g., tram or road).
  • Strip zoning: residential, industrial, and commercial areas arranged parallel to the axis.
  • Integrated green spaces, parks, and open areas along the linear corridor.
• Impact:
  • Influenced transit-oriented development and modern corridor-based planning.

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7. Sir Joseph Bazalgette (1819–1891) – Sanitation and Infrastructure

• Nationality: British
• Major Contribution: Engineer of London’s sewer system.
• Key Ideas:
  • Developed a comprehensive drainage and sewage network to combat cholera and urban flooding.
  • Integrated civil engineering with urban planning to improve public health.
• Impact:
  • Set a precedent for modern sanitation-based planning, influencing cities worldwide.

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8. Clarence Perry (1872–1944) – Neighborhood Unit Concept

• Nationality: American
• Major Contribution: Introduced the Neighborhood Unit concept for residential planning.
• Key Ideas:
  • Residential areas designed around local schools, parks, and community facilities.
  • Streets and circulation designed to reduce through-traffic in residential areas.
  • Emphasis on social cohesion and community identity.
• Impact:
  • Influenced suburban design, community planning, and traffic safety.

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9. Jane Jacobs (1916–2006) – Urban Sociology and Human-Centered Planning

• Nationality: American-Canadian
• Major Contribution: Critique of modernist urban planning and advocate for human-scale cities.
• Key Ideas:
  • Cities should be diverse, mixed-use, and pedestrian-friendly.
  • Emphasized street life, local businesses, and organic development.
  • Opposed large-scale urban renewal that destroyed communities.
• Impact:
  • Influenced urban sociology, sustainable planning, and community-centered design.
  • Inspired movements for revitalizing neighborhoods and preserving historic urban fabrics.

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10. Lewis Mumford (1895–1990) – Urbanism and Regional Planning

• Nationality: American
• Major Contribution: Historian, theorist, and advocate for human-centered urban planning.
• Key Ideas:
  • Criticized industrial city sprawl; emphasized regional planning integrating towns, countryside, and transportation networks.
  • Advocated for balanced development, green spaces, and cultural infrastructure.
• Impact:
  • Contributed to the development of comprehensive urban planning theory.
  • Influenced postwar urban reconstruction and sustainable planning.

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Summary Table of Leading Masters

Planner	Contribution	Key Concept/Model	Impact
Ebenezer Howard	Garden City	Self-contained, green belts, balanced land use	Sustainable urbanism
Daniel Burnham	City Beautiful	Monumental architecture, boulevards	Civic pride, aesthetic cities
Le Corbusier	Radiant City	High-rise, open spaces, functional zoning	Modernist urban design
Frank Lloyd Wright	Broadacre City	Low-density, nature integration	Suburban planning, human scale
Patrick Geddes	Regional Planning	“Survey before Plan,” city-region integration	Modern regional planning
Arturo Soria y Mata	Linear City	City along transport axis	Transit-oriented development
Sir Joseph Bazalgette	Sanitation	Comprehensive sewer system	Public health in cities
Clarence Perry	Neighborhood Unit	Localized residential planning	Community cohesion, traffic control
Jane Jacobs	Human-centered urbanism	Mixed-use, pedestrian-friendly	Sustainable, socially vibrant cities
Lewis Mumford	Regional and humanist planning	Integration of city and region	Balanced urban development

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Conclusion

The contributions of these planning masters collectively shaped the evolution of urban and regional planning. From Howard’s Garden Cities and Burnham’s City Beautiful aesthetics to Le Corbusier’s modernist functionalism and Jacobs’ human-scale advocacy, their ideas addressed health, social welfare, transportation, environment, and aesthetics. Modern planning continues to blend these principles, emphasizing sustainability, community engagement, and holistic urban development, reflecting the enduring legacy of these pioneers.

Urban planning has evolved not only from practical needs but also from idealistic visions of society, often called utopian concepts. These ideas combine social, economic, environmental, and aesthetic goals to create “ideal cities” that promote better living conditions, efficiency, and civic harmony. Many of these concepts influenced modern urban and regional planning, including the Garden City, City Beautiful, and Linear City movements.

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1. Utopian Concepts in Urban Planning

• Definition: Utopian planning refers to the design of ideal cities or communities based on principles of social justice, harmony, and sustainability rather than existing realities.
• Origins: Philosophers, social reformers, and architects have proposed utopian cities since ancient times. Key objectives include:
  • Organized social structures
  • Healthy living environments
  • Integration of work, leisure, and residence
  • Efficient transportation and public amenities
• Notable early examples:
  • Plato’s “Republic”: Concept of a city governed by reason, justice, and communal welfare.
  • Thomas More’s “Utopia” (1516): Imagined a self-sufficient community with equality, shared resources, and balanced land use.

Utopian concepts often inspired physical planning experiments, shaping real-world movements like the Garden City and linear city.

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2. Garden City Concept

• Origin: Proposed by Ebenezer Howard (1898) in England as a response to industrial urban congestion.
• Principle: Combine the benefits of town and country to create a self-contained, balanced community.
• Key Features:
  1. Limited population: Typically 20,000–30,000 people per garden city.
  2. Zoning: Separation of residential, industrial, and agricultural areas, connected by efficient transport.
  3. Green belts: Open spaces surrounding the city to prevent urban sprawl and preserve the natural environment.
  4. Public amenities: Parks, schools, markets, and community centers integrated into the urban fabric.
• Influence:
  • Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City (England) are early examples.
  • Inspired suburban planning worldwide, promoting sustainable and planned communities.

Diagram Concept: A circular city with a central core, radial roads, residential and industrial zones, surrounded by a green belt.

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3. City Beautiful Movement

• Origin: Late 19th-century United States, influenced by the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893).
• Principle: Integrate beauty, order, and monumental architecture into urban planning to promote civic pride and social harmony.
• Key Features:
  1. Wide boulevards and avenues to improve circulation.
  2. Monumental civic buildings like museums, town halls, and libraries.
  3. Parks and open spaces for recreation and aesthetic appeal.
  4. Symmetry and axial planning in urban design.
• Influence:
  • Chicago, Washington D.C., and Denver adopted City Beautiful principles.
  • Inspired urban renewal and the planning of government districts and civic centers worldwide.

Impact: Focused less on social reform than aesthetics, but improved urban infrastructure and public spaces.

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4. Linear City Concept

• Origin: Proposed by Spanish urban planner Arturo Soria y Mata (1882–1920) in Madrid.
• Principle: Organize urban development along a linear axis to maximize accessibility, reduce congestion, and facilitate expansion.
• Key Features:
  1. Central transportation corridor (streetcar, tram, or road) along the city’s spine.
  2. Zoning parallel to the axis: Residential, commercial, and industrial areas arranged in strips.
  3. Green spaces and parks integrated along the linear route.
  4. Modular and expandable design, allowing cities to grow without losing efficiency.
• Influence:
  • Applied in planned suburbs in Europe and Latin America.
  • Inspired modern transit-oriented development and corridor-based regional planning.

Diagram Concept: A long, narrow city with a central transport axis, parallel strips for different functions, and green spaces along the route.

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5. Other Notable Utopian Models

1. Radiant City (Ville Radieuse) – Le Corbusier
   • High-rise towers in open green spaces, emphasizing sunlight, ventilation, and traffic segregation.
2. Broadacre City – Frank Lloyd Wright
   • Low-density, decentralized urban model integrating agriculture and residence.
3. Ecological or Sustainable Cities
   • Modern extension of utopian ideas emphasizing energy efficiency, walkability, renewable resources, and climate resilience.

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6. Comparative Summary of Key Concepts

Concept	Originator	Key Feature	Focus
Garden City	Ebenezer Howard	Self-contained, green-belt, mixed-use	Health, community, sustainability
City Beautiful	Daniel Burnham, Charles Mulford Robinson	Monumental buildings, boulevards	Civic pride, aesthetics
Linear City	Arturo Soria y Mata	City along a transportation axis	Accessibility, efficiency
Radiant City	Le Corbusier	High-rise towers, open spaces	Modernism, function
Broadacre City	Frank Lloyd Wright	Decentralized low-density	Integration with nature, individualism

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7. Significance and Influence on Modern Planning

• Utopian concepts inspired planned cities, suburbs, and regional developments worldwide.
• Emphasized balance between aesthetics, functionality, and social welfare.
• Influenced modern zoning laws, public parks, green belts, transport corridors, and transit-oriented development.
• Provided frameworks for sustainable and resilient urban planning, addressing issues like overcrowding, pollution, and social segregation.

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Conclusion

Utopian concepts in urban planning represent the intersection of imagination and functionality. The Garden City, City Beautiful, and Linear City models illustrate different approaches to organizing urban life: one prioritizing social welfare and sustainability, another beauty and civic pride, and the third transport efficiency and expansion. Collectively, these concepts have shaped modern urban planning, demonstrating that cities can be designed to improve quality of life, foster community, and integrate environmental and economic considerations.

The Industrial Revolution, beginning in late 18th-century Britain and spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually other parts of the world, was a period of rapid technological, economic, and social transformation. While it significantly advanced production, transportation, and trade, it also posed serious challenges for urban and regional development. The unprecedented growth of industries and migration to cities created new imperatives for town and regional planning, giving rise to modern urban planning practices.

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1. Urbanization and Rapid Growth of Towns

• The Industrial Revolution triggered mass migration from rural areas to urban centers for employment in factories and industries.
• Cities like Manchester, Birmingham, and Liverpool in England experienced explosive population growth, often doubling or tripling within decades.
• This unplanned urban expansion led to overcrowding, congestion, and haphazard street layouts, highlighting the need for organized urban planning.

Impact on Town Planning:

• Necessity for systematic street layouts, housing, and public spaces.
• Emergence of worker housing schemes, often in the form of row houses or tenements near factories.
• Early zoning concepts to separate residential areas from industrial zones.

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2. Public Health and Sanitation Concerns

• Industrial cities faced poor sanitation, contaminated water, and inadequate drainage systems, leading to outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, and other diseases.
• Air and water pollution from factories exacerbated health problems.

Impact on Town Planning:

• Development of sewage systems, piped water supply, and waste disposal facilities.
• Inclusion of public parks and open spaces to improve air quality and provide recreation.
• Planning emphasis shifted toward health, hygiene, and habitability, laying the foundation for the public health movement in urban design.

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3. Industrial Land Use and Zoning

• The concentration of factories required large areas for production, storage, and transport.
• Residential and commercial areas were initially mixed with industrial sites, causing conflicts and health hazards.

Impact on Town and Regional Planning:

• Introduction of zoning principles, separating industrial, residential, and commercial districts.
• Planning incorporated buffer zones such as parks or green belts between factories and homes.
• Emergence of regional planning, considering industrial locations, labor supply, and transportation networks across multiple towns.

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4. Transportation and Infrastructure Development

• The Industrial Revolution introduced railways, canals, and improved road networks, transforming regional connectivity.
• Towns developed around railway stations, ports, and canals, creating new urban patterns and industrial clusters.

Impact on Town Planning:

• Streets, railways, and tram systems were integrated into urban layouts for efficient movement of goods and people.
• Regional planning considered industrial corridors and transport accessibility, influencing settlement patterns and economic development.

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5. Socio-Economic Implications

• Industrialization created distinct social classes: wealthy industrialists, middle-class professionals, and working-class laborers.
• Town planning began to reflect social hierarchy, with wealthier neighborhoods planned with wider streets, gardens, and civic amenities, while workers’ quarters were more compact and utilitarian.

Impact on Regional Planning:

• Urban planners began addressing equitable distribution of resources, housing, and public facilities.
• Regional planning focused on integrating industrial, residential, and agricultural areas to support sustainable growth.

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6. Emergence of Planning Movements

1. Garden City Movement (Ebenezer Howard, 1898)
   • Proposed self-contained towns with balanced industry, residences, and agriculture surrounded by green belts.
   • Aimed to mitigate industrial pollution, overcrowding, and urban congestion.
2. City Beautiful Movement (Late 19th Century, USA & Europe)
   • Focused on aesthetic city design, wide boulevards, and monumental public spaces.
   • Sought to promote civic pride and social order amidst the industrial urban chaos.

Impact:

• Influenced modern urban zoning, suburban development, and regional planning policies.
• Introduced the idea of planned communities, integrating environmental, social, and economic considerations.

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7. Regional Planning Considerations

• Industrialization required planning beyond individual towns, taking into account regional resources, transportation networks, labor markets, and industrial clusters.
• Governments and planners began implementing infrastructure projects at a regional scale, such as ports, railways, and river navigation systems.
• Modern regional planning concepts like economic zones, industrial corridors, and metropolitan planning authorities have their roots in post-industrial revolution developments.

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8. Technological Influence on Planning

• Industrial technology allowed mass construction, mechanized transport, and improved building materials, influencing urban design.
• Factories, warehouses, and bridges required specialized planning and engineering.
• Innovations in lighting, water pumping, and sanitation influenced residential and commercial layouts.

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9. Long-Term Impacts

• The Industrial Revolution transformed town and regional planning into a scientific, systematic discipline.
• Key legacies include:
  • Zoning regulations and planned neighborhoods.
  • Integration of sanitation, transportation, and public amenities.
  • Regional planning frameworks connecting multiple urban centers.
  • Emergence of sustainable urbanism, balancing industrial growth with environmental and social needs.

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Conclusion

The Industrial Revolution profoundly impacted town and regional planning, turning unstructured settlements into organized urban systems. Rapid urbanization, industrial expansion, public health crises, and technological advancements necessitated a scientific approach to urban design. Movements such as the Garden City and City Beautiful emerged as solutions to industrial challenges, influencing modern urbanism. The revolution not only reshaped cities physically but also established planning as a professional discipline, laying the foundation for contemporary urban and regional planning practices worldwide.