By Arjun Singh Lodhi

In recent years, Dubai has emerged as a global hub for employment opportunities, attracting talent from all corners of the world.

With its booming economy, diverse industries, and tax-free salaries, it’s no surprise that many individuals aspire to work in this vibrant city.

However, securing a job in Dubai requires more than just a desire to relocate.

Understanding the essential qualifications and requirements is crucial for job aspirants looking to make their mark in this competitive market.

Educational Qualifications

One of the primary qualifications sought by employers in Dubai is a relevant educational background.

While the specific requirements may vary depending on the industry and job role, having a bachelor’s degree is often considered a minimum standard.

Certain professions may necessitate advanced degrees or specialized certifications.

For instance, roles in finance and engineering typically require a bachelor’s degree in the respective field, while positions in healthcare may require specific medical qualifications recognized by the relevant authorities in Dubai.

Professional Certifications

In certain industries, possessing specific professional certifications can significantly enhance a candidate’s employability.

For example, individuals seeking employment in the fields of finance may benefit from certifications such as Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA) or Certified Public Accountant (CPA).

Similarly, professionals in the IT sector may find certifications like Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) or Project Management Professional (PMP) to be valuable assets on their resumes.

Job aspirants should research industry-specific certifications relevant to their desired roles and consider obtaining them to boost their credentials.

They can also explore available opportunities and compare jobs with salary in Dubai at UAESalary.com to gain insights into salary ranges within their chosen field.

Language Proficiency

Given Dubai’s multicultural environment and the prevalence of English as the business language, proficiency in English is typically a prerequisite for many job opportunities.

In addition to English, proficiency in Arabic or other languages commonly spoken in the region can be advantageous, particularly for roles that involve interaction with local clients or stakeholders.

Job aspirants are encouraged to demonstrate their language skills through standardized tests such as the IELTS or TOEFL, especially if English is not their first language.

Relevant Experience

Employers in Dubai place a high value on practical experience and skills relevant to the job role.

While entry-level positions may be available for fresh graduates, mid-level and senior roles often require a certain number of years of experience in a similar role or industry.

Candidates with a proven track record of success, demonstrated through previous employment, internships, or projects, are more likely to stand out to recruiters.

Visa and Work Permit

Before applying for jobs in Dubai, it’s essential for job aspirants to understand the visa and work permit requirements.

Non-citizens of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) typically require a valid work visa sponsored by a registered employer in Dubai.

The process of obtaining a work visa involves several steps, including medical tests, background checks, and documentation verification.

Job seekers should ensure that they meet the eligibility criteria for obtaining a work visa before committing to any employment opportunities.

Cultural Awareness and Adaptability

In addition to technical qualifications, employers in Dubai often seek candidates who demonstrate cultural awareness and adaptability.

Dubai’s workforce comprises individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, and employers value candidates who can navigate cultural differences and work effectively in a multicultural environment.

Demonstrating an understanding of local customs, norms, and business etiquette can enhance a candidate’s appeal to potential employers.

Networking and Professionalism

As with any job market, networking plays a crucial role in securing employment opportunities in Dubai.

Job aspirants are encouraged to leverage professional networking platforms, attend industry events, and connect with professionals working in their desired field.

Building a strong professional network can provide valuable insights, referrals, and job leads.

Additionally, maintaining a professional demeanour throughout the job search process, from submitting applications to attending interviews, is essential for creating a positive impression on prospective employers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while Dubai offers a wealth of opportunities for job aspirants, securing employment in the city requires careful consideration of the essential qualifications and requirements.

By obtaining the necessary educational qualifications, gaining relevant experience, acquiring professional certifications, understanding visa regulations, demonstrating cultural awareness, and networking effectively, job seekers can enhance their chances of success in Dubai’s dynamic job market.

With determination, preparation, and the right qualifications, aspiring professionals can embark on fulfilling careers in one of the world’s most exciting cities.

References

Buckley, M. (2012). From Kerala to Dubai and back again: Construction migrants and the global economic crisis. Geoforum, 43(2), 250-259.

Lodhi, A. S., & Sharma, S. N. Contemporary Trends in Commerce-The Rise of Ecommerce Industries.

Varrel, A. (2020). A job in Dubai and an apartment in Bangalore: Transnational dynamics of migrant property in globalizing cities. City, 24(5-6), 818-829.

By: Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Staff management is a critical component of running a successful company. The manner in which a business manages its employees directly impacts productivity, morale, and ultimately, the bottom line. To foster a positive work environment and maximize the potential of your team, implementing effective staff management strategies is essential.

Clear Communication

Open, transparent communication is the cornerstone of effective staff management. Providing clear expectations, goals, and guidelines empowers employees to perform their best. Regularly scheduled meetings, both one-on-one and team-wide, facilitate communication channels and ensure everyone is aligned with the company’s objectives.

Encouraging Collaboration and Teamwork

Fostering a culture of collaboration and teamwork among employees can significantly boost productivity and innovation. Encourage brainstorming sessions, cross-departmental collaboration, and team-building activities to cultivate a cohesive work environment. When employees feel valued and supported, they are more likely to go above and beyond in their roles.

Recognizing and Rewarding Performance

Recognizing and rewarding exceptional performance is a powerful motivator. Acknowledging achievements, whether big or small, reinforces positive behavior and encourages employees to strive for excellence. This can be in the form of bonuses, public recognition, or other incentives tailored to the preferences of your team.

Providing Opportunities for Growth and Development

Investing in the growth and development of your staff not only enhances their skill sets but also increases their loyalty to the company. Offer training programs, workshops, and mentorship opportunities that align with individual career goals. When employees feel that their professional development is valued, they are more likely to remain committed to the company’s success.

Establishing a Feedback Loop

Constructive feedback is crucial for improvement. Encourage a feedback-rich culture where employees feel comfortable providing input and receiving feedback on their work. This helps in identifying areas for improvement and allows for continuous growth both individually and as a team.

Embracing Flexibility and Work-Life Balance

Recognize the importance of work-life balance in maintaining a motivated and engaged workforce. Offering flexible work arrangements, such as remote work options or flexible hours, demonstrates trust in your employees and accommodates their personal needs. Employees who feel supported in balancing their professional and personal lives tend to be more satisfied and productive.

Handling Conflict and Challenges Effectively

Conflicts may arise in any workplace. Effective staff management involves addressing conflicts promptly and professionally. Implement clear conflict resolution procedures and encourage open dialogue to resolve issues before they escalate, fostering a harmonious work environment.

Leading by Example

Leadership plays a pivotal role in staff management. Leading by example sets the tone for the entire team. Managers who embody the values, work ethic, and dedication they expect from their employees tend to earn their respect and inspire them to excel.

Conclusion

Effective staff management is a multifaceted endeavor that involves fostering a positive work culture, providing support for professional growth, and creating an environment where employees feel valued and motivated. By implementing these strategies, companies can optimize their workforce’s potential, leading to increased productivity, higher employee retention, and overall success in achieving business goals.

References

Davis, John R., Edward P. Rawana, and Denise R. Capponi. “Acceptability of behavioral staff management techniques.” Behavioral Interventions 4.1 (1989): 23-44.

Jordan, Peter, and Caroline Lloyd. Staff management in library and information work. Taylor & Francis, 2017.

Lakbala, Parvin, and Mahboobeh Lakbala. “Knowledge, attitude and practice of hospital staff management.” Waste management & research 31.7 (2013): 729-732.

Quilitch, H. Robert. “A comparison of three staff‐management procedures.” Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 8.1 (1975): 59-66.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, Shankar Chatterjee, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Challenges and Opportunities.” Think India Journal 26.1 (2023): 7-15.

Suda, Kim T., and Raymond G. Miltenberger. “Evaluation of staff management strategies to increase positive interactions in a vocational setting.” Behavioral Interventions 8.2 (1993): 69-88.

By: Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Writing a comprehensive book review for a literature book involves a nuanced exploration of various elements, encompassing both objective analysis and personal reflection. Begin by immersing yourself in the book, carefully absorbing its contents and taking note of key aspects such as plot intricacies, character dynamics, and the overarching themes. It’s crucial to understand the author’s intent and evaluate how successfully they convey their message. When initiating your review, furnish readers with basic information about the book, including the title, author, genre, and publication date. Following this, provide a concise yet insightful summary of the plot without divulging major spoilers, emphasizing pivotal characters and events. As you delve into the analysis, scrutinize the author’s writing style, examining whether it is engaging, descriptive, or poetic, and elucidate on how this style contributes to the overall reading experience.

Delve into the exploration of themes and motifs, assessing their development throughout the narrative and how they enhance the depth of the story. The characters, as the heart of any literary work, warrant close examination—evaluate their complexity, development, and how effectively they resonate with the reader. Equally significant is the setting, and it’s imperative to discuss how it shapes the atmosphere and tone, enhancing the reader’s immersion in the narrative. Assess the pacing of the story and the structure of the plot, considering whether they maintain engagement or falter at certain points. Expressing your personal reactions to the book adds a subjective touch to the review; delve into what aspects resonated with you emotionally or intellectually. Constructive criticism, if necessary, should be articulated with examples from the book, providing a well-rounded perspective. Optionally, compare the book to others in the same genre or by the same author to provide additional context.

Considering the target audience is essential; reflect on whether the book effectively reaches its intended readership. Conclude your review by summarizing your thoughts and offering a recommendation based on the strengths and weaknesses discussed. The recommendation should guide potential readers toward the book if it aligns with their preferences and interests. Lastly, before finalizing your review, proofread it meticulously for grammatical and spelling errors, ensuring that your thoughts are organized and clearly articulated. This meticulous approach ensures that your book review serves as a comprehensive guide for prospective readers, combining both critical analysis and personal insights.

Writing a good book review requires a thoughtful and well-structured approach. Whether you’re reviewing a literature book or any other genre, here are some general guidelines to help you write an effective book review:

1. Read the Book Carefully:

• Before you start writing, read the book thoroughly. Take notes on significant plot points, characters, themes, and any notable quotes.

2. Understand the Author’s Intent:

• Consider the author’s purpose and message. What is the book trying to convey? How successful is the author in achieving their goals?

3. Provide Basic Information:

• Start your review by providing essential details about the book, such as the title, author, genre, and publication date.

4. Offer a Brief Summary:

• Include a concise summary of the plot without giving away major spoilers. Highlight the main characters and events that shape the narrative.

5. Discuss the Writing Style:

• Evaluate the author’s writing style. Is it engaging, descriptive, or poetic? Discuss how the style contributes to the overall reading experience.

6. Explore Themes and Motifs:

• Analyze the themes and motifs presented in the book. How are they developed throughout the story? Do they add depth to the narrative?

7. Examine Character Development:

• Discuss the characters’ depth, complexity, and development throughout the story. How well do you relate to or understand the characters?

8. Comment on the Setting:

• Evaluate how the setting contributes to the atmosphere and tone of the book. Is it vividly described? Does it enhance the reader’s immersion in the story?

9. Critique Plot and Pacing:

• Assess the pacing of the story. Is it well-paced, or does it drag at certain points? Evaluate the plot structure and whether it keeps the reader engaged.

10. Express Your Personal Reaction:

• Share your personal reactions to the book. What did you enjoy the most? Did any parts resonate with you emotionally?

11. Compare with Other Works (optional):

• If relevant, compare the book to others in the same genre or by the same author. This can provide context for your review.

12. Be Constructive in Criticism:

• If you have criticisms, express them constructively. Back up your opinions with examples from the book.

13. Consider the Target Audience:

• Reflect on who the book is intended for and whether it effectively reaches its target audience.

14. Conclude with a Recommendation:

• Summarize your thoughts and conclude with a recommendation. Who would you recommend this book to, and why?

15. Proofread and Revise:

• Before finalizing your review, proofread it for grammar and spelling errors. Ensure that your thoughts are well-organized and clearly expressed.

Remember that a good book review balances objective analysis with personal opinion. Providing specific examples and evidence from the book will strengthen your review and help readers understand your perspective.

References

Adshead, Gwen. “How I write a book review.” Psychiatric Bulletin 23.8 (1999): 510-510.

Bamyeh, Mohammed A. “From the editor: Ways to write a good book review.” International Sociology 29.2 (2014): 79-80.

Clark, Terry, and Leonard L. Berry. “Book Review: Learning to Write, Writing to Learn.” (1998): 123-125.

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Shashikant Nishant Sharma. “Fate of Slums of Bhopal-A Tale of Struggle and Resilience.” Think India Journal 26.4 (2023): 12-18.

Heyd, Michael. “How to Write a Book Review–And Why You Should.” Journal of Hospital Librarianship 17.4 (2017): 349-355.

Lee, Alexander D., et al. “How to write a scholarly book review for publication in a peer-reviewed journal: a review of the literature.” Journal of Chiropractic Education 24.1 (2010): 57-69.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Understanding Citations: A Crucial Element of Academic Writing.” (2023).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Book Review: City Times and Other Poems by Vihang A. Naik.” International Journal of Research 2.1 (2015): 781-783.

Stevens, Dannelle D. “Write Book Reviews.” Write More, Publish More, Stress Less!. Routledge 121-133.

By:

Okafor, Judith Nneka

Email: srnnejokafor@gmail.com

Prof. Nwogbo, Vivian Ngozi

Email: vn.nwogbo@unizik.edu.ng

Department of Educational Management and Policy, Faculty of Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate Principals’ ICT management ability as predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. Two research questions guided the study and two null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Correlational survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study comprised 5,286 teachers in the 263 public secondary schools in Anambra State. A sample of 528 teachers was drawn using proportionate sampling technique. Two sets of instruments titled: Principals’ Technology Leadership Questionnaire (PTLQ) and Teachers’ Technology Integration Questionnaire (TTLQ) were used to collect data from the respondents. Data collected were analyzed using simple regression analysis. Findings revealed that Principals’ ICT management ability of support is a moderate and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration, while Principals’ ICT evaluation ability is a strong and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that Principals need technology competence and skills to provide ICT facilities and support services for effective ICT programmes in schools in order to increase teachers’ technology integration in the school.

Keywords:  Principal, ICT management, technology integration

Introduction 

The use of communication as a medium of passing information from one person to another has been viewed as an important tool for managing change and innovation in organisations. The era of technology is a big change in the proactive way of doing things in the 21^st century. When this changes in information and communication technology are integrated into education, it produces knowledge and skills required for improvement in the educational system with impact on the society in general (Williams, Uchendu and Mbon, 2014).  However, teachers need to use ICT to enhance their teaching effectiveness. Thus, there has to be availability of prudent management of ICT resources by school principals and ensuring proper utilization of these resources to boost teachers’ technology integration. The proper management of ICT facilities in schools of learning is very paramount for execution of activities by the school personnel especially the teachers. 

Surbhi (2015) defined management as an act of planning and organizing people and their work, for achieving a common goal by using the organizational resources. The major activities performed by management include planning, organizing, controlling, coordination and decision-making. Management in ICT entails effective planning, organization, selection, support, assessment and training of human resources and managing the application of best available technologies for achieving the institutional goal and that of the learner. According to Nwizu (2016), management of ICT facility requires proper planning to serve as a hub upon which the transmission of knowledge is based. It is a process of determining ICT requirement that will ensure and enhance quality achievement of learning outcome. This will necessary serve both the students and the teacher to achieve the objective of the programme. The initial effort in outlining ICT plan is to determine the type of ICT apparatus that will be able to reach the students and be accessible to them.

Similarly, Oluyemesi (2015) stated that school principals are saddled with the responsibility of managing ICT in schools for the realization of educational goals, hence the need for management of ICT facilities such as computers, aiding the provision of internet services, projector, fax machine, interactive digital white boards, online zoom, video conferencing classes where students watch lecturers at home on the computers and smart phones, powerpoint slides among others to improve teaching effectiveness and students’ learning outcome. Besides, the overwhelming influence of ICT and social media in all facet of human life is so alarming. All life activities are connected to ICT and social media to the extent that whoever is not in the use of any type of ICT will appear (analogue) not to be moving along with the trend of the 21^st century. The era of technology is a big change to the proactive way of doing things in the 21^st Century.

In furtherance, Oluyemesi (2015) defined information and communication technologies (ICT) as those high-tech digital and electronic innovations and facilities that enable accessing, analyzing, processing, management and communication information over long distance. Also, it is a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to transmit, store create, share or exchange information which include computers, internet, live broadcasting technologies (radio, television, webcasting) recorded broadcasting technologies (podcasting, audio and video players, storage devices) and telephone and satellite technologies.  In agreement with the above, Ogonnaya (2017) defined ICT as an electronic technologies used in the creation, collection, storage, processing, retrieval, transmission of information between individuals for the benefit of human race. Therefore, management of ICT simply means planning, organizing and supporting the use of technology facilities to achieve an effective learning goal. Thus, principals should harness the integration of ICT facilities to support the operation and achieve the objectives of the entire programme.

Akuegwu, Ntukidem, Ntukidem and Jaja (2013) argued that the integration of ICT in teacher training programmes is vital in that teachers will gain knowledge in the use of ICT in teaching. That the knowledge-driven nature, powered by information and communication technology, has made the use of information and communication technology second to none in ensuring quality instructions in the schools. This means that ICT can be used by teachers to improve instructional activities at various levels of education. Hence, the ICTs, such as computers, internet facilities, video computer disc, and close circuit television among others increase the productivity of teachers. Therefore, there are factors that are involved in principals’ ICT management ability: ICT support ability and evaluation ability.

ICT support ability of a principal according to Akuegwu, Ntukiden, Ntukidem and Jaja (2013) entails having needed technology skills and changes aimed at maximizing learning achievement and goals through the supply and use of technology and mass media resources. It involves the process of providing support services for effective ICT programmes in schools such as videos, televisions, computers, ICT laboratory, and overhead projectors. Similarly, principals should utilize strategic partnerships to support comprehensive improvement, creating and maintaining a robust technology infrastructure, including integrated and manageable technology systems to support management, operations, teaching and learning exercise. This is to ensure that subject teachers can easily have access to ICT tools whenever needed.

ICT evaluation ability of principals is key element that ensure attainment of instructional outcome in learning experience. Thus, ICT evaluation ability of the school principal is the capacity of the principal to successfully assess ICT programmes in school. Evaluation of ICT can be in form of observing teachers use ICT to teach students, rating teachers’ ICT utilization and providing feedback to stakeholders who will be interested in knowing the extent at which their objectives have been achieved. Every principal is therefore expected to adopt appropriate evaluation ability to effectively assess the effects of use ICT on teaching and learning exercise. Nevertheless,  the competence factor plays an important role in the integration of ICT in the teaching and learning activities, whereby the competence of the user (teachers) are said to be balance with the integration in classroom exercise.

According to Charania, (2011), technology integration is when the electronic devices are fit in comfortably with the curriculum or instructional plans of teaching and learning exercise. Thus, technology rather than an additional layer in the classroom is embedded within the design of the teacher’s lesson plan and the pedagogy. Besides, in this approach, the teacher designs learning activities and students use technology to construct their own learning.  For instance, students use technology for seeking information, construct and organize their learning and represent it through computer applications. Thus, the teacher plays a role of a facilitator.

However, it has been observed that some principals lack ICT management ability to either support the integration of ICT in teaching and learning activities or evaluate the use of ICT by teachers. This is because principals do not show readiness to learn to become technology leaders in their various schools, while some do not have interest to become competent ICT managers. Some principals do not know how to access emails, online interactive classroom, and video conferencing or to integrate the use of scratch cards to check results by the student. This ICT non competent of the principals affects the goal attainment of schools. A typical example is during the outbreak of corona virus pandemic that brought a total lockdown of schools. Principals were advised to use different technology facilities to connect students to teachers in order to maintain on-going teaching and learning activities. It was expected that principals should work with their computers to ensure that the gap created by the lockdown was filled with ICT and online administration, but the reverse was the case. Despite the level of awareness, there were perceived attitude of computer phobia and withdrawal approach in the use of computer in administration. It is common experience today among the principals of the continued use of paper and pen in disseminating information on their school notice board. Most at time official information are mutilated or misplaced. This is very embarrassing and sort of worry that this kind of issue are still being witnessed in public secondary schools in Anambra state, when many formal organization have left analogy system to e-administration. This necessitated the need to investigate principals’ ICT management ability as predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary school.

Purpose of the study

The study investigated principals’ ICT management ability as predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state. Specifically, the study sought to: 

1. Find out the predictive value of principals’ ICT management ability of support on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.
2. Determine the predictive value of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study.

1. To what extent can principals’ ICT management ability of support predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.
2. What is the extent of prediction of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state?

Hypotheses 

The following formulated null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant prediction of principals’ ICT management ability of support on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state.
2. There is no significant prediction of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state.

Method

A correlational survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study is 5,286 teachers in the 263 public secondary schools in Anmbra state. Proportionate stratified sampling technique was adopted for the study. The state public secondary schools were divided into six strata and the six education formed the six strata. Ten percent of the total number of each strata was sampled, given a total of 528 teachers as sample of the study. The administration of the instruments was carried out with the help of six research assistants. 528 copies of questionnaires were used for the study. The data for the study was collected using the two sets of instruments titled: “Principals’ Technology Management Questionnaire” (PTMQ) and “Teachers’ Technology Integration Questionnaire” (TTIQ). Principals’ technology management instrument was divided into two components that are collapsed. First component contained items on principals’ ICT support, and principals’ ICT evaluation item. The second set of the instrument is “Teachers technology integration questionnaire that contained 40 items. To establish the reliability of the instrument, the questionnaire was tested using twenty teachers outside the study area. The reliability indices for two components of principals’ technology management questionnaire were 0.80 and 0.72 respectively. The reliability index for teachers’ technology integration was 0.86. The overall coefficient of (PTMQ) was 0.82, while that of teachers was 0.86. Thus, the researcher considered the instrument to be reliable and fit for administration. This is in line with the view of Nworgu (2015) who posited that Cronbach Alpha is a good statistical tool for testing internal consistency of an instrument that have homogenous not dichotomous items and who also recommended that a co-efficient value of 0.70 and above is adequate for a research instrument. The data collected were analyzed using simple regression analysis. Muijs’ (2004) cited in Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007, p. 523) suggestion for assessing the goodness of fit of regression model using squared regression coefficient (R²) was adopted for the research questions. Where: 0 – 0.1 = weak, 0.1- 0.3=modest, 0.3 – 0.5 = moderate, > 0.5 = strong. For the hypotheses, p-value was used to determine the significance of the prediction. Where the calculated p-value is less than the stipulated level of significance (0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected. Whereas the null hypothesis was not rejected where the calculated p-value is greater than the stipulated level of significance (0.05)

Results 

Research Question 1: To what extent can principals’ ICT management ability of support predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State?

Table 1. Summary of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT management ability as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β
Constant	.63	.40	.40	67.08	2.31	.63
Principals’ ICT management ability of support				2.43	.12

Data in Table 1 indicates that principals’ ICT support is a moderate predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. This is shown by the regression coefficient (R =.63) and the coefficient of determination (R² = .40) which indicates that principals’ technology support explained 40% of the variance in teachers’ technology integration.

Research Question 2: What is the extent of prediction of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State?

Table 2. Summary of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT management evaluation ability as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β
Constant	.82	.68	.67	43.74	2.02	.82
Principals’ ICT management evaluation ability				4.45	.43

As shown in Table 2, principals’ ICT management evaluation ability is a strong predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. This is shown by the regression coefficient (R =.82) and the coefficient of determination (R² = .68) which indicates that principals’ evaluation explained 68% of the variance in teachers’ technology integration.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: Principals’ ICT management ability of support does not significantly predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.  

Table 3. Test of Significance of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT management ability of support as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β	t	F	P
Constant	.63	.40	.40	67.08	2.31	.63	28.95	362.98	.00.00
Principals’ ICT support ability				2.42	.12		19.05		.00

The analysis in Table 3 shows that the simple regression coefficient (R) is .63 while the R² is .40. The F-ratio associated with these is 362.98 and the P-value = .00, since the P-value is less than the stipulated 0.05 level of significance, it was decided that Principals’ ICT support ability is a significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected.

Hypothesis 2: Principals’ ICT management evaluation ability does not significantly predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.  

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Table 4 Test of Significance of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT Evaluation Ability as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β	t	F	P
Constant	.82	.68	.67	43.74	2.02	.82	21.65	1117.29	.00.00
Principals’ ICTevaluation ability				4.45	.13		33.42		.00

The analysis in Table 4 shows that the simple regression coefficient (R) is .82 while the R² is .68. The F-ratio associated with these is 1117.29 and the P-value = .00, since the P-value is less than the stipulated 0.05 level of significance, it was decided that Principals’ ICT evaluation ability is a significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected.

Discussion of Findings

The finding of this study indicated that principals’ ICT management ability of support is a moderate and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. This finding is in support of Rogers (2000) who examined the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of principals’ technology leadership and their use of technology in the classroom and found that teachers who stated that their school principals exhibited a supportive role in terms of provision of ICT technology for use in the classroom were more likely to integrate technology into their courses. In line with this, Hughes and Zachariah (2001) pointed out that when principals provide and make ICT facilities as well as other support services available for effective ICT programmes in schools, teachers’ technology integration in the school improves.

The study also revealed that principals’ ICT evaluation ability is a strong and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. Evaluation of ICT is the ability of school principals to successfully assess ICT programmes in their schools in form of observing teachers use of ICT to teach students, rating teachers’ ICT utilization and providing feedback to stakeholders who will be interested in knowing the extent at which their objectives have been achieved. The finding of this study supports that of Papa (2011) who found that school principals’ ability to observe and rate teachers’ ICT use in the classroom improves teachers’ ICT performance. This finding is not supported by Lafont (2011) that teacher’s technology integration cannot be predicted by Principal’s ICT evaluation. The finding of this study also contradicts Page-Jones (2008) who proved that there is no relationship between technology leadership and the use of technology by teachers in schools. The reason for this contradiction may be attributed to the location where these studies were carried out. The study by Lafont (2011) and Page-Jones (2008) were conducted outside Nigeria and that may have influenced the contrary findings.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher concludes that Principals’ ICT management ability of support is moderate and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration, while Principals’ ICT evaluation ability is strong and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration. 

Recommendation

            Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:

1. Principals need technology competence and skills to provide ICT facilities and support services for effective ICT programmes in schools in order to increase teachers’ technology integration in the school.
2. The study also recommends that for teachers to embrace and implement educational technology in accomplishing the intended learning outcomes, principals must be able to successfully assess ICT programmes in their schools by observing teachers use ICT, rating teachers’ ICT utilization and providing feedback on the extent at which their objectives have been achieved.

REFERENCES

Akuegwu, B. A., Ntukidem, E. P. Ntukidem, P. J. and Jaja, G. (2013). Information and communication technology (ICT) facilities utilization for quality instruction service delivery among Universities Lecturers in Nigeria. Review of Higher Education in Africa, 3(1), 33-53. 

Charania, A. (2011). An integrated approach to technology in K-12 classroom. National seminar on information communication technology in education, department of education.

Cohen, L. Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. USA, Rutledge.

Hughes, M., and Zachariah, S. (2001). An investigation into the relationship between effective administrative leadership styles and the use of technology. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 5(5), 1-10.

Lafont, S. L. B. (2011). The relationship between principals’ technology leadership and the   teachers’ use of technology. South eastern Louisiana University.

Nwizu, S. C. (2016). Higher Distance Education Programmes in Nigeria: The Quality Perspective UNN 114^th Inaugural lecture retrieved on 2/8/18 from www.unn.edu.ng.>inaugural-final.

Nworgu, B.G. (2015). Educational research: Basic issues and methodology (3rd ed.): University Trust Publishers.

Ogbonnaya, C. N. (2017). Teaching profession and challenges of ICT in teacher education. In W. Cheta, F.D. Asodike (Eds). The Teaching Profession & Teaching in Digital World. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers. 115-125.

Oluyemesi, A. O. (2015). ICT and effective school management: Administrators’ perspective: Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering. London, UK. Retrieved from: www.iaeng.org/publication/wce2015. Pp 249 – 257.

Page-Jones, A.B. (2008). Leadership behaviour and technology activities: The relationship   between principals and technology use in schools. Doctoral dissertation, University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida.

Papa, R. (2011). Technology leadership for school improvement. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Rogers, P. L. (2000). Barriers to adopting emerging technologies in education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 22(4), 455-472.

Surbhi, S. (2015). Difference between Management and Administration. Retrieved July, 2018 from https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-management-and-dministration.html

Williams, R. E., Uchendu, C. C. and Mbon, U. F. (2014). Information and Communication    Technology facilities and public secondary school work performance in Akwa Ibom    State, Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Administration Planning and Research 6(1), 71-81.

by:

Koppula Ujwala

Lecturer in English 

TSWRDC

Ibrahimpatnam

Dr. Mellisa Helen

Assistant Professor

Nizam College, Osmania University

Abstract:

Language is a powerful tool that not only enables communication but also serves as a gateway to understanding diverse cultures, traditions, and perspectives. For English language learners (ELLs), the journey of acquiring a new language is a profound and often challenging experience. In this context, the development of linguistic intelligence takes center stage, offering ELLs a unique opportunity to harness the transformative potential of language through reading and critical thinking. This article explores the vital connection between linguistic intelligence, reading, and critical thinking within the context of English language learning. It delves into the ways in which reading literary texts can enrich the linguistic skills of ELLs and enhance their capacity for critical thought. As ELLs navigate the complexities of a new language, they embark on a voyage that not only broadens their linguistic horizons but also nurtures their ability to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information critically.

Through the exploration of literature, ELLs can expand their vocabulary, deepen their understanding of syntax and grammar, and sharpen their listening and speaking skills. At the same time, reading exposes them to the intricate tapestry of cultural and social nuances embedded in language, allowing them to appreciate the depth and diversity of the English language. However, this article goes beyond the linguistic aspects of language acquisition. It highlights how reading and critical thinking serve as powerful tools for ELLs to engage with different worldviews, perspectives, and ways of life. By immersing themselves in literary works, they can relate to characters, empathize with their experiences, and gain insights into the human condition. These experiences not only nurture their linguistic intelligence but also foster a deep appreciation for the interplay between language and culture.

A literary text stimulates the language acquisition process of a student in comparison to informational materials. The introduction of a literary book in a language school can enhance the proficiency of the students. It facilitates the expansion of the learner’s imagination and awareness of language necessary for good debate or discourse. Reading literary writings from other eras can provide a comprehensive understanding of the various cultures, social conventions, and sociopolitical conditions that existed at the time, enabling the student to project them when participating in conversations or debates on the issue. The article will delve into practical strategies and best practices that educators and ELL instructors can employ to harness the synergy between linguistic intelligence, reading, and critical thinking. By doing so, they can empower ELLs to not only master the English language but also to become adept critical thinkers who can navigate a world characterized by diverse linguistic and cultural landscapes. This article aims to shed light on the immense potential that reading and critical thinking hold for English language learners, as they embark on a transformative journey of linguistic growth, cultural exploration, and intellectual empowerment.

Keywords: Literature, Literary Texts, Language Learning, Language and Literature, critical thinking.

Introduction 

Literature and language are inextricably linked, a truth that no one can dispute. Brumfit and Carter (1986) have previously said that literature serves as “an ally of language.” The method of teaching language through literature is not a new methodology, but it has been frequently utilized as a tool for achieving educational objectives. Until now, there have been numerous adjustments to instructional approaches. Texts of the target language were read and translated using the grammar translation method of language instruction. The emphasis placed on grammar rules diminished interest in the text’s literary content. The structural approach to literature lost its legitimacy when it relied solely on the traditional canon. The functional notional approach placed less emphasis on reading and more emphasis on fixed communication using authentic language samples.

Literature and English Language Learning

According to Coleridge, the essence of literature is to beautify language. Language is a wonderful attire for touching human emotions. Literature and language are two sides of the same coin. Language, if literature is thinking, is for communication. It helps the development of English language skills through various genres, including plays, poems, short stories, novels, and lyrics. Literature is a learning instrument that assists the student to acquire English fluency. The learner will increase his vocabulary, word structures, and syntax through reading literature. It is essential for students to upgrade their English language skills in order to compete effectively in the global marketplace.

In recent years, teaching the English language through literature has gained considerable attention. According to researchers, literature enables students to become acquainted with vocabulary, dialogues, and writing that can be used to improve their language skills. Literature employs descriptive language and introduces a diverse cast of people. The students enhance their English language fluency and accuracy by developing their reading skills through the application of specific tactics. Students will develop knowledge of figurative language such as metaphor and simile, as well as demanding vocabulary. The study of literature for enjoyment is a potent educational instrument that instils ideals and cultural richness. Shakespeare’s works, such as Macbeth, Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, etc., continue to pique the curiosity of modern readers due to their present relevance and potential in substance and structure. Ben Johnson says it accurately: “He was not of an age but of all time.” The phrases he coined in his works are still in use today. For example: All that glitters is not gold (The Merchant of Venice, 1596), All’s well that ends well and The game is up (Cymbeline, 1611), etc.

“Literary texts can develop the student’s knowledge of language at the levels of vocabulary, structure, and textual organization,” (Hedge 1985 p. 22).

In recent years, the importance of literature in a language classroom has grown substantially. Literature is a potentially rich source of relevant information outside the classroom, according to Pugh. Literature teaches the learner to recognize creativity and higher degrees of imagination in all aspects of his daily life. It aids in the development of the student’s reading, writing, grammar, and vocabulary. This contributes to the total linguistic competence, which includes syntax, phonetics, diction, etc. As poetry contains a great deal of figurative language and pictures, students may encounter difficulty in its interpretation. Teachers of the English language can, however, transform this resistance into genuine interest.

Students can obtain knowledge of diction and sentence usage. Through the interactions with literary books, students can improve their communication skills. Novels, plays, and stories provide learners with an understanding of the culture that existed during various time periods, so enabling them to understand the vocabulary of other eras. Students can improve their writing abilities by engaging with literary materials and expressing their ideas. This enhances their critical reasoning. They may choose an alternative ending to a short narrative or compose a brief analysis of what they have read. In an interactive session following the reading of a literary text, students can exchange ideas that enhance their comprehension of the text.

Literature imbued with words conveys the essence of existence. English Literature has become the zenith of linguistic excellence with considerable finesse. Even though there have been several changes in the use of language as a result of advancements in various industries caused by the entrance of technology components, it has never lost its allure and will stay lovely forever.

Literature and Critical Thinking

In recent years, literature and the teaching of language and critical thinking through linguistic intelligence have gained significance. Literature is recognized as a collection of works containing significant language teaching materials. It contains a vast array of language-focused stories, plays, and poems. Literature can be utilized as a legitimate strategy for enhancing language levels. Literature discusses the people, locations, sociocultural elements, and cultural backdrop of many historical periods. This permits the student to gain an understanding of human nature. These universal concerns can be used to enhance language skills, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Literature aids students’ cultural enrichment and personal development (Collie & Slater, 1991; Carter & Long, 1991).

When students develop critical literacy abilities, they are able to rely on a variety of arguments and evidence to support their claims. For instance, hard sciences such as physics and biology advance by incorporating lower levels of knowledge and comprehension into newly introduced ones. Each new area of knowledge is constructed using a pyramidal structure. In contrast, educational sociologists such as Basil Bernstein (1999) explains that the humanities, such as literature and visual arts, tend to develop as independent entities along a horizontal line. For this reason, critical thinking and reading skills are developed and exhibited differently across fields. It is necessary to urge students to pay attention to the specific requirements of various school disciplines and to request feedback from their teachers on manifestations of critical thinking that have been deemed worthy.

Bloom’s taxonomy places ‘comprehension’ at the bottom and ‘evaluation’ at the top, with analysis, synthesis, and evaluation as the three highest levels, which are essential for developing critical thinking. (Kennedy et al., 1991). Bloom’s taxonomy is consistent with a centuries-old Indian idea called “Pari-Prashna” that encourages critical, analytical, and autonomous thinking. The term ‘prashna’ means ‘questioning,’ while ‘pari’ indicates ‘depth and persistent’ It is essential to comprehend the above-mentioned definitions of critical thinking at the outset.

Critical thinking is not a new concept, but it has only gained attention in recent years. It is a component of the Vedic learning method from an eastern perspective. Cromwell (1992) states, “Almost everyone agrees that one of the primary aims of education is the enhancement of student thinking. In the past ten years, there has been a growing concern that graduates at all levels lack higher-order thinking skills. Our educational system emphasizes grammar at all levels but places less emphasis on literature. Memory is detrimental to comprehension and application. This will hinder their future employment, and Hirose (1992) laments, “Many of today’s youngsters lack the reasoning and critical thinking skills required to analyze and refine knowledge in order to perform effectively in the workforce.” It is now required to understand the significance of critical thinking and, more significantly, how it may be fostered in students. Utilizing literature in a language-based classroom is one technique for developing critical thinking skills.

Literature contains tales, plays, and poetry that can teach students not only the language but also real-world settings. Reading literary works in a language school helps students improve their language skills and enhance their critical thinking. Reading literature requires the reader to engage in analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of ideas. While examining the plot and interacting with the characters in a work, the reader is prompted to consider and reconsider his or her thoughts. A good literary work should be difficult in multiple ways. The experience obtained from reading a text enables the student to think critically and develop other attributes such as self-confidence, problem-solving, and an open mind.

Analyzing, drawing conclusions, assessing, and making decisions are all components of critical thinking. As it serves multiple purposes, a literary text affords linguistic chances in a variety of ways. Reading books is enjoyable and enriches the reader’s language. In addition, reading fiction, nonfiction, and poetry exposes the reader to the events and people of various eras. Thus, literature fosters the ability to comprehend culture and recognize the shared experiences that bind people from throughout the globe. Literature affords the reader the opportunity to develop their imagination. These abilities enable them to be inventive and productive in their daily lives. They begin to interact with others who share the same emotions, evaluate the nature of others, and make acceptable life decisions. Higher-order thinking skills are directly related with creativity and imagination. These skills help the learner to internalize knowledge and turn it through critical analysis into cognitive tools. In addition, they support the development of learners’ scientific-related knowledge through science fiction, despite their lack of expertise in science and technology.

Reading a literary text enables the development of the reader’s imagination. Numerous characters in various literature allow the reader to consider them from their point of view. Sometimes the stories and characters mimic the lives of the readers, providing them with hints on how to handle their problems or respond to specific situations. Literature encourages readers to expand their imaginations, form new concepts, and go far beyond plain facts. It is a rich trove of diverse civilizations and traditions that illuminate human nature. Human emotions and human situations are grasped through the study of literature. This allows for the activation of cognition. Questions arise axiomatically, giving rise to critical thought. Thus, the cognitive abilities of the student are also stimulated.

Relationship between Reading a Text and Linguistic Intelligence

When engaging with a literary text, individuals with strong linguistic intelligence have the ability to savor the intricate beauty of the written word. They can appreciate the author’s use of metaphors, similes, and symbolism, allowing them to delve into the nuances of the narrative. This deep connection to language enables readers to immerse themselves in the story and vividly imagine the scenes and characters described. The text becomes a canvas on which linguistic intelligence can paint a vibrant mental picture, enriching the reading experience. Moreover, linguistic intelligence empowers readers to explore the minds of the characters and empathize with their experiences. Through dialogue, inner monologues, and descriptive prose, readers can tap into the emotions and thoughts of the characters. They can analyze the characters’ linguistic choices, understand their perspectives, and even relate to their personal struggles. This process not only enhances their imaginative capacities but also nurtures their ability to see the world through diverse linguistic lenses.

The parallels between the lives of the readers and the characters they encounter in literature serve as a powerful tool for individuals with linguistic intelligence. They can extract valuable insights from characters’ journeys, applying the wisdom gained to their own lives. Whether it is dealing with love, loss, ambition, or ethical dilemmas, literature offers a treasure trove of scenarios and linguistic expressions to guide readers in navigating their real-world challenges. Through this symbiotic relationship between linguistic intelligence and literary texts, readers can find solace, inspiration, and guidance, empowering them to make informed decisions and craft their own narratives. As linguistic intelligence delves into the rich tapestry of civilizations and traditions found in literature, it also nurtures the reader’s ability to decode cultural nuances and linguistic subtleties. Readers with this form of intelligence can appreciate the beauty of idiomatic expressions, regional dialects, and the linguistic evolution of a language over time. This broadens their understanding of human nature, enabling them to connect with diverse cultures and societies, and fostering a deeper sense of empathy and inclusivity.

Thus, reading a literary text is an intellectual adventure that greatly benefits individuals with linguistic intelligence. The interplay between language and imagination creates a dynamic space where readers can explore the human experience, empathize with characters, and draw inspiration for their own lives. Linguistic intelligence breathes life into the words on the page, making literature an invaluable source of intellectual and emotional growth, and a testament to the enduring power of language in shaping our world and ourselves.

Conclusion

According to Povey’s (1972) observation “literature will increase all language skills because literature will extend linguistic knowledge by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and complex and exact syntax” (cited in McKay 1982: 529). 

In the event that a difficulty arises in a brand-new circumstance, students typically rely on their former learning patterns or academic experiences. If they are armed with critical thinking skills, they will feel confident and come up with creative solutions to issues. Critical thinking enables the student to engage in relevant and engaging dialogues. This enables students to evaluate difficulties by gaining a thorough understanding of the available options, analyze through deft questioning, and synthesize by conceptualizing an original solution. All of these reside at the pinnacle of Bloom’s taxonomy. Questions spark curiosity in the minds of the learners, which ultimately leads to mastery. One of the fundamental purposes of education is to enable the student to achieve perfection through independent thought. Additionally, inquiries lead students to investigate. Therefore, learners/students should be enabled to formulate their own questions, albeit intensively at first, but progressing to a more extended level with the assistance of the teacher. The English language instructor may select basic passages, but pose questions that require students to sit up straight, think, and analyze while making decisions.

Students should be enabled to develop higher-order thinking skills. This is achieved by reading comprehension activities with unfamiliar passages. Collaborative learning can promote critical thinking since it allows for conversation, the generation of new ideas, questions, clarifications, and assessments. In order to improve critical thinking and problem-solving skills, technology-assisted collaborative learning might be incorporated into the objective if conventional methods fail to produce the intended outcome. Albert Einstein once remarked, “The significant issues we confront cannot be handled with the same level of thinking we used to create them.” In this period of fast change, students can no longer rely on outmoded ways of thinking. They must develop their critical thinking through assimilation in order to reach their aim of obtaining a higher education.

Reading and thinking critically are also required for research. To write a successful summary of a reading passage, for instance, students must be able to incorporate appropriate information, identify the most significant concepts, and be sufficiently detailed or generic. In addition, students must be able to supervise the process through which they read the section, form a thought, verify it with the source text, write the summary, and lastly compare the written summary with the source text. Additionally, it is vital to consider the target audience and goal of the summary, as both influence what will be written or kept (Taylor, l983). If critical thinking is essential for any student, it is absolutely essential for university students. Paul (1990) identified as a deficiency in the reading comprehension skills of university students the inability to “identify the evidence an author requires to explain the inferences that follow from what the author said” (p. 50). In an effort to remedy the deficiency in this academic cognitive skill, he argued that instead of approaching “written material as a collection of sentences,” a university student should experiment with “various interpretations until one fit all of the work, rather than ignoring or distorting statements that do not fit their interpretation” (p. 335). According to Paul and Elder (2014), the critical thinking abilities of university students are not limited to identifying the primary idea, critiquing it, or even accepting the materials you are reading; rather, they involve constructing a knowledge map and reading to comprehend systems of thought. They believed that “knowledge occurs in meaning systems with interconnected fundamental, secondary, and peripheral ideas” (p. 2). After gaining a comprehension of these conceptual layers, the reader would be able to think within the system.

In addition, the reader can determine the goal of the academic work by “taking command of the structures that are the basis of all thought” (p. 18) and by “actively initiating a dialogue with the writer” (p. 18).

In the pursuit of language mastery, English language learners embark on a remarkable journey filled with challenges and opportunities. The development of linguistic intelligence through reading and critical thinking emerges as a guiding light in this voyage. As this article has explored, the interplay between language, literature, and critical thought enriches the linguistic abilities of ELLs and nourishes their understanding of the world. English language learners are not merely acquiring a new means of communication; they are immersing themselves in a vast and intricate world of expression, culture, and imagination. Through the pages of literary texts, they gain not only vocabulary and grammar but also a profound appreciation for the subtleties and nuances of the English language. More importantly, they find in these stories a reflection of the human experience that transcends linguistic boundaries.

As educators and ELL instructors, we have the privilege of guiding these learners on this transformative path. By fostering a love for reading, nurturing critical thinking skills, and creating an environment where linguistic intelligence can flourish, we enable ELLs to navigate the complexities of language and culture with confidence and grace. The journey of linguistic intelligence through reading and critical thinking among English language learners is not just a quest for language proficiency; it is a voyage of self-discovery, cultural understanding, and intellectual growth. It is a testament to the power of language to unite, inspire, and empower. And it is a reminder that, in the world of education, we hold the key to unlocking the doors to a universe of possibilities for every English language learner.

REFERENCES

Banegas D. The Role of Literature in ELT – Part One, 2010.

Brumfit  CJ,  Carter  RA.  (eds.)  Literature and Language Teaching.  Oxford:  Oxford University Press, 1986.

Correia R.  Encouraging Critical Reading in the EFL Classroom.  English Teaching Forum 2006; 44(1): 16-19.

Arjen DK, Lazar G.  Literature and Language Teaching:  A Guide for Teachers and Trainers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. 

Brunfit, C. J, & Carter, R. A. (Eds.) (1986). Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 

Brumfit, C.(1985). Language and literature teaching: From practice to principle. Oxford: Pergamon Press.  

Brumfit, C. J. (1991). Language awareness in teacher education, in James, C. and Garrett, P., Language Awareness in the Classroom. London, Longman. pp. 24-39). 

Carter, R., & Long, M.N. (1991). Teaching Literature. United States of America: Longman.

Kennedy, M., Fisher, M. B., & Ennis, R. H. (1991). Critical thinking: Literature review and needed research. In L. Idol & B.F. Jones (Eds.), Educational values and cognitive instruction: Implications for reform (pp. 11-40). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates.

Collie, J.,& Slater, S. (1987). Literature in the language classroom; A resource book of ideas and activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cromwell, L., 1992. Teaching critical thinking in the arts and humanities. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions.

Hirose, S., 1992. Critical thinking in community colleges. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports, The George Washington University, ED348128

McPeck, J., 1981. Critical thinking and education. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2002). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional and personal life. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Financial Times Prentice Hall

Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (1987). Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the national council for excellence in critical thinking. Retrieved on Oct. 15, 2015 from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766.

by: K.V.B. Ravindra Babu

Associate Professor

Department of EoL

VFSTR (Deemed to be University)

Vadlamudi, Guntur.

Mail: kvbravindra@gmail.com

Abstract:

Listening is an essential skill required for information reception and conversational participation. Though it is a primary skill acquired by all of us at the early stages of life, it is not often verified to enhance its effectiveness in the learners. Effective listening involves a complex mental process which is not trainable easily.  Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) provides an opportunity to learners for real life language use. In the acquisition of second language learning, scaffolding techniques help the learners to accomplish the tasks with the help of ‘More Knowledgeable Others’(MKO) and thus extend their ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD). The present paper shares a part of doctoral research on ‘Using Scaffolding as a Technique to Enhance ESL Learners Language Proficiency at Tertiary Level: A Task-based Approach.  This paper presents the effectiveness of using scaffolding techniques to enhance the listening skills of the learners at graduate level in a private deemed to be university in the state of Andhra Pradesh.  The performance of the learners in this study is assessed as per the scales of Cambridge Assessment English and Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). 

INTRODUCTION

The language skills are broadly categorised into receptive and productive skills.  Reading and Listening are considered receptive skills as the learners receive information by reading a printed text or listening to sounds.  Some people consider that the receptive skills are passive as the learners are not engaged actively in any action and they read or listen to something silently.  But it is not true.  When the learners engage in reading or listening to a text, they immediately activate their previous knowledge to understand the meaning of the text effectively. Their cognitive processing would be busy in relating the new information to the existing knowledge and try to assimilate both to draw conclusions.  Hence, it is wrong to say that receptive skills are passive.  The learners are to be given training in using effective reading and listening strategies to comprehend the messages.  As the comprehension in receptive skills is a complex mental process and the teacher cannot monitor how it happens or where it has gone wrong, it is difficult for the teachers to correct the errors and give feedback to the learners so precisely and instantly.  As there are no structured attempts at various levels of education to know how effectively the learners listen to or read in a given context, the learning gaps are created in their knowledge acquisition and it is also resulted in their poor communication skills.  The present research focuses on enhancing the listening skills of the ESL learners at tertiary level by using scaffolding techniques in the Task-based Language Teaching. 

THEORITIAL BACKGROUND

In the socio-cultural theory, the development of a new skill is handled through the notion of ‘scaffolding’.  In the usual sense, scaffolding is a temporary structure that is often put up in the process of constructing a building.  When each new bit is constructed, the scaffolding is removed or taken down.  The use of scaffolding is temporary but it is essential for the construction of a building successfully.  

The term ‘scaffolding’ was first used in the educational sense by Wood, Bruner, and Ross in their examination of parent-child talk.  They defined scaffolding as a “process that enables a child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted efforts” (1976: 90).  Bruner described scaffolding in its metaphorical sense as “the steps taken to reduce the degree of freedom in carrying out some tasks so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill in the process of acquiring” (1978: 19).  Scaffolding is not another word for help, it is a special kind of help that assists learners to move towards learning new concepts, new skills and new levels of understanding.  Pauline Gibbons defined scaffolding as “temporary assistance by which a teacher helps a learner know how to do something, so that the learner will later be able to complete a similar task alone” (2002: 10).  

Rod Ellis presented his views on scaffolding in the context of social interaction as “scaffolding is the dialogic process by which one speaker assists another in performing a function that he or she cannot perform alone” (2003: 182).  He elaborated that when the students have the opportunity to perform tasks with skilled teachers, their opportunities for learning are maximized.  In the opinion of Jim Scrivener, “scaffolding refers to the way a competent language speaker helps a less competent one to communicate by both encouraging and providing possible elements of conversation” (2011: 227). Jeremy Harmer (2015) suggested scaffolding as one of the best ways for the teachers dealing with learners of mixed abilities.  He says,

Scaffolding is the name given to a particular concept of learners’ support which involves breaking tasks down into their component parts.  For students who have difficulty in understanding that they are supposed to do or find it difficult to ‘stay on task’ – we can try to identify a number of ‘do-able’ chunks so that they move from one ‘successes to another.  When they are involved in each of these mini-tasks, we can support them and help them move on to the next stage.  The best approach, therefore is go from stages that the students can do fairly easily to the next, slightly more difficult stage, and then from there to another more difficult stage etc. (2015: 151). 

In addition to breaking things into do-able parts, Harmer advised to support the learners to understand things through all possible means. In the recent publications, the term scaffolding has lost its flavour and the new terms ‘collaborative dialogue’ and ‘instructional conversation’ are used instead.  Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) identified the following features of scaffolding.

• Recruiting interest in the task
• Simplifying the task
• Maintaining pursuit of the goal
• Marking critical features and discrepancies between what has been produced and the ideal situation
• Controlling frustration during problem solving
• Demonstrating an idealized version of the act to be performed

These features characterise the effect of scaffolding on both cognitive demands of the task and the affective states of the person attempting the task. According to Wood, Bruner & Ross (1976), teachers share the perspective of the learners in Scaffolded teaching and it serves as a means for the teachers to make a high-level involvement of the learners in the process of learning and also make them feel responsible for their learning.  The teacher is a ‘scaffold’ or ‘more knowledgeable other’ who helps and engages the learner in the tasks that they are unable to accomplish on their own.  The teacher provides an initial support to the learners and enables them understand the procedure of accomplishing the task. When the learners have become capable of accomplishing the task on their own, the teacher gradually withdraws the support and assigns the responsibilities to the learners.  Scaffolding does not mean that the teacher provides everything the learner needs.  It is a systematic support given to the learner in the beginning of a task to enable him/her responsible for their learning.  Gallimore and Tharp (1990) have referred to the term ‘scaffolding’ as ‘assisted learning’ and suggested six ways of supporting the learners.  They are 

1. Modelling: The teacher may show a reading strategy to the learners by performing it in front of them.
2. Instructing: It does not mean just the teacher assigning the task.  It is directing the learners’ focus on to fulfilling a particular sub-task to begin a difficult task involving various level of accomplishment.  
3. Questioning: The teacher invokes mental operations of the learners by asking some questions to draw their attention towards the key elements of the text to understand it better. 
4. Cognitive Structuring: The teacher enables the learners to think and act in an organised way by making use of their background knowledge and relate it to the new conditions.  This helps them in giving explanations or making predictions.
5. Contingency Management: The teacher has to sustain the enthusiasm, involvement and interest of the learners in the tasks by encouraging them with praise and rewards. 
6. Feedback: The teacher gives feedback report by comparing the learners’ performance to certain standard norms. The feedback may also include suggestions on the areas of improvement. 

METHODOLOGY

The present study focuses largely on enhancing language proficiency of ESL Learners at Tertiary Level by using Scaffolding Techniques in TBLT.  This paper reports the performance of learners in listening skill, one of the four skills dealt in the main study.  The researcher has chosen an experimental study to find out the effectiveness of scaffolded instruction in enhancing the learners’ language skills. The study is conducted in a private deemed to be university in Andhra Pradesh.  A sample group of 120 learners are chosen for this study.  They are pursuing their first-year graduation in Computer Science Engineering.  These learners are offered an English Proficiency Course in the university and at the end of the course they appear for Cambridge Preliminary English Test, a B1 Level Language proficiency test as per Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).  Cambridge Preliminary English Test materials are used for both pre-test and post-test of this study. The learners are divided into experimental and control groups as per their performance in pre-test.  A twelve- week intervention with scaffolded instruction in TBLT is offered to the experimental group by the researcher and the control group is taught by using Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) method. A Post-test is conducted after the intervention for both the groups and their performance is analysed by using Software Programme for Social Sciences (SPSS).  Conclusions are drawn based on the finding of this study. 

            In the present study, the researcher has used several ways of scaffolding, called them techniques, to make the learning implicit and effective. Some of them are mentioned below. 

• Tasks are analysed on the basis of their linguistic complexity, cognitive complexity and communicative pressure.   Some of the tasks are broken down into smaller parts and presented to the learners in an increasing complexity.  The teacher ensured that the task presented are within the learners’ Zone of Proximal Development’ as suggested by Vygotsky (1935). 
• The teacher-researcher has used the task-based framework advocated by Willis (1996) in administering the tasks in the classroom.  Several Lead-in activities are conducted to revive the previous knowledge of the learners and some new linguistic information is provided in the priming stage to prepare the learners for doing the tasks. 
• The teacher-researcher has ensured at each stage of the task whether the students have understood the procedure of doing it and the goals to be reached at the end of it or not by using Instruction Check Questions (ICQs) and Comprehension Check Questions (CCQs).  
• The teacher provides enough time for the learners to complete the task and creates a collaborative learning environment by assigning pair and group work in tasks.
• The teacher explains the concepts with more examples and illustrations.  He uses multiple ways to make sure that the learners understand the process of approaching and solving problems. 
• The teacher gives a clear description about purpose, goals and sub-goals of learning activity that the learners are expected to reach.  
• Providing evaluation rubrics has also helped the learner to understand the key elements to be covered in the process of accomplishing a task. 

The teacher creates classroom conditions suitable for collaborative work and peer feedback.  The learners get the remarks and suggestions from the peers instantly on their writing and speaking performance. This also helps them learn from their peers’ performance.

Scaffolding for Listening Tasks

Teaching listening skills is considered to be one of the difficult areas in language skills development.  As both the teacher and the learner do not know how much language is acquired, it is difficult to fill the gap.  And listening to a foreign accent and comprehending it, is all new to many of the learners in the present study.   Most of the learners need strategy training in listening skills from the basics.  Scaffolding has begun with showing the distinction between hearing and listening. 

i)   Listening Task 1: The learners have to understand the key information from the short dialogues or monologues and identify the correct picture from three options. 

Scaffolding: T introduces a set of three pictures and elicit the learners’ explanation and guess about the situation of those pictures.  Ls are encouraged to predict in the pre-listening.  Ls are advised to be keen on the context and key words of the task to arrive at the correct answer.  T cautions about the distractors in all the options.  T encourages for peer check and repeated listening for accent practice with the support of audio script in the later stages.

ii)   Listening Task 2: The learners are expected to listen to a longer informative monologue or interview.  The learners have to listen for detailed understanding and should identify specific details about the listening text. 

Scaffolding: T introduces the task format.  It is choosing one from three option multiple choice questions.  T asks Ls some questions about the context of the task and directs them to see the instructions in the task sheet.  T points out certain strategies to be followed before starting the listening.  Ls are directed towards reading the task quickly before listening and predict what they are going to listen.  Ls are advised to follow the paraphrased options in the questions and to be careful about negatives, word spotting and distractors. This is a complex task involving the learners processing both receptive skills – listening and reading – simultaneously. 

iii)   Listening Task 3: The learners have to fill the gaps in the notes by following a longer monologue or speech.  They should listen to identity, understand and interpret the message. 

Scaffolding: T elicits important pieces of information about an event to explain what information is generally crucial.  T explains the structure of the task and genre of the audio.  Ls are asked to look at each gap and listen to the audio to find the information related to the given gap.  Ls are advised not to try for understanding the whole listening.  Ls focus is drawn towards the key information by predicting the listening text with the help of gaps in the task.  T reminds them of spelling and legibility of the answers. 

iv)   Listening Task 4: The task expects the learners to listen to and understand the opinions, attitudes, likes and dislikes of the speakers in a dialogue.  The learners have to decide whether the given statements are right or wrong. 

Scaffolding: T brainstorms Ls by encouraging the argument on any controversial statement.  This helps the learners to be familiar with the supporting and opposing reasons of arguments. T asks Ls to question about the context of the dialogue after playing the instructions part.  T reminds the Ls that the statements of the task are in the sequence of the listening text.  Ls are advised not to look for the exact language of the statement in the listening text.  Ls are trained to infer the meaning of paraphrased statements and compare them with the listening text.

RESULT ANALYSIS

In the collection of the demographic details and learning backgrounds of the sample group learners, a few interesting details are found in this study.  The learners have expressed their level of difficulty in dealing with various language skills and elements. 

Figure-1: Easy and difficult about English

Figure 1 shows the learners’ responses about what they feel difficult or easy about English.  The highest number of students (36%) have felt that reading is easy for them and 26 percent students express the same with writing.  The primary skills of the language, listening and speaking are considered easy by 14 percent and 19 percent students respectively and grammar and vocabulary are also not felt easier.  Only 4 percent say that grammar is easy for them and 1 percent have felt that vocabulary is easy.  A reversal of opinion is observed in what the students expressed very difficult for them about English.  31 percent have felt that vocabulary is a very difficult area for them to cope with the second language and it is followed by grammar which is felt difficult by 26 percent students. Listening and speaking skills are considered to be of moderate difficulty and 19 percent and 15 percent students have expressed their concern about them.   The academic skills reading and writing are not felt so difficult by majority of the students.  Seven percent students say that writing is difficult for them and 2 percent students say the same about reading.  They have felt that reading skill is the easiest for them and learning and using new vocabulary is the most difficult for them about English.

Figure-2: Difficulty in Listening

In finding the problems of listening comprehension in second language as shown in figure-2, 59 percent learners felt that the pace of the speakers is very difficult to follow.  Different accents used by the speakers (29%) and the speed of the speakers are the two major factors that influence the level of listening comprehension of the learners.  9 percent learners have felt that the unfamiliarity of the context which the speakers are talking about is hard to understand.  3% learners find some other problems in listening like the use of unfamiliar words, expressions and idioms by the speakers.

Listening Skills Data Analysis

Listening is one of the primary skills of a language.  Though no one denies its significance as a source of pronunciation, intonation, style etc. in the acquisition of second language, the learners are not provided any guided listening practice or the use of any strategies in listening.  When the researcher conducted the listening test as a part of pre-test, more than 90 percent students expressed that they have taken listening test for the first time in their 12 years of language learning process.  

The researcher adopted Cambridge Preliminary English Test Listening component for this study. This is a B1 level language test as per Common European Framework of Reference. There are four tasks in the listening test which focus on assessing the learners’ ability to listen and identify the key information from short conversations, monologues, interviews or longer informal dialogues.  There are different kinds of listening tasks used in pre- and post-tests.  Some of them are identifying the differences in the pictures by following the descriptions or short exchanges, understanding and interpreting the information to fill the gaps in the texts for note-taking, drawing the conclusions by identifying the opinions and attitudes of the people. 

There are multiple choice questions, gap-fills and true or false type of 25 objective questions in the listening test.  The test is conducted for 35 minutes after reading and writing components.  After the question papers are distributed to the learners, audio is played from the speakers to the whole group at once.  All possible precautions are taken to avoid any noise or disturbance from outside.  Each recording is played twice. The learners mark the answers in their question papers and transfer them later into the answer sheet.  The responses of the learners to the listening tasks are evaluated by using the answer key and the marks are normalised to the score of 170.  The results are mapped to CEFR levels of language proficiency. 

Listening Skills: Pre-test

The performance of the experimental and control group learners in the listening skills pre-test is given in Table-1.

Table-1: Students’ Performance in Listening Skills Pre-test

Listening: Pre-test	Experimental Group		Control Group
Scores (CEFR Levels)	No. of Learners	%	No. of Learners	%
80-99 (Pre-A1)	15	25	10	17
100-119 (A1)	19	32	34	57
120-139 (A2)	18	30	15	25
140-159 (B1)	7	12	1	2
160-170 (B2)	1	2	–	–

The performance of experimental group learners in listening skills is found more in the first three levels of language proficiency.  There are 15 learners who scored between 80 and 99, 19 learners scored between 100 and 119, while 18 learners scored between 120 and 139, 7 learners scored between 140 and 159 and only one learner scored above 160. The performance of control group learners is the highest in the score of 100 and 119 range as there are 34 learners who showed their proficiency at this level.  10 learners are at Pre-A1 level with the score between 80 and 99.  Another 15 students have scored between 120 and 139.  There is only one learner at the score range of 140 and 159.  

Figure-3: Listening Skills Performance in Pre-test

The performance of learners in both the groups in listening skills is shown lucidly with percentages in Figure-3. The lines in the figure show that one fourth (25%) of experimental group learners are at pre-A1 level in the listening skills pre-test while 17 percent of control group learners are at this level.  32 percent of experimental group learners score at A1 level, where as 57 percent of control group learners performed at this level.  There are 30 and 25 percent learners at A2 level from experimental and control groups respectively.  There are 12 percent learners from the experimental group at B1 level but only two percent control group learners have performed at this level. Only 2 percent of experimental group learners have shown their listening skills performance at B2 level where there is no performance from control group.

Listening Skills: Post-test

During the intervention, the researcher has paid more attention to alleviating the fears of learners about listening skills. The production of English sounds is explained to the learners with pictures and videos.  The learners are engaged in a lot of pair and group activities to practice the accent and to find the specific and detailed meaning of the speakers in monologues and dialogues.  The listening tasks have been done repeatedly with and without relying on audio scripts.  The following Table-2 illustrates the performance of the learners from both the groups in the post-test of listening skills.  

Table-2: Students’ Performance in Listening Skills Post-test

Listening: Post-test	Experimental Group		Control Group
Scores (CEFR Levels)	No. of Learners	%	No. of Learners	%
80-99 (Pre-A1)	–	–	–	–
100-119 (A1)	5	8	7	12
120-139 (A2)	37	62	49	82
140-159 (B1)	13	22	4	7
160-170 (B2)	5	8	–	–

It is good to observe that there are no learners at Pre-A1 level language proficiency in listening skills post-test.  There are only 5 learners from experimental group and 7 learners from control group who have scored between 100 and 119.  There are 37 learners from experimental group who have scored between 120 and 139, where as 49 learners of control group scored at this range.   Another 13 learners of experimental group have scored between 140 and 159 but only 4 learners of control group reached to this score.  There is no learner from the control group who scored above 160 but 5 learners from experimental group have performed at B2 level with the scores between 160 and 170.  The detailed graphical view of this performance is presented in Figure-4.

Figure 4: Listening Skills Performance in Post-test

The listening skills post-test performance of the learners is relatively better than the pre-test performance.  There are no learners from both the groups at Pre-A1 level.  There are 8 percent learners from experimental group and 12 percent learners from control group who have scored at A1 level.  Majority of the learners from both the groups – 62 percent from experimental and 82 percent from control groups – are at A2 level, just below the targeted B1 level.  22 percent learners from experimental group have performed at B1 level and another 8 percent at B2 level.  No control group learner could reach B2 level and there is only 7 percent of learners of that group reached to B1 level.   

Listening Skills: Mean Scores of Pre- and post-tests

The statistically important data form the pre- and post-tests of listening is presented in Table-3.  The mean scores and standard deviation of both experimental and control group learners are presented. 

Table-3: Statistics of Listening Skills Pre & Post-tests

Listening: Pre & Post-tests		Mean	N	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Pre-test	Exp.Listening	113.33	60	22.904	2.9568
	Con.Listening	111.29	60	13.77	1.7777
Post-test	Exp.Listening	137.07	60	13.726	1.772
	Con.Listening	128.83	60	9.037	1.167

The mean scores of both experimental and control groups in both pre- and post-tests of listening skills show that there is a progress in the learners of both the groups form pre-test to post-test.    The mean score of experimental group has progressed from 113 to 137.  The mean score of control group has also improved from 111 to 129.  It is important to note that the pre-test performance is at A1 level for both the groups and it has improved to only A2 level in posts-test.  The table also shows the Standard Deviation and the Standard Error Mean of the results test-wise and group-wise. The mean scores of experimental and control groups in pre- and post-tests of listening skills are illustrated clearly in Figure 5.

Figure-5: Mean scores of Listening skills Test-wise and Group-wise

Listening: Paired Samples two tailed t-Test

As mentioned in the earlier section of this chapter, the P value shows whether the difference between the mean scores of both groups in pre-test and post-test is significant or not. The test-wise analysis of the learners’ performance in listening skills is shown in Table-4. 

Table-4: Statistics of Paired Samples t-test on Listening Skills

Listening: Paired Samples t-Test		Paired Differences					t	df	Sig.      (2-tailed)
		Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
					Lower	Upper			P
Pre-test	EG & CG	2.04	25.329	3.27	4.5032	8.5832	0.624	59	0.535
Post-test	EG &CG	8.233	17.786	2.296	3.639	12.828	3.586	59	0.001*
*  The Value of P is < 0.05.  Hence, the difference is significant.

The P value of paired groups in listening skills pre-test is 0.535.  This value is more than 0.05 (P > 0.05).  It means that there is no significant difference between the listening skills performance of control group learners and experimental group learners in the pre-test.  The P value of paired groups in listening skills post-test is 0.001.  This value is less than 0.05 (P < 0.05).  It means that there is a significant difference between the listening skills performance of experimental group learners and control group learners in the post-test.  It implies that the learners of experimental group have performed better in listening skills post-test than the learners of control group in the same test.

FINDINGS & CONCLUSION

Practising and testing of listening skill is an entirely new area for many learners.  The listening activity is scaffolded by making the learners expose the very small aspects of listening one after the other.  Showing the difference between hearing and listening, practice on minimal pairs to understand accent better, presenting the task before the audio, predicting or guessing the content before listening, guiding when to use and how to use audio scripts are some of the features of scaffolding used in listening.  The analysis of the data shows that the learners of experimental group performed better than the learners of control group in listening post-test.  

Learners could understand and respond positively to the strategies suggested for comprehending listening and reading texts.  Activating the learners’ previous knowledge and relating it to understand the new information, understanding the task before going to read or listen to it, predicting the context of the text with the help of task or pictures, focus on one thing at a time while using sub-skills etc., are a few strategies that the learners have used effectively in TBA. The study has revealed that ‘scaffolding’ techniques enable the learners to understand the process of learning a second language.  The learners are able to follow a systematic procedure for moving from simple to complex parts of the tasks.  The teacher’s support and guidance in the initial stages of accomplishing the tasks help the learners to expand their zones of proximal development. 

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By: Dr Kumar Mahabir, 

Chairman, Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC)

Don Miguel Road, San Juan, Trinidad and Tobago

Website: https://indocaribbeanpublications.com

On Sunday October 8, 2023, the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) hosted its 176^th edition of its ZOOM Public Meeting entitled “Interrogating the Declaration of CARICOM as the Sixth Region of Africa” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8SbUwZ4_9M0). The panellists included Professor Clinton Sutton, Dr. Adit Adityanjee, Professor Emeritus Patricia Mohammed, Dr. Indira Rampersad and Ms Omolora Wilson. 

The speakers referred to releases from UWI, CARICOM and articles in the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, and the CARICOM website which featured and acknowledged CARICOM as the “Sixth Region of Africa”. The release from the UWI Regional Headquarters dated September 13, 2023 stated: “Caricom has been designated as the sixth region of the African continent. The region commemorated the second annual Africa-CARICOM Day on September 7, signalling an ongoing commitment to strengthened relationships between the two populations” (https://sta.uwi.edu/news/releases/release.asp?id=22682).

The statement was echoed by the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday of September 20, 2023 which ran the headline, “CARICOM recognized as sixth region of Africa” and stated specifically that “CARICOM has been formallydesignated as the sixth region of the African continent. The declaration was made during the second annual Africa-Caricom Day on September 7^th, at the University of the West Indies (UWI) regional headquarters in Jamaica”  (https://newsday.co.tt/2023/09/20/caricom-recognised-as-sixth-region-of-africa/).

In a release issued on July 26, 2023 by CARICOM Today in its CARICOM website, the CARICOM Secretary-General, Dr Carla Barnett, announced: “I am pleased to join you today as part of the African Union’s sixth region for the Annual Global Africa People-to-People Forum 2023 and to reflect on the Inaugural CARICOM-Africa Summit, which was hosted by His Excellency Uhuru Kenyatta, then President of Kenya, on 7^th September2021. (https://today.caricom.org/2023/07/21/caricom-africa-partnership-making-progress-caricom-sg/).

In light of the above, panellists and members of the audience at the ICC ZOOM Public Meeting raised a number of concerns:

With regards to the release of the University of the West Indies (the UWI), of September 13, 2023: 

1. Who “designated” CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, and when and where was such a “designation” undertaken? 

1. Did the CARICOM Secretary General, Dr. Carla Barnett – who made remarks at the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations – endorse the “designation” of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”? 

1. To what extent does the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, at the Africa-CARICOM Day which was attended and celebrated by the CARICOM Secretary-General, blatantly contradict the description of CARICOM in its website as “a grouping of twenty countries: fifteen Member States  and five Associate Members. It is home to approximately sixteen million citizens, 60% of whom are under the age of 30, and from the main ethnic groups of Indigenous Peoples, Africans, Indians, Europeans, Chinese, Portuguese and Javanese. The Community is multi-lingual; with English as the major language complemented by French and Dutch and variations of these, as well as African and Asian expressions” (https://caricom.org/our-community/who-we-are/).

1. Does the P.J. Patterson Institute for Africa-Caribbean Public Advocacy, headed by the Most Honourable P. J. Patterson, and who also joined in the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations, recognise the presence of other ethnic groups in the Caribbean, given his statement: “The ethnic origins and commonality of our colonial experience are beyond dispute … it is in recognition of this irrefutable reality that the African Union declared the existence of six regions, and on this special occasion to unite in recognising our shared history and aspirations.”

• How can the UWI, which is a multi-ethnic regional institution which is publicly funded by contributing Caribbean territories with multi-cultural societies, with the Secretary General of CARICOM, annually celebrate on September 7^th, an Africa-Caribbean Day, but has made no overtures towards a complementary celebration of an India-Caribbean Day, a China-Caribbean Day, an European-Caribbean Day, a Latin American-Caribbean Day, and an Indigenous/First Peoples-Caribbean Day, inter alia? 

• Who funded the Africa-CARICOM Day cultural extravaganza at the UWI Regional Headquarters?

• Was the UWI community, including the various Campuses and their respective Principals consulted on this Africa-CARICOM Day extravaganza at Mona, and did they agree on the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa?”

• Is this part of a UWI and CARICOM agenda to promote African hegemony in the region to the exclusion of other ethnic populations and contributions?

With regards to the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday article of September 20, 2023, in addition to the questions in (1) above: 

1. How, where and when was CARICOM “formally” designated as the “sixth region of Africa”?

1. What formalities were observed, and what form did the “Declaration” take? 

1. Were there signatories to the “Declaration” including those of Heads of Governments, at the UWI Regional Headquarters in Jamaica on Sept 7^th?

1. Does the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday have a political and ethnic agenda in blasting the headline: “CARICOM recognised as “sixth region of Africa”, and then proceeding to deem it a “Declaration”?

With regards to the release from the CARICOM website on July 26, 2023, and the statement from the Secretary General, Dr. Carla Barnett: 

1. When was Dr. Barnett (or CARICOM), formally recognized as part of the African Union’s sixth region? Is she endorsing this “sixth region of Africa” as a personal celebration, or on CARICOM’s behalf?

1. Does the current Chair of CARICOM, the Honourable Roosevelt Skeritt, endorse this designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of the African Union”? Does his statement at the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations on Sept 7, 2023, suggest an acceptance of CARICOM as Africa’s sixth region. Skerrit stated: “I am confident that our relationship will continue to flourish in the years ahead. Our Community is home to many citizens of the African Diaspora, designated as Africa’s Sixth Region”? (https://today.caricom.org/2023/09/07/statement-from-caricom-chairman-pm-roosevelt-skerrit-on-africa-caricom-day-7-september-2023/)

1. Did the African Union endorse CARICOM as its sixth region? 

1. In as much as the African Union deems its diaspora as its sixth region, does CARICOM perceive itself as constituting the entire African diaspora, or part of the diaspora? If the latter is the case, then the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, is geopolitically incorrect. It is also ethnically incorrect as the African diaspora is dispersed throughout the world.

• Were any referenda conducted either by the UWI, the African Union or by CARICOM of their various populations on “designating” or “declaring” CARICOM its sixth region?

• On whose authority, was the “designation” or “declaration” made?

Some of the panellists also touched on the issue of reparations. Of particular concern to the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) are:

1. The complete lack of inclusion of the non-African communities, both in the CARICOM Reparations Commission headed by UWI’s Vice-Chancellor Professor Sir Hilary Beckles. Professor Beckles was appointed in 2013 as Chair of the CARICOM Reparations Commission by then Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago in her capacity as Chair of CARICOM, Mrs Kamla Persad-Bissessar. He has repeatedly stated that the Reparations Movement builds “upon the historic efforts of past organisations to bring justice to the victims of native genocide, chattel enslavement, and deceptive indentureship”. Yet, there is not one single person of East Indian or Chinese or indigenous descent in the CARICOM Reparations Commission which he heads. This brings into question the very notion of reparatory justice and its inherent ironies.  

1. The complete exclusion of persons of East Indian descent and all other races despite the fact (or possibly because of the fact) that Indians constitute more than half of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, from the Trinidad and Tobago National Commission on Reparations first constituted in 2015. Moreover, the Commission was reconstituted very recently as reported on October 3, 2023 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Trinidad and Tobago. According to the report, the entities represented in the reconstituted Commission are “the Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs; Ministry of Tourism, Culture and the Arts; Tobago House of Assembly (THA); Emancipation Support Committee; Orisha Elders; Santa Rosa First Peoples; All Mansions of Rastafari; Media and Youth. There is no mention of specific representation from the East Indian community, although the Santa Rosa First Peoples are now included (https://foreign.gov.tt/resources/news/appointment-of-trinidad-and-tobagos-reconstituted-national-committee-on-reparations/).

1. Whether these two Commissions (Regional and Trinidadian) are about genuine reparatory justice or about ensuring sustained African dominance and hegemony, given the exclusion of other groups in the composition of their membership, is a critical question.

Some of the panellists and members of the virtual audience raised the following questions about the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”. 

1. Is CARICOM, UWI and the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday employing the optics of branding, naming and framing to promote political and ethnic agendas?

• What message is this conveying to other non-Afro ethnic communities?  

• What message is this conveying to the African population in the Caribbean? 

• What does CARICOM – being the “sixth region of Africa” – mean, in particular, for the governments and peoples of Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname with considerably large Indo-Caribbean populations who believe that they have been excluded and marginalised for decades by an Afro-dominated political directorate?

• What does the “sixth region of Africa” mean for our culture and our identity now, and in the future? 

• Are we trading the European branding for an African one? 

• Is this conceptualisation and designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa” a deliberate policy or politics of exclusion, or an unintended consequence?

• Is this a response to the global competition for economic space and an initiative for Africa to dominate and/or recolonise the Caribbean?

1. Whose initiative was it to designate CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”? Was it the African Union, was it CARICOM or was it the University of the West Indies? Or was it some or all of these?

• Was there a signed Declaration or formal ratification by Heads of Government for CARICOM to be deemed and recognised as the “sixth region of Africa”? If not, then the legitimacy and relevance of this designation at the UWI Regional Headquarters, and the declaration is questionable. 

• Can this designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa” facilitate global problems like climate change? If so, how?

• To what extent does this designation stoke divisiveness among the various ethnic communities of the Caribbean?

• Is this declaration a return to the colonial policy of divide and rule?

• To what extent does this designation distract from other more critical issues facing the region such as economic challenges, climate change and crime?

• Given the timing of this designation, is there any truth to the contention that it is part of a UWI-Caribbean-CARICOM political agenda to mobilise the support of the fifty-five member states of the African Union with that of CARICOM states, to rally for the Prime Minister of Barbados Mia Mottley, who is allegedly a contender for the position of UN Secretary General?

• Is the designation consistent with CARICOM’s stated agenda of promoting regional integration and embracing diversity and multiculturalism in the region?

At the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) virtual forum held on October 8, 2023, Dr. Hilary Brown, Programme Manager for Culture and Community Development at the CARICOM Secretariat, as a member of the audience, categorically denied that there is any Declaration for CARCIOM to be designated the sixth region of the African Union. Her recorded words contradict the statement from the UWI release that “Caricom has been designated as the sixth region of the African continent” and the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday headline that “CARICOM recognised as sixth region of Africa” and which continues with the story that “CARICOM has been formally designated as the sixth region of the African continent. The declaration was made during the second annual Africa-Caricom Day on September 7^th, at the University of the West Indies (UWI) regional headquarters in Jamaica”. 

The firm denial by Dr. Hilary Brown at the ICC forum suggests that the statements in the UWI release and in the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday are false, misleading, reckless, ethnically biased and dangerous to the harmonious co-existence of the multicultural ethos of the peoples of CARICOM. In this vein, the ICC is hereby making a clarion call for clarification on these matters and a public verbal and written apology as well as a retraction of public statements, articles and news releases where necessary, in response to the issues, concerns and questions raised above. 

By: Kavita Dehalwar | Publication date: Oct. 20, 2023 | Source: Track2Training

Bhopal, the capital city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, is known for its rich history, vibrant culture, and thriving industries. However, like many cities in India, Bhopal also grapples with the challenge of urban poverty, leading to the development of slums. The slums of Bhopal are a complex and multifaceted issue that sheds light on the broader challenges faced by urban areas in the country.

Bhopal, the capital city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, is a city of stark contrasts. Its history is a tapestry of ancient traditions and modern progress, its culture a vibrant mosaic of diversity, and its industries a testament to the city’s economic dynamism. However, beneath the veneer of this bustling metropolis lies a poignant and pressing challenge: urban poverty, which has given rise to the development of sprawling slums within the city. The slums of Bhopal, like similar settlements across India, are emblematic of a complex and multifaceted issue that not only impacts the lives of those residing within their narrow lanes but also illuminates the broader challenges faced by urban areas across the nation.

Bhopal’s Rich History and Culture

Bhopal’s history is steeped in rich tradition and historical significance. It served as the capital of the erstwhile princely state of Bhopal and was ruled by a succession of dynamic Begums (queens), who played a pivotal role in the city’s socio-cultural development. Their legacy is still evident today, as Bhopal boasts a unique amalgamation of Hindu and Muslim influences, resulting in a harmonious blend of art, music, and cuisine.

The city’s cultural landscape is as diverse as its history, with numerous festivals, art exhibitions, and music and dance performances taking place throughout the year. This rich tapestry of culture has made Bhopal a dynamic and cosmopolitan hub in the heart of India.

Thriving Industries and Economic Growth

In recent decades, Bhopal has experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth. The city’s industrial sector encompasses manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and education. This economic dynamism has attracted a steady influx of migrants seeking job opportunities and a better life for their families. However, this wave of urbanization has also exacerbated the challenges associated with urban poverty, resulting in the proliferation of slums within Bhopal.

The Pervasive Issue of Urban Poverty

Urban poverty is a harsh reality in Bhopal, as it is in many Indian cities. The convergence of factors such as rural-to-urban migration, a lack of affordable housing, high levels of poverty, and unemployment has led to the rapid growth of slum settlements. These marginalized communities grapple with a multitude of challenges that affect the lives and well-being of their residents.

Challenges Faced by Bhopal’s Slum Dwellers

The slums of Bhopal are home to thousands of families struggling to make ends meet in substandard living conditions. These challenges include:

1. Poor Living Conditions: Slum dwellers often live in cramped, unhygienic conditions, residing in makeshift shanties constructed from corrugated metal, wood, or even discarded materials. Such living conditions expose them to diseases, respiratory problems, and other health issues.
2. Lack of Basic Services: Many slum areas lack access to clean water, proper sanitation facilities, and healthcare services. The absence of these fundamental amenities significantly impacts the health and well-being of residents.
3. Education Barriers: Slum children often face obstacles in accessing quality education. Schools may be located far from their homes, and their families may not have the financial means to support their schooling. This educational disadvantage perpetuates a cycle of poverty.
4. Vulnerability to Disasters: Slum dwellings are often haphazardly constructed and located in areas prone to natural disasters such as floods and fires. This puts residents at heightened risk in times of emergencies.

Initiatives to Improve Slum Conditions

Efforts are being made to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers in Bhopal. These initiatives include:

1. Habitat for Humanity’s Work: Non-governmental organizations like Habitat for Humanity are actively engaged in improving living conditions in Bhopal’s slums. They are providing affordable housing solutions and promoting community development.
2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Indian government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, or Clean India Mission, is aimed at addressing sanitation issues in both urban and rural areas, including the slums of Bhopal.
3. Resettlement Projects: The Bhopal Municipal Corporation has launched resettlement projects to provide slum dwellers with proper housing and essential services.
4. Community Engagement: Engaging the community in decision-making processes and development projects is proving to be an effective way to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers. Empowering the residents themselves to be a part of the solution is a crucial step in improving their living conditions.

Defining the Slums

Slums are densely populated, low-income neighborhoods that lack basic amenities and infrastructure, such as proper housing, clean water, sanitation facilities, and healthcare access. Bhopal, like many other Indian cities, has a substantial population living in slum areas.

Causes of Slums in Bhopal

1. Rapid Urbanization: Bhopal has experienced rapid urbanization over the years, driven by factors like industrialization, job opportunities, and better education facilities. As a result, rural-to-urban migration has led to the unplanned growth of slum settlements.
2. Lack of Affordable Housing: The city has struggled to provide affordable housing for its growing population, leading to the proliferation of slums as a coping mechanism.
3. Poverty and Unemployment: High levels of poverty and unemployment contribute to the growth of slums. Many residents of these areas work in the informal sector, which often lacks job security and fair wages.
4. Lack of Land Tenure: Many slum dwellers lack legal land tenure, which makes them vulnerable to eviction and limits their access to essential services.

Challenges Faced by Bhopal’s Slum Dwellers

1. Poor Living Conditions: Slum residents live in cramped, unhygienic conditions, often without proper shelter. These living conditions make them vulnerable to diseases and other health issues.
2. Lack of Basic Services: Many slums lack access to clean water, proper sanitation, and healthcare services, which are essential for a healthy and dignified life.
3. Education Barriers: Slum children often face challenges in accessing quality education, as schools may be located far from their homes, and their families may not have the resources to support their schooling.
4. Vulnerability to Disasters: Slum dwellings are often poorly constructed and located in areas prone to natural disasters like floods or fires, leaving residents at risk.

Initiatives to Improve Slum Conditions

1. Habitat for Humanity’s Work: NGOs like Habitat for Humanity are actively working to improve the living conditions in Bhopal’s slums by providing affordable housing solutions and promoting community development.
2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Indian government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) aims to address sanitation issues in urban and rural areas, including the slums of Bhopal.
3. Resettlement Projects: The Bhopal Municipal Corporation has initiated resettlement projects to provide slum dwellers with proper housing and essential services.
4. Community Engagement: Involving the community in decision-making processes and development projects has proven to be an effective way to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers.

Conclusion

The slums of Bhopal represent a complex issue that intertwines urbanization, poverty, and lack of basic amenities. However, it’s important to recognize the resilience and strength of the residents who, despite facing numerous challenges, contribute to the city’s growth and development. To address the issue of slums effectively, a multi-pronged approach is needed, combining urban planning, affordable housing, and community engagement. With the right strategies and support, Bhopal can work towards transforming its slum areas into thriving and sustainable communities. The slums of Bhopal represent a microcosm of the broader challenges that urban India faces concerning poverty, inadequate housing, and essential service deficiencies. However, it’s important to recognize the strength and resilience of the slum residents, who, in the face of numerous hardships, continue to contribute to the city’s growth and development. To address this complex issue, a multi-pronged approach is essential, involving urban planning, affordable housing solutions, and community engagement. With the right strategies and support, Bhopal can work towards transforming its slum areas into thriving and sustainable communities, embodying the true spirit of “Incredible India.”

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BY

¹Kingsley Obumunaeme Ilo, PhD

Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: kingsley.ilo@unn.edu.ng

²*Uchenna Timothy Umeifekwem*, PhD

Department of Public Administration, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University

Email: ukochenna2011@yahoo.com

³Ohabuenyi, Jonas

Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Jonas.ohabuenyi@unn.edu.ng

⁴Sabo Okonu

Department of Political Science, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: sabo.okonu@unn.edu.ng

Abstract

Conflicts of all types have a serious negative impact on society generally. Conflict between communities is an unavoidable component of human existence. It is the result of a variety of circumstances, including environmental, social, political, ethnic, and cultural elements. When it happens, communal conflict is the main reason for starvation, malnourishment, and food insecurity because of the complicated humanitarian crisis that comes with it. The focus of this paper is to analyse the nexus between communal conflict and development in Nigeria. Journal articles, textbooks and newspaper publications were used as sources of data for this article. At the end, the article calls for  communities to learn how to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes. 

Keywords: Communal conflict, Education, Health, Violence, Social Infrastructure.

INTRODUCTION

Disputes over land or natural resources, including oil reserves, solid minerals, and water, are the major causes of communal disputes in Nigeria. Conflict situation may also occur when groups want to protect their honour, property, or even their very existence against the attack of other societies (Burde, Kapit, Wah, Guven, and Skarpeteig, 2013; Okpiliya, Ekong, & Eni, 2013). Bolarinwa (2006) observed that the prevalence of community disputes hampers the daily livelihoods of rural dwellers and food supply to urban centres. The bulk of farmers have stopped cultivating their far-flung farmlands. They are practically confined to their compounds and a few nearby farmlands. Movement restrictions have hampered access to critical agriculture inputs, including better seeds, fertilisers, and loans. In the end, many farmers could not sell their agricultural products effectively (Ajayi, Akinnagbe, and Aghojare, 2009).

The destruction of property, the deaths of people, and the resulting humanitarian crisis have hampered the socioeconomic and political activity of the affected communities in Nigeria plagued with communal conflict. A growing body of data from an impressively diverse variety of cultural and geographical settings suggests that communal conflict has offensive negative consequences on socio-economic and political well-being of the people.  Using a cross-sectional data Popoola, Olawale, and Muftau, (2020) demonstrate that communal conflict negatively impacts on business activities in Osun State, Nigeria. They also found that communal conflict has negative effect on entrepreneurial activities and causes economic damage and seriously affect entrepreneurship development in that community. Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015) similarly show that economic activity is disrupted, a community’s productive base shrinks, and human capital, such as health and education, is lost as a result of communal strife. A loss in family income and wealth is expected to result from all of these repercussions of community strife, they said. As incomes decrease, more families will slip into poverty, and those already in poverty will fall even more. Farming and other rural economic pursuits are becoming more vulnerable to violence resulting from communal conflict.

 Gafaro, Ibanez, and Justino (2014) corroborate these results to a large extent, though they link them to the presence of armed non-state actors. Studies by Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015); Jones and Naylor (2014); Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, and Neville (2014) suggest that communal conflict can negatively affect various economic, health, and labour related outcomes. 

COMMUNAL CONFLICT 

Wig and Kromrey (2018), defined communal conflicts as violent confrontations between non-state actors where the cleavages largely fall along ethnic or tribal lines. Wig and Kromrey (2018) classified communal conflict into two distinct types, namely, inter-communal conflict, that is conflicts between ethnic groups and intra-communal conflict, that is conflicts within a one particular group. However, the classification of ethnic groups and subgroups are ambiguous, making it hard to extricate between intra-communal and inter-communal conflicts. In many of these communal crisis, crimes and ethnic cleansing are commonplace. Also, the crises have left many victims with lasting effects of trauma, homelessness, economic losses, as well as the weakening of social trust.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

. Rural development refers to the process through which capitalism spreads across rural regions, together with the set of policies and projects that are being implemented in rural areas with the goal of improving human conditions. As used by Atkinson (2017), rural development involves efforts that are economic and social in nature intended to encourage concepts of retention, growth, and expansion in areas outside cities, including improving quality of life for rural residents through such activity. According to Nwobi, (2007), rural development can be viewed as the development of the moral, social, political and economic potentialities of rural communities to enhance their self-reliance through the provision of appropriate infrastructure such as pipe-borne water, electricity, good roads and small scale industries, increase their political consciousness and participation, promote their moral and social well-being which will result in tolerance, good discipline, justice, fairness, kindness, love and peace. As such, the term suggests that rural development is a strategy that tries to obtain an improved and productivity, higher socio-economic equality and ambition, and stability in social and economic development..

FACTORS ENCOURAGING COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN NIGERIA

. The root of communal conflicts in Nigeria is linked to several complex factors and vary from one group to another. It has been demonstrated empirically by several researchers that, in particular, the causes of communal conflicts are not static but rather dynamic and varied in nature depending on the socio-economic and geopolitical circumstances at the time (Yecho, 2006, Albert, 2001, Onwudiwe, 2004, and Alimba, 2014). 

Poor economic conditions 

Like the rest of Africa, Nigeria is neither immune to the poverty cancer nor ignorant of its impact on their fragile peace and stability. With over 80 per cent of her population living below the US$1 a day, civil unrest and grievances, both recipes for conflicts, become widespread. Indeed hunger, starvation, lack of economic growth and development create a high likelihood of violent conflicts and available army of people who are ready to prosecute the conflict either as machinery or as militias. For instance, in research conducted by Vinck et al (2011), 30 per cent of the Liberian population indicated that poverty was one of the root causes of the Liberian civil war. Similar assertions have also been made with regards to the conflicts in Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau (Voz di Paz and Interpeace 2010).

Access to small arms weapons 

Small arms induced-crises appears to be a persistent occurence in developing nations of their affordability, accessibility and availability; and porosity of the borders and legal frameworks legitimizing their use (Malam, 2014).This may be adjudged true because a significant number of the communal conflct that occured in Nigeria were prosecuted with small arms, and in  some instances extremely sophisticated weapons fit for external assault. The evil perpetuated through this weapon are not measurble, as their avalaibility is usually considered as a major cause that influences communal conflict and the outbreak as well as the continuation of internal conflicts and tensions in Nigeria.

Land ownership

Notable examples of communities in Nigeria that plunged into serious communal conflict hinged on land tussle with destabilized implications to their socio-economic well-being are well documented in literature. In Ebonyi state, Nigeria, there was an ensuing conflict between the people of Ezza and Ezillo communities over a portion of land which resulted in high death rates, destruction of basic infrastructure and services, and malnutrition. With the intervention of government and security agencies, violence was abated leading to a ceasefire between the two communities. However, this superficial peace has always been short-lived as longstanding and simmering ethnic rivalry and distrust has always plunged these two communities into perpetual communal conflict. 

Also, In December, 2018, four communities in Biase Local Government Area of Cross River State engaged in three days conflict which result to wanton destruction of lives and peoples’ properties. The conflict was deeply rooted in the “decision by Orugbam people to annex some land in other Erei communities.” The Inyima, Onyadama conflict in March, 2016, where women, children, the aged and the entire houses in Inyima were set ablaze. The conflict which has become a recurring decimal was first fought in 2008 then 2014 and repeated in 2016. The cause of the war according to sources is that an Inyima man was said to have harvested cassava in a disputed portion of land with Onyadama community and since the first outbreak of the conflict many years ago, there have continued to be bad blood and    recurring skirmishes which have kept the two erstwhile sister communities at daggers drawn. 

IMPACT OF COMMUNCAL CONFLICT ON DEVELOPMENT

 The evidence from previous communal clashes in Nigeria, demonstrates that communal conflict has a significant negative impact on development and the well-being of the populations affected by such persistent violence. During community disputes, violence causes devastation and restricts commercial transactions. As a consequence, public and private assets are damaged, individuals are injured or murdered, and markets shrink as transaction costs rise. In addition, people change their behaviour to survive amid violence. Thus, instead of maximising profits, the population dedicates most of its effort to avoiding victimisation and increasing their chance of survival. Both dynamics reduce the income of those caught in violent attacks, cause poverty for the affected families, and make it hard for them to escape hardship.

Communal conflict causes extensive morbidity and mortality among the warring factions. Individuals, families, and whole communities are displaced as a result of armed conflict, leading to large numbers of people being forced to flee their homes. Previous communal conflicts in Nigeria have been marked by excessive cruelty and violence towards civilians, which has resulted in the deaths of a large number of individuals. Health, education, the economy, and social welfare services collapsed, and many features of traditional life and the social structure were destroyed. Moore (2005) argued that “communal conflict negatively impacts human capital by causing physical and mental impairment, declines in health and nutritional status, and education and training opportunities, which in turn drive individuals and households into poverty”. In both the short and long run, declines in health and well-being may limit an individual’s ability to work, thereby limiting their ability to make an income. In times of community war, the physical disabilities of civilians and fighters may keep people poor for a long time.

Impact of communal conflict on Healthcare delivery

Data suggest that over a third of maternal fatalities and half of all infant deaths occur in locations where health systems have been disrupted by violence. During conflict, malaria and other endemic illnesses are likely to be accelerated. Their results suggest negative effects of the insurgency on weight-for-age and weight-for-height z-scores and an increase in the probability of wasting. In their study, Patel, Gibson- Fall, Sullivan, and Irwin (2017) reported in their study the ordeal of health workers in conflict zones. They observed that health workers are frequently attacked and their working tools destroyed. Primary health centres (PHC) are often damaged during conflict. In most cases, the primary health centres are used by fighters as their base, where they sleep and keep their weapons. This makes health workers demoralized and feel bad about their jobs, which makes them less happy about their job.  

Impact of communal conflict on Education

. In times of armed conflict, schools and centers of learning are often targeted. Conflict reduces access to education by stopping schools from opening, endangering children’s safety while traveling to and from school, and causing teacher absenteeism. There is an increase in school dropouts, and lower educational survival rates owing to relocation, military enlistment, or economic hardship. Inadequate supply of basic essentials like food, water, and school supplies, education quality diminishes, particularly in communities surrounding the war that may see an inflow of refugees or internally displaced pupils. As a consequence of increased hardship caused by conflict, parents may be forced to prioritize their investments among their children, perhaps resulting in more girls than boys dropping out of school. Furthermore, safety and security concerns may be more prevalent among girls than among boys, with females being more vulnerable to sexual and gender-based abuse than males upon leaving the house.

Many children in developing countries have had their education interrupted or stopped because of endless conflict. In some conflict-torn nations, however, millions of school children have never had the chance to attend school in the first place. Conflict may hinder national development by adversely affecting family income and human resources that could be used to invest in education. This means that there are fewer resources available for families and governments to spend on education than there would be if there were no conflicts. The effect of a conflict extends well beyond the local region of the targeted school. It may lead parents to be hesitant about taking their children to school, instructors to be hesitant about teaching, and schools to shut down. In rare circumstances, military forces may issue instructions prohibiting children from attending school or may restrict entry tacitly. From the forgoing, it is obvious that conflict promotes illiteracy. Illiteracy is a powerful predictor of poverty and hunger, and it is primarily a rural phenomenon that impedes rural development and food security; threatens productivity and health; and hinders possibilities to boost individual living standards and gender parity. The chances of having good job prospects as well as a good income is low for the illiterate population. As a result, they are often faced with the challenges of dependency, low self-esteem, and higher levels of crime. 

Impact of communal conflict on Social amenities 

Studies have shown that, there has been an increase in the damage of infrastructure due to natural and anthropogenic disasters (Nyanga 2018, Nyanga & Sibanda 2019, Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, & Sillah 2013). The majority of the studies presented fresh information, insights, and understanding regarding the degree to which infrastructure has been devastated by the conflict and how this has affected rural development in general. Nyanga and Sibanda (2019) found that due to the devastation of roads and bridges, workers in conflict zones had a difficult time getting to and from work. Uyang, Nwagbara, Undelikwo, and Eneji (2013) demonstrated in their study that a significant relationship exists between boundary disputes and food security. Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, and Sillah (2013) showed that “a lot of economic infrastructure such as road networks, dams, Information Technology (IT), and financial services were destroyed by the civil war that erupted in Mozambique in 2013.” The study revealed that the destruction caused a lot of disturbances and disruptions to the economy, especially in the agricultural, manufacturing, and banking sectors. The economy was affected by the destruction of roads, bridges, information technology systems, energy and power infrastructure, and communication networks. Chang (2003) study revealed that disasters have huge economic and societal costs that directly affect firms. According to Nyanga (2018), armed conflict destroys the economic infrastructure and breeds insecurity.

One of the most direct ways in which conflict distorts rural development is through reduced production. Farmers lose money directly as a result of damaged health infrastructure caused by conflict, and this can have a big impact on agricultural growth and the lives of people in rural areas. Conflict and long-term crises are making more and more people poor, food insecure, and refugees. It wreaks havoc on agricultural and rural lives, resulting in severe financial loss, food shortages, and harm on all levels. According to Angara (2000), agricultural operations are generally the first to be impacted when there are conflicts in rural regions. Some of these things have a big impact on agricultural output, which leads to a high level of self-sufficiency and a lot of hunger and food shortages.

CONCLUSION

Communal conflict is damaging and can have a big impact on the socioeconomic activities of rural people. The reality is that community strife is on the rise, and its effect on development has been quite worrisome. The poor living standards of the inhabitants in the affected region are aggravated by the prevalence of violent conflict, which seems to affect subsistence farming, the population’s main source of income. These conflicts have slowed down most projects from both government and non-government organizations. Past conflict between communities in Nigeria has led to the deaths of many people. It collapsed the local economy, left the health, education, and social infrastructure devastated, and many aspects of traditional life and social structure obliterated. In order to reduce injustice and promote fairness and transparency, community leaders must adopt appropriate procedures for the distribution of landed properties. Communities should learn to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes. Land-owning clans must carefully ensure that land borders between clans are accurately established, delimited, and recorded as soon as possible.

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Lena Ellitan; Ani Suhartatik

Faculty of Business

Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya Indonesia

Abstract

Product quality has a positive impact on repurchase intentions. Good product quality with good taste, and the wide variety of products available will make consumers visit and buy this product again in the future. Good service quality has a significant effect on repurchase intentions. This shows that good service quality alone is not enough to make consumers have the intention to buy again. Product quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction because good product quality will create a sense of satisfaction experienced by customers. The higher the quality of the product provided, the higher the customer satisfaction will be. Quality products with a wide variety of menus to make consumers feel satisfied and create a desire to visit and buy existing products again. Good service quality makes consumers feel good. Providing good service to make consumers satisfied, apart from good service, providing a comfortable atmosphere and eye-catching design so that consumers feel satisfied with the place and the service provided to their customers. Customer satisfaction creates an intention to buy again. Customer satisfaction will create an intention to repurchase. Consumers will have the intention to repurchase if consumers are satisfied with the quality of the products offered and also the services provided. Good service quality can create a good positive perspective from consumers so that consumers have the intention to come back. This article discusses the role of product quality, service quality and satisfaction in increasing repurchase intentions.

Keywords: Product Quality, Service Quality, Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention

Introduction

Product and service quality is closely related to customer satisfaction and company profitability (Kotler and Keller, 2016). According to Schroder, (2011) quality is a distinctive attribute or characteristic that a product has. Better food quality will provide high customer satisfaction. Food quality is also an important attribute in food. Lovelock and Wirtz (2011) stated that service quality is the number of services that require direct interaction between customers and business actors. Differences in service methods between one service provider and another can often be seen from the attitudes and skills of employees. Felix (2017) believes that consumer satisfaction is a customer’s feeling of satisfaction or disappointment resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations. If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the results match the customer’s expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Companies that focus on customer satisfaction will be able to increase customer loyalty and at the same time will help the company to have a positive image (Tjiptono and Chandra, 2011). Customer satisfaction is also defined as a determinant of post-purchase attitudes that reflects positive or negative results. Hawkins and Lonney in Tjiptono (2004) also stated three dimensions of customer satisfaction, namely suitability of satisfaction, repurchase intention and willingness to recommend.

Santoso (2016) argues that repurchase intentions represent a customer’s likelihood of engaging in objectively observed future behavior. This is defined as a consumer’s intention to repurchase a particular product or service in the future (Wand and Yu, 2016). There are four dimensions of repurchase intention, namely transactional intention, referential intention, preferential intention and exploration intention (Ferdinand in Saidani and Samsul, 2012). Companies need to implement marketing strategies that are right on target in marketing their products. Determining strategies in terms of food quality and service quality to consumers which triggers consumer satisfaction which ultimately makes consumers have the intention to repurchase the products produced to introduce or brand their business. Based on the phenomena and background above, it is hoped that this article will provide benefits as a study of product quality, service quality, customer satisfaction, and be useful for further research as reference material. And used as input for entrepreneurs in managing their platforms and products according to product quality, service quality and customer satisfaction.

Product quality

Kodu (2013), states that product quality can be interpreted as the ability of a product to carry out its function which includes durability, reliability or progress, strength, ease of packaging, and product repair and other characteristics. Kotler and Armstrong (2012: 283) add that product quality is the ability of a product to perform its function. Product quality is determined by product attributes. Kotler (in Negara, 2018) also states that product quality is the character of a product that has the ability to meet consumer needs. Kotler and Keller (2009: 143) suggest that product quality consists of the features and characteristics of goods and services, the intensity of which can determine the performance capabilities of a product which can be stated or implied. This is related to the quality of the product or service itself, company profitability, and consumer satisfaction which determine the selection of a product. Kotler and Keller (2009: 144) state that the higher the level of product quality offered to consumers, the higher the price, the lower the costs required, and the company can maintain the experience that consumers feel when purchasing the product.

Kotler and Armstrong (2012) argue that product quality is the ability of a product to perform its function. Product quality is determined by product attributes. Product attributes are product elements that are considered important by consumers and are used as the basis for decision making (Tjiptono, 2009 in Afrilia, 2017). According to Kotler (2008), the higher the product quality, the higher the consumer’s decision to make a purchase. *When consumers purchase a product, there will be certain considerations that will become the benchmark for consumers to fulfill their desires, including the condition and appearance of a product marketed by the company. Kotler and Armstrong (2017:249) state that product quality is one of the positioning factors in determining marketing strategies.             

Product quality is the performance of a product in accordance with the commitments made by the manufacturer to consumers. This commitment can be explicit or implicit, namely in terms of quality management expectations from the average consumer of the product. A product can be known as a good and quality product only if the quality of the product is able to meet the criteria and desires of consumers. Product quality in physical appearance must be beautiful to the eye in order to attract consumer interest and achieve good product quality. To achieve this, quality standardization is needed.

Service Quality

Service quality is the activity of offering services that are felt by customers who have used the service. Service quality is very important for customer satisfaction and trust (Rahmani Nejad, Firoozbakht, & Taghipoor, 2014). Wibowo & Soedjono (2014) stated that service quality can be said to be good and of high quality if the service provided by a company can satisfy its customers. The company will not remain silent in terms of customer satisfaction, so that its customers can feel satisfied. According to Kotler, (2007) customer satisfaction is a person’s feeling of happiness or disappointment that arises after the person compares the performance (results) of the product in question against the expected performance. Service quality is how far the difference is between customer reality and the customer expectations they receive (Adabi, 2020). According to Kotler (2009), customer satisfaction can be felt after customers compare their experiences in purchasing goods or services from sellers or providers of goods and services with the expectations or feelings they get from the buyers themselves. Kotler and Keller (2007) state that service quality must start from customer needs and end in customer perception, where customer perception of service quality is a comprehensive assessment of the superiority of a service. According to Adipramita (2019), quality is often considered a measure of the relative goodness of a product or service which consists of design quality and suitability. According to Aryani and Rosita (2010) service quality is very important to achieve improvement efforts for business continuity, where with good service quality the value delivered to customers becomes more positive, and will provide satisfaction to consumers. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires and the accuracy of delivery to match customer expectations. According to Tjiptono (2014:282) there are five dominant factors or determinants of service quality.

1. Tangible. Namely in the form of physical appearance, equipment and various materials that are visible and can be assessed as good.

2. Empathy. Namely employee willingness to build relationships, good communication, personal attention, and understanding of customer needs.

3. Responsiveness. Namely the readiness of employees to meet consumer needs in a responsive and friendly manner. Employees must have the willingness to provide service quickly and responsively.

4. Reliability. Namely the employee’s ability to provide services promptly, accurately, consistently and satisfactorily

5. Guarantee (Assurance). Namely, employees must include the knowledge, competence, readiness and trustworthiness of employees regarding the promises given, free from danger, risk and doubt.

Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is a customer’s feelings, both satisfied and disappointed, resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations (Kotler and Keller, 2018). If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the performance meets expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Customer satisfaction is an individual’s perception of performance or service in relation to consumer expectations (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). Kotler and Armstrong (2008) also define customer satisfaction as the extent to which the product performance received is in line with customer expectations. Companies that focus on customer satisfaction will be able to increase customer loyalty and at the same time will help the company to have a positive image (Tjiptono and Chandra, 2011). Customer satisfaction is defined as a determinant of post-purchase attitudes that reflects positive or negative results. Agustiansyah and Tauik (2019) also stated that customer satisfaction plays a very important role in competitive industries, because there is a very large difference in loyalty between customers who are satisfied and customers who are truly satisfied or happy. Satisfaction is the difference between expectations and performance. Customer satisfaction will always be based on efforts to eliminate or narrow the gap between expectations and performance. Customer satisfaction is the level of customer feelings after comparing perceived service performance and compared with expectations (Kotler and Keller, 2016). Customer satisfaction is a person’s feeling of happiness or disappointment that arises after comparing the performance obtained with the expected performance. If performance does not match expectations, then customers become dissatisfied. If performance meets expectations, then customers will be very satisfied (Nurmalina, 2017). Customer satisfaction is an evaluation process after purchasing or evaluation results after comparing what they feel with their expectations (Yamit, 2013). Satisfaction is the level of feeling after comparing the perceived performance or results with expectations (Sumarwan, 2012). Kotler in Lupiyoadi (2013) states that satisfaction is a level of feeling where someone states the results of a comparison of the product performance received and expected. Hamdani (2011) found that achieving customer satisfaction can be improved through service quality with several approaches as follows:

1. Minimize the gaps that occur between management and customers. For example, by conducting research by distributing questionnaires over several periods, to find out customer perceptions of service.

2. Companies must be able to build a joint commitment to create a vision for improving service processes. This includes improving the way of thinking, abilities, behavior and knowledge of all existing human resources.

3. Give customers the opportunity to convey their complaints by forming a system of criticism and suggestions, and correcting deficiencies that customers complain about

4. Develop and implement accountable, proactive and partnership marketing according to the marketing situation. The company contacts customers after the service process occurs to determine customer satisfaction and expectations (accountable). The company contacts customers from time to time to find out the progress of its services (proactive). Companies build closeness with customers which is useful for creating the company’s image and position in the market (partnership).

Kuo et al (2013) stated that consumers who have a high level of satisfaction will repeatedly return to the same place to get optimal results. Efendi (2020) states that customer satisfaction is a post-purchase consumer evaluation where the alternative chosen does not provide the same results or exceed consumer expectations, while dissatisfaction will arise if the results obtained are below consumer expectations.

Repurchase Intention

Repurchase intention represents a customer’s likelihood to engage in objectively observed future behavior (Santoso, 2016). This is defined as a consumer’s intention to repurchase a particular product or service in the future (Wand and Yu, 2016). There are four dimensions of repurchase intention, namely transactional intention, referential intention, preferential intention and exploration intention (Ferdinand in Saidani and Samsul, 2012). Pham et al (2018) define repurchase as an actual action, and repurchase intention shows that the customer decides to engage in future activities with the seller. Hendarsono (2013) believes that repurchase interest is the behavior of customers who respond positively to what has been provided by a company and are interested in making return visits or consuming the company’s products again. Nurhayati (2012) states that repurchase intention is a consumer’s desire and action to repurchase a product because of the satisfaction received in accordance with what is desired from a product.

Repurchase is a post-purchase consumer action, the occurrence of consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction will influence subsequent behavior, if the consumer is satisfied then they will show a higher possibility of repurchasing the product. Repurchase intention refers to a possibility or opportunity to use a previous service provider again in the future. Repurchase intention is a customer’s tendency to buy products from the right manufacturer over a long period of time (Gounaris, Bimitraids and Stathakopoulos, 2010). Repurchase is a tendency for consumer buying behavior for a product or service that is carried out repeatedly over a certain period of time and actively likes and has a positive attitude towards a product based on experiences that have been made in the past (Suryana and Dasuki, 2013). And inform other people about good things about the product and will not pay too much attention to similar product offerings from other companies (Kotler and Armstrong, 2008).

Discussion

Several studies support that product quality has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. High quality products are products that are able to excel in competing to meet consumer needs (Wood, 2009). Product quality plays an important role in shaping consumers’ repurchase intentions (Mahendrayanti and Wardana, 2021). Excellent product quality can provide confidence for consumers who will buy the product again (Nurahma et al, 2016). This research is also in line with research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022) explaining that product quality in the Erigo brand has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. The better the quality of service provided to consumers, the greater the consumer’s interest in making repeat purchases. Service quality is a factor that significantly encourages consumers to make repeat purchases (Prastika and Sugiono, 2017). According to Mardikawati and Farida (2013) service quality describes the nature of product appearance or performance which is a main part of the company’s strategy in order to achieve sustainable excellence as either a market leader or a strategy to continue to grow. In research conducted by Hidayat, et al (2020) at the Hotplate restaurant in Jakarta, it was found that there was a significant influence on service quality on repurchase intentions.

Customer satisfaction can be created by many things, good product quality is one factor in customer satisfaction. Good product quality will make consumers buy the product again and feel satisfied with the product. Kotler and Keller (2009: 144) state that the higher the level of product quality offered to consumers, the higher the price and lower costs required, and can enable a company to maintain the experience that consumers feel when purchasing the product. In research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022), it was found that product quality has a positive effect on customer satisfaction.

There are many factors that create customer satisfaction, one of which is service quality. Service quality is a reflection of a company’s reputation. A good company will have good quality service, which is able to make consumers feel comfortable and satisfied with the services provided. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires as well as the accuracy of delivery to meet customer expectations. In research conducted by Hidayat et al (2020), it was found that service quality has a positive effect on customer satisfaction.

According to Mensah & Mensah (2018) customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions are very important to increase restaurant profits. Customers who are satisfied, both with the product and the service, will make repeat purchases at that place. If customers are not satisfied with the product and service, then customers will not come to that place again to make repeat purchases. In research conducted by Hidayat et al (2020) at a HotPlaye restaurant in Jakarta, it was found that there was a significant influence on customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions.

In several studies, customer satisfaction is able to mediate product quality which has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. The process of forming consumer buying interest must first form a sense of satisfaction for consumers through the quality they have (Savitri and Wardana. 2018). North et al (2004) state that product quality is defined as the ability of a product to meet consumer needs and their requests, and also as a set of attributes that contribute to consumer satisfaction and expectations in use. In research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022) conducted at Erigo Surakarta, it was stated that product quality mediated by customer satisfaction had a positive effect on repurchase intentions. Bailia et al (2014) stated that product quality partially has a positive effect on satisfaction. The consumer’s experience in purchasing a product will result in the consumer’s assessment of the product. Consumer repurchase intentions represent possible future behavior, while behavior is an objectively observed level (Santoso, 2016). Service quality is closely related to customer satisfaction and company profitability (Kotler & Keller, 2016). Awi and Chaipoopirutana (2014) argue that to increase repurchase intentions, businesses must focus on increasing their customer satisfaction. Mensah & Mensah (2018) also added that customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions are very important to increase restaurant profits. In research conducted by Hidayat, et al (2020), it was found that service quality, mediated by customer satisfaction, has a positive effect on customer repurchase interest.

Conclusion

            Product quality has a positive impact on repurchase intentions. The results of this research are also supported by Danu and Haryono (2022) that product quality has a positive effect on repurchase interest. Good product quality with good taste, and the wide variety of products available will make consumers visit and buy this product again in the future. Good service quality has a significant effect on repurchase intentions. This shows that good service quality alone is not enough to make consumers have the intention to buy again. Service quality can be mediated by customer satisfaction so that consumers’ repurchase intentions increase. Product quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction because good product quality will create a sense of satisfaction experienced by customers. The higher the quality of the product provided, the higher the customer satisfaction will be. Quality products with a wide variety of menus to make consumers feel satisfied and create a desire to visit and buy existing products again.

            Good service quality makes consumers feel satisfied. Research conducted by Widjoyo, et al (2014) also found that service quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction. In this study, researchers stated that if service quality is improved, customer satisfaction with the restaurant will also increase. Providing good service to make consumers satisfied, apart from good service, providing a comfortable atmosphere and eye-catching design so that consumers feel satisfied with the place and the services provided to their customers. Customer satisfaction creates an intention to buy again. Customer satisfaction will create an intention to repurchase. Consumers will have the intention to repurchase if consumers are satisfied with the quality of the products offered and also the services provided. Kotler and Keller (2018) customer satisfaction is the customer’s feelings, both satisfied and disappointed, resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations. If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the performance meets expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Good service quality can create a good positive perspective from consumers so that consumers have the intention to come back.

Researchers found a significant influence of product quality on repurchase intentions which was mediated by customer satisfaction. According to Kotler (2008), the higher the product quality, the higher the consumer’s decision to make a purchase. When consumers purchase a product, there will be certain considerations that serve as benchmarks for consumers to fulfill their desires, including the condition and appearance of a product marketed by the company. Service quality mediated by customer satisfaction has a significant effect on repurchase intention. Consumers who make repeat purchases also pay attention and feel directly the quality of service from a restaurant. Nur, A.I (2018) found that service quality can be mediated by customer satisfaction which results in consumers’ repurchase intentions. Good quality service will certainly make consumers feel satisfied and make repeat purchases. Service quality can be said to be good and of high quality if the service provided by a company can satisfy its customers. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires and the accuracy of delivery to balance customer expectations so that customers can feel satisfied with the services provided and the intention to buy again arises.

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Isaac Odoi Danquah

diok1982@yahoo.com  

Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua, Eastern Region – Ghana. 

ABSTRACT

Illegal gold mining business is so rampant at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana after the discovery of gold within the sub region. This has led to the destruction of natural resources such as lands, surface water bodies, forest reserves, plant species, destruction of natural water channels and destruction of aquifers. With this in mind, total land areas and surfaces are destroyed and changed after an illegal gold mining adventure. The aim of this research work sorts to investigate if an illegal gold mined site can be developed into an Eco park after gold mining adventure for the benefit of mankind, community and country. This is the reason for this research work at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. After the investigation, it is well established that an illegal gold mined site can be designed, developed into an Eco park after turning pits and dugouts into an edifice where tourist siting places (summer hat buildings) can be developed over the pits and dugouts. Aquatic development can also be done in the dugouts containing water after treatment. Other places developed as play grounds for kids and the old. Sight-seeing stands also obtained after the introduction of animal species such as snails, rabbits, antelopes, tortoise, parrots, Monkeys, turkey and birds of different kinds. Different plant species also introduced to serve as learning platforms for ecologist and students from the biology background. With this, all kinds of classifications (Kingdom to species levels) of animals and plant species can be done to serve as learning platform for all. Water resources sectors within the Eco Park such as dugouts and pits well protected  and developed to serve as learning platforms for professionals and students from the water resources sector. Finally, total beautification of the place with green grasses and flowers after good designing by bioengineers. 

Keywords: Eco Park, illegal mining, water, land, forest reserves, gold, aquatic, development, ecologist, water resources, dugouts. 

1          INTRODUCTION

Gold mining business in Ghana has yield billions of pounds sterling, dollars and cedis to the Ghanaian economy and the 

world. Both indigenous and migrants are benefiting from the gold mining business which is changing their lives both locally and internationally. But the only problem is the process of accessing or mining the finite product. That is one of the main challenges facing the people and government of Ghana currently. For this reason, gold is explored in various kinds of ways both by legal and illegal gold miners. Gold exploration by illegal gold miners is always leading to the overexploitation of natural resources such lands, forest reserves and surface water bodies. The illegal mining activities is destroying farm produce and commercial farm products such as cocoa, cassava, plantain, palm oil trees, coconuts etc.   

Assessing surface water in Ghana is now a big problem as almost all surface water bodies have been polluted and deteriorated. The once been used by Ghana Water Company Limited for abstraction and treatment for drinking requires huge amounts of money because of the polluted nature of the water body. So is Supong which is one of the areas where the illegal gold is mined. The most interesting thing is that people don’t care and see what is happening, all that they are interested in is the gold and the money. Where will Ghana stand to produce food and cocoa for the international market if all these lands are degraded and becomes infertile hence of no use for crop production. Will the gold money be enough to import all the food Ghanaians needs for sustenance and survival? This is a big no, hence the need to protect the natural resources for the good will of all – both the gold miners and common citizens. Gold mining is a good business that generates Billions of pounds sterling’s and cedis annually for economic growth but comes with repercussions and these need not be toiled with if not it becomes a curse. Since gold mining in Ghana started years ago, generations have come and gone, generations will continue to come and go but this gold resource will continue to be there as this is what nature has blessed the country Ghana for her growth and sustenance hence the need to protect.

Galamsey is a group of unlicensed individuals who come together using crude and sometimes refine methods to mine gold and other minerals. Galamsey or illegal mining became a boom in Ghana in the 1970’s when there was a decline in Ghana’s economy during that time. 

When the president of Ghana was sworn into office, he restated his commitment to protect the land and water bodies that has been destroyed as a result of illegal gold mining activities within the country. The president introduced measures to stop the illegalities, regularise the small-scale mining sector, take measures to prevent occurrence of illegalities in the future, including reform and strengthening of regulatory agencies as well as reform of mining laws by that cleaning the mess created by these galamsey people.

Illegal mining operators wash the ore, and discharge waste products into rivers and other water bodies that serve as raw water sources for drinking for various communities within the country. These wastes include mine tailings which are directly discharged into rivers bodies. Large amounts of waste materials released into the water, a large amount of suspended solids that directly contaminate aquatic habitats. Some mine tailings are toxic and pose serious health problems both to humans, animals and plant life. Most water bodies in Ghana over the years have been serving as drinking water for local communities and a raw water source for the Ghana Water Company. These water bodies have been heavily polluted as a result of illegal gold mining operations. The Supong, Birim, Offin, Ankobra, Tano and Pra Rivers for example, have become extremely expensive to treat for human consumption as a result of the very poor water quality and its turbid nature or level.

Nsutam community has a lot of rich natural resources which needs to be harnessed in the right direction as well as protect it for the future generation.  Some of this natural resources are lands, water, gold, forest reserves etc. The mining of gold within the community is enriching lives and generating Billions of Pounds Sterling for Ghana and the world market. Despite the enrichment of lives, there is the need for the community and government to mine the resource in the right direction as well as sustaining the natural resources for unborn generations to come. In this regards, there is the need to use standard operation procedures to identify the resources and mine it for the betterment of mankind. In doing this, lands, forest reserves, water bodies will be under management through stakeholder participation towards the sustainability of the natural resources. Natural resources identification, assessment and protection hasn’t been the mentality of Ghanaians but only improper way of harnessing it. Ghana as an economy is rich in natural resources so is Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Nsutam a stopover community is now welcoming natural resources discoverers all over the world as its rich in all kinds of resources. One most important thing in all this is the sustainability of the resource for the now and future generation. Ghana lacks protection, maintenance and sustainability attitude among its citizens and so can be seen at Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The natural resources available at Nsutam needs to be harnessed, mined and protected for the future. In doing this, the natural resource can be used to feed the current generation and future generation. It therefore calls on the government, government agencies, tourist board, stakeholders and private investors to help in the maintenance and protection of natural resources within the community as they continue to mine and use to meet daily needs and demands. Some citizens do not have the use for today but keep for future generation and this needs to be installed in their minds in order to protect and maintain the resources at Nsutam. The Ghanaian government needs to cultivate the attitude of resources estimation, protection and maintenance for the future generation. Government institutions such as Water resources commission, Environmental Protection Agency, Lands commission and Tourist Boards needs to look at resources allocation and the potential of private investors to make use and protect the resources before leasing out. By this, private investors who buys lands in communities such as Nsutam will use standard operation procedures to harness resources such as gold whiles protecting lands, forest reserves and water bodies and designing them into tourist attraction sites in Ghana.

Eco Park development from illegal gold mined sites is a good thought through opportunity to make use of damaged sites or design an illegally mined abandoned sites into a tourist site full of beauty to serve mankind, community, country and the international world. With such a project of life span of say 70years, it can serve generations in various directions;

• Serve as a tourist sites
• Serve as learning sites
• Serve as entertaining sites
• Serve as conference center for programs
• Serve the community on special occasions etc.

• RESEARCH AREA

The research area for this study is in Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The people of Nsutam are involved in gold mining, farming and trading. Some of the farm products produced includes coconut, cocoa, plantain, yam, cassava, sugar cane and all kinds of vegetables produced during the farming seasons. The huge amount of gold discovered in the community has resulted in all kinds of illegal gold mining activities destroying water bodies, forest reserves and lands resources. The community has a population of about 7000 (2021 population census) with the majority being immigrants due to the gold mining business, Linda Dor and Paradise Tourist operates in the community. The destroyed land, surface water resources and forest reserves or plant species needs reclamation process in order to restore the infertile lands together with other resources back to normalcy. This fertile rich soils will support plant growth in order to support the hydrological cycle and exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between man and plants. Restoration of the degraded lands will also promote afforestation and wildlife existence in the future for future generation. It will also promote tourist attraction when vegetation’s are groomed and protected with the existence of wildlife’s. Fig 1 below is a view of the study area in the Eastern Region of Ghana where coconut is in mild production to boost livelihoods within the community.

Fig. 1: Map of Fanteakwa south

• METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED FOR THE RESEARCH

The methodology employed for this research is Site Stationed Investigation Procedure (SSIP). With this method, the researcher works on the illegal mined site for several years (2018 – 2023) and embarks on learning and investigations as illegal gold mining is done. The site is designed artificially as various processes and procedures are done by illegal gold miners to access the mineral willingly or unwillingly. Site is discovered after the whole process of illegal gold mining after thorough process to access and analyze what can be done with the site. An Eco Park is seen evolving out the site after the whole process of mining. 

• IDENTIFIED ECO PARK DEVELOPMENT STAGES
  • Summer Hat buildings creation on dugouts

In the process of mining within the identified area, all kinds of pits were dug to obtain the gold metal. These pits were dug to various depths generating water after hitting water table. Water from the Supong was also abstracted to help in the washing of stones and sand to obtain the gold being sort for. This has created dugouts after pit digging to a greater depth. Quite a number of the dugouts have been obtained and full of water to help in the Eco Park design and construction for Nsutam community. Summer hats buildings will therefore be done after concreting on the water bodies or dugouts having four or three access paths. This will be done with safety precautions or protections in mind so that no client or visitor falls inside the dugouts during operations and usage. This will be done nicely to add beauty to the design of the Eco Park at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Some are of the view that creating such summer hat buildings on illegal mined site dugouts is very dangerous but not the case, if proper design is done and constructed across the dugout with maximum precautions. This will be done to ensure safety of visitors, users and clients so that pleasure attainment will be obtained by all who makes use of the Eco Park now and the future. The dugout will be filled with fishes (to be treated under aquatic habitat creation and sight – seeing) and designed with flowers to give it much beauty to serve the people of Nsutam and beyond.

Fig 1: Summer hat building design

Fig 1 is a summer hat building which is going to be constructed over each of the identified dugouts in the illegal mined site. A number of such summer hat buildings will be constructed to add beauty to the Eco Park at Nsutam. This will have all kinds of fishes and aquatic organisms swimming in them to serve as sight – seeing for visitors and anyone who access the Eco Park. Plate 1 is one of the dugouts to have the summer hat building installed over it.

Plate 1: Dugout to have summer hat building installed

The summer hat building installation and creation on all identified possible dugouts will be done to international standards more than that identified in plate 2 below. Such summer hats will have four or three pathways as can be seen in fig 1. There will be a number of them depending on the number of dugouts identified with adequate size and capacity to facilitate the installations and creation.

Plate 2: sample summer hat building to be installed on dugouts

• Creation of playing grounds for kids

Kids like playing especially when they meet in numbers at a designated place to have fun. Arboretwum at Bunso has seen a lot of visitation and patronage and one can observe playing by kids all day round upon visitation at the Eco Park. And this is no exception when GMCL Eco Park is established at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. It therefore deems fit if a playing ground is designed, created or constructed to propagate this gospel of playing among kids, sharing love among themselves and extend friendly hands towards each other. This will enhance cordial relationship creation among kids as they learn how to work and cooperate with each other as they grow and mature into adulthood to serve man and country. 

• Access paths creation

All kinds of access paths will be created within the Eco Park to help one access and move around the Eco Park at ease as he/she embarks on sight – seeing. Access paths will comprise of concrete pavements, roads and green grass vegetated areas within the Eco Park. This will add beauty to the Eco Park and hence attract a lot of people to the place to make it lively. Royal palms together with other flowers and tree species will help in the access path and pathway creation (Plate 2). Runoff generation within the Eco Park is very high and again the water table is closer to the surface of the land hence high rate of water over the area. That is, most of the areas within the catchment becomes waterlogged during heavy storms hence the need for pavements and concreting of areas to avoid dirty storm waters being drained into the dugout. When this is achieved, the water body and all waters in the dugouts will be clean and serene all the time to make the Eco Park admirable. 

Plate 3: Access pathway creation

• Introduction of animals for sight – seeing and learning

In years back, zoos like the Kumasi zoo in the Ashanti Region harbors all kinds of animals and birds serving as for sight-seeing and for education. This is not the case in the Eastern Region of Ghana and GMCL Eco Park seeks to establish this learning and sight-seeing center for all and especially those living at Nsutam and in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Illegal gold mining is being embarked day in day out within the Eastern Region of Ghana which is turning lands and destroying natural resources within the sub region. Mined sites are left aloof after gold mining business and GMCL seeks to use one of the site as a case study in establishing an Eco Park. Extinction of animals and birds is still on going as individuals enter into deep forest like Atiwa forest to harness such animals and birds for sale and food in the homes. GMCL seeks to preserve nature by creating an area within the Eco Park where all kinds of animals and birds will be kept for sight-seeing and learning by students, young and old. Animal species such as snails, rabbits, antelopes, tortoise, turkey, monkey etc and birds of different kinds will be kept at the Eco Park for this purpose. Birds of different kinds can be found at the Eco Park now and some still moving in on daily basis. 

• Ecological creation of plants species

Biologist and Ecologist are much interested in plant species for learning in the schools and universities, for medicinal purposes and so on. For this reason, all kinds of plant species will also be planted within the Eco Park to serve educational purposes of learning at every level of education by all. That is from lower levels of education to the university level in Ghana, Africa and the world. Plant species and flowers will be planted around heaped sands and gravels and decorated into a sight – seeing area where there will be taking of pictures and all kinds of playing activities (photographing area and playground) as shown in Plate 4 below. 

Plate 4: photographing area and play ground

• Aquatic habitat creation and sight – seeing.

To access gold from underground through illegal means, all kinds of pits and dugouts have been generated full of dirty and polluted water. This polluted water has been channeled to the river Supong through the creation of artificial river channels within the obtained sites. This is polluting the river Supong and hence river Birim at a high and fast rate. Self-stratification is playing a major role in bringing the water bodies created within the site to normalcy. Treatments will also be done to help the self-treatment purpose of getting a clean quality water. The good quality dugouts and pits that have undergone self-stratification have fishes in them which are growing at a faster rate. The untreated once do no but will be treated and stocked with fishes and aquatic animals or organisms to boost the status of the Eco Park. It will serve educational purposes which also being used as sight – seeing by the indigenous and all within the Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana.

Plate 5: Polluted water to be treated to serve as aquatic habitat

• Creation of resting stands with trees and flowers 

Touring within an Eco Park is a tiring work hence the need for various resting stands where visitors and if possible supervisors working in the Eco Park can rest when the need be. With this in mind, various siting and resting places will be created within the Eco Park to serve this purpose. This will be done under shades or trees in order to receive fresh cool air away from heat and the sun. Such areas will be decorated with flowers to have a very attractive natural beauty to make an Eco Park a very stunning one for all. The Eco Park will be serving people of all classes hence will be to a good standard to serve this purpose at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The construction of the Eco Park will be done with Engineers and floweriest and designers who knows how to give beauty to environment and society. All the dugouts which will harbour the summer hat building will have their areas decorated with flowers and trees together with green grasses and other varieties of grasses covering the ground. This will make the Eco Park beautiful and lively area and place for people to visit, learn and have fun. This will be done for such people together with their friends, staff members, colleagues at school or university and family. Creation of such an Eco Park at Nsutam will serve the community which is now a gold mining community with migration of people within Ghana and outside Ghana to the community. 

• Overhead walk creation over Eco Park

Canopy walk is a nice tourist adventure to be embarked on whenever one visits a tourist site with such opportunity. Within the Eco Park will be the planting, nurturing and growing of all kinds of tree species to add beauty and nature to the Eco Park. These trees can be coordinated and modelled into a canopy walk in the future when all the trees are grown and matured. This will give visitors and anyone who accesses the Eco Park a better and nice view of the tourist site and environment. Human beings like adventure and this will give them another adventure opportunity within the Eco Park. This will give a view to human beings comparable to a drone view within the tourist site (Eco Park). 

• Creation of Entertainment and Conference Centers

The Eco Park being established sorts out to serve as an entertaining centre and site as well as serving as an education centre or tourist sites where all kinds of learning can be done. With this in focus, there is the creation of an entertainment center and conference or learning centre. Such two areas will purposefully serve entertainment reason and learning reason. The entertainment areas will comprise of places where children will have playing grounds for fun and learning. This will serve as a playing ground where children can easily move around and play during special occasions when they come in their numbers for tourist and entertainment reasons. Children like learning but it’s usually through playing and entertainment. As they happy themselves, then they play alongside each other for friendship, happiness and entertainment. This will be achieved when a playing ground is established within the Eco Park. A learning or conference center will also be created where students can be taught comparable to a classroom teaching environment. This will purposely serve school children and university undergraduates and researchers. Installing all kinds of animals and plants species requires taking tourist through some great learnings and history which when given at the touring moments is easily forgotten. But when done under a classroom settings, students and researchers can easily take lesson notes and write-ups home. Parents too and working class or staffs can be taken through same at the tourist sites and in the conference center.

4.10           Vegetative cropping stand for learning

A vegetative cropping stand will be created where touring people, students and visitors will be taken through vegetative reproduction. With this, some selected crops will be used to demonstrate vegetative reproduction to students, teachers, working staffs and anyone who visits the Eco Park. It will have some planted crops which have undergone vegetative reproduction for better understanding and learning among visitors to the touring site at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana.

4.11 Aesthetic treatment of created water bodies and dugouts

All the dugouts and pits are full of water undergoing self – stratification. Some have gone through the process over several months past and obtaining the finite good nature of water habited by aquatic organisms (fish, frog, toad etc) and usable by mankind to meet daily water demands. All the dugouts or pits will be aesthetically designed with green grasses, grasses and flowers to make it beautiful and attractive to all. This will be done after installation or construction of the summer hat buildings on the dugouts or water bodies.

• Bioengineering, pavement, concreting and grassing of the Eco Park

Bioengineering of a place with grasses like green grass adds beauty to nature, gives fresh air, increases infiltration, reduces runoff generation full of dirt and sediments into a drain or water body. This will be done in most of the areas with trees planted at vantage points within the Eco Park. Once bioengineering is done together with green grass planting, infiltration will be 100% (higher rate) as runoff generation will be 0% (or to a lesser rate). It is only at the pervious areas where pavements and concreting has been done that will give total runoff generation with various runoff depths. This will be generated during precipitation and will be over the field or Eco Park hence the need to channel all of them downstream. All these runoffs will end up in the connected dugout and finally in river Supong. Most of the bioengineering will be done around the dugouts and connected dugouts towards river Supong. This will be done with green grasses to avoid dirty runoff generation or runoff full of sediments been created and drained into the created dugouts which upon treatments will be of quality and have all kinds of fishes and aquatic organisms. With all kinds of drains within the Eco Park, all generated runoffs void of sediments and dirt’s will be channeled into river Supong. With all these done within the Eco Park, a beautiful sight – seeing Eco Park will be obtained to serve Nsutam community, visitors, country and world comparable to that depicted in plate 6 (Danquah, 2023). 

Plate 6: Bioengineering and pavement creation

5    CONCLUSION

Illegal gold mining is now part and parcel of the Ghanaian economy as its serving as a gainful employment source and a source of income for people and homes. It is generating millions of pound sterling’s, dollars, and cedis into pockets and boosting the Ghanaian economy and the world when it comes to gold production. Illegal gold mining will therefore continue to be embarked by the youth and old within Ghana and hence its resultant repercussions. It will always lead to the destruction of farmlands, lands, water bodies, forest reserves and so one. But what one does with the destroyed lands is the most important thing after illegal gold mining adventure within a community. With these assertions, it is justified that one can turn a destroyed land after a gold mining adventure into an Eco Park that will be beneficial to people, community, country and world.

Acknowledgement

Grateful I am to the Almighty God for the mindset, ability to think thoughtfully and in discovering this Eco Park at Nsutam. Thanks to the Chief and people of Nsutam for playing various roles towards the success of this project. I am again grateful to the Danquah and Darko family of Nsutam and Kukurantumi respectively for their various roles. God bless the chief Osaberima, teacher Yirenkyi, Okyeame Danso and the assembly man of Nsutam, honorable Alex for their help and roles in this project. God richly bless you all.

References

Danquah, I. O. (2023), Stormwater Modelling within Three catchments using MIDUSS v2.25: Real Time Simulation Model to analyze stormwater within catchments, International journal of Research.

Dr  Arthur Sunday

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Caleb Tamwesigire

Assoc. Prof , Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Dr Eliab Byamukama Mpora

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Mr Agaba Moses

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Abstract

Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as a vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2016). Micro finance in Uganda is a vibrant growing industry and the government of Uganda has over the past decade initiated implemented and or supported various micro credit schemes aimed at fighting poverty in the country. Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion. Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability and not on internal control system and lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions. Failure by MFIs to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda. The study analyzed the relationship between Management control system and financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda and it was hypothesized that Management control system positively influences   financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. MFIs have come under spotlight for cases of poor financial performance. Lack of empirical studies to assess the impact of Management control system on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda is the motivation behind this study. Therefore, this study is important not only because it fills the gap, but also it is set out to address this evident knowledge gap. The study adopted positive–phenomenological, epistemology and quantitative-qualitative methodology dimension with cross sectional and correlation designs, the unit of analysis was Microfinance Institutions registered with Association of Microfinance Institutions, and employees were the units of inquiry. Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were used to for statistical modeling

Besides, Hierarchical regression was used to test the predictive power of the variables and indicate precisely what happens to the model as different predictor variables are introduced in the model fit. This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that Management control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance. And Management control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance.  The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient Management control systems. These models can then be used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda .Regardless of the existence of controls in MFI, the results revealed that Management control systems were less efficient due to lack of close monitoring. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals .Policy makers, AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy

Key Words : Management Control System, Financial Performance, microfinance, Institution

Introduction

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion .The microfinance movement has received enthusiasm as a poverty alleviation tool that has eventually become a self-sustaining industry. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2016). Most microfinance institutions have embraced a more business-oriented outlook and maintained their target groups of economically-active poor, in order to achieve financial sustainability (Kalyango, 2004; Baguma, 2008). The micro finance institutions in developing economies are widely growing from time to time. Various studies on different countries on the performance of the MFIs confirm this (Adongo and Stork 2005, Zeller and Meyer 2002, Meyer 2002, Robert cull et al. 2007). Approaches used by microfinance institutions in Uganda to deliver financial services to the poor are similar to those used in other countries where microfinance institutions operate. The approach used depends on the nature and structure of the respective microfinance institution. The institutions providing microfinance services include: Tier I: formal financial institutions Comercial banks, TierII; credit institutions, Tier III; microfinance deposit taking institutions, Tier IV; Saccos (BOU Policy on MFIs 1999).

Microfinance institutions in Uganda from time and again been faced with high operating costs to provide financial services to the poor people and Small and Medium Enterprises (Micro banking Bulletin, 2002). And as such,  are unable to meet their obligations when they become due usually resulting from poor cash flow planning, failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending and micro loan portfolios  (Srinivasan, 2006 due to unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which are volatile. IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears. An enduring problem facing microfinance institutions, however, is how to attain financial sustainability (Dunford, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Woller 2000; Hollis and Sweetman, 1998; Christen et al, 1995). This problem has attracted attention of numerous researchers in recent decades and, as a result many strategies have been identified to ensure that institutions are sustainable (Randhawa and Gallardo, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Yaron, 1992). Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of management control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal control systems can alleviate disruptive performance in a business enterprise. Ledgerwood (1999) as cited by Lincolin Arsyad (2005), conceptualizes financial performance as; Financial viability (operational self-sufficiency, financial self-sufficiency) Profitability (return on assets ratio, return on business ratio, return on equity ratio) and Portfolio quality (portfolio at risk, repayment rates).  Financial performance being a critical factor in the success of microfinance Institutions, therefore, this research focused on financial performance and not social performance

Most of the studies on financial performance of microfinance institutions apply and use different methodologies as in the case of Tilahun (2009) , however this study employed a descriptive research design based on quantitative data. The researcher collected and analyzed annual reports using descriptive statistics.  A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between management control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions. 

Poor financial performance marked by deteriorating returns and portfolio quality has taken a center stage and remained unexplained in microfinance Institutions (Performance Monitoring Tool 2006/2009/). Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which tend to be more volatile (Ssewanyana 2009). According to the IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears hardly existed. Microfinance institutions in Uganda face poor cash flow problems due to changes in market interest rate and failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda (Bank of Uganda 2010/2011)

Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability (Migiri, 2002). Lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions.  Though some studies have identified ICS as a possible predictor of financial performance in different industries, there are still gaps as a result of absence of representative empirical studies that would address the issue of financial performance of microfinance institutions as a result of Management control systems (PekChen, 2005).More so, theories and models apparently used to explain financial performance in firms have proved to be weak and inadequate in explaining this phenomenon. 

This study enabled microfinance firms to have a more definite and direct understanding of the elements of management control system that can influence performance. Besides, understanding of how management control system elements combine to influence firm performance can lead to better resource allocation, which eventually may promote performance in microfinance institutions.

Empirical studies aimed at assessing the impact of Management control systems on the financial performance of Microfinance Institutions in Uganda are missing. Therefore, this study is important because it fills this gap of knowledge

Literature Review 

A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. There are various forms  that have been used to examine the way contextual factors are related to aspects of Management control System with an  attempt to assess whether this association is linked to financial performance of Microfinance Institutions.

Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between magememt control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions

Synthesizing existing studies in the broad area of explaining financial performance of MFIs, indicate a clear dearth of studies examining multiplicative effect of various elements the predictor variable ie Management control system(Internal Control System, Budgeting, Performance Measurement ) on  financial performance of  MFIs . 

Model Specification

Management control system has been conceptualized from the Contingency point of view that assumes that the design and the application of management control systems are influenced by the context in which they are applied (Chenhall, 2007). A contingency approach to management control systems aims at identifying the best design, usage and application of Management control system in a given context (Chenhall and Chapman, 2006).This study follows the use of management control systems and examines the way contextual factors are related to aspects of management control system with attempt to assess whether this association is linked to financial performance of Microfinance Institutions. Any controlled system requires objectives and goals against which its performance can be assessed and the existence of different goals is likely to involve the selection of different performance measures and controls

The contingency approach was cited and explained by Simons’ (1995) levers of management system control model that requires management of effective companies to know how to achieve high degrees of high control efficiency and performance. Simon argued that it is not the identification of controls associated with particular strategies that are important, but the distribution of management attention and efficiency of controls that can lead to high degrees of performance. Simons (1995) organises management control system tools into a coherent model called “levers of control

Independent Variable MCS

Dependent Variable: Financial Performance

Figure 1: Conceptual Frame Work

Internal Control System

Budgeting

Performance measurement

Perceived Financial     Performance

Profitability

Portfolio Quality

Financial Viability

Source: Literature Review

To understand management control system  and financial performance variables in relation to microfinance institutions, the major management control system  pillars i.e. budgeting, performance measurement, internal control system are dissected. Financial performance especially relating to microfinance institutions is also reviewed based on the performance dimensions comprising: Profitability, portfolio quality and financial viability. The significance of Management control system in microfinance institutions is also highlighted. These are compressed in a conceptual framework as shown above. From the conceptual framework above, the hypothesis was structured to ascertain the extent to which management control system can influence financial performance. This was expressed as:

      Y=a+bx 

      FPM= f(MCS)

      Y=α_o+β₁ICS₁+β₂BDGT₂+β₃PFM₃+ ₄  +µ_…

       Where

      Y = Financial performance (proxied by Profitability, portfolio quality, financial viability)

 Key predictor of Management control system is given as 

      ICS₁ = Internal control System, BDGT₂ = Budgeting, PFM₃ = Performance Measurement

Simon (1995), asserted  that Management control systems  have different impacts on organization performance, Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of internal control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies, Davila (2000), in his study his study findings indicated that different strategies will need different interactive use of management controls to raise firm performance.

Welsh (2003), Simons (1995), Chow et al (1999), Merchant (2007), appreciate that Management   control systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers that ensure that errors and fraud are detected, safe guard company’s  assets and opine that MCS greatly influences firm performance.

Recent studies draw from the original organizational theorists (Burns & Stalker 1961, Lawrence & Lorsch 1967, Thompson 1967, Perrow 1970, Galbraith1973) to develop arguments that explain how the effectiveness of control systems  (Chenhall 2003).

Bisbe and Otley (2004), findings indicated that the application of control systems has a huge contingency effect on firm performance. However, Bisbe’s research did not discuss the importance of human effect to control system (Snell, 1992; Abernethy and Brownell, 1997; Keller, 2001; Widener, 2004)

Dexon  (2010), findings revealed that Management Control Systems have a significant positive effect in achieving Value for Money. All the constructs of Internal Control Systems (Control environment, control activities, risk assessment) have a significant positive relationship with Value for Money in a business entity

Internal control  process reduces uncertainty and improves firm performance, Ivancevich (1976), Steers (1976), Imoisili (1989), Locke & Schweiger (1979), Mia (1989), Ezzamel (1990), Hirst & Lowy (1990) etc. Another study on control process and firm performance relationship by scholars (Merchant, 1980; Peel & Bridge, 1988; Edward, et al., 2001) and empirical results (Merchant, 1980) show that control systems enhance the accuracy the degree of information accuracy. In turn, it results in higher performance in organizations.  The increased use of comprehensive ICS practices can be assumed to result in better improved financial performance among firms (e.g. Chenhall 2003, see also discussions in Gul 1991, Gul & Chia 1994, Hoque & James 2000, Ittner et al. 1998, 1998, Scott & Tiessen 1999)

Management Control System acts as a driver variable in firm strategy and performance as found in Chong & Chong (1997) and Baines & Langfield-Smith (2003). Report of bank of Uganda (2002), Simon (1995), results showed that there is indeed a positive association between certain internal control practices when are used concurrently with other strategic initiatives and improvement in financial performance.  Abernethy and Brownell (1999) also discussed the interactive use of management   control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies. The findings confirm the report findings of Armesh (2010) on the influences of internal control system on organizational performance in Malaysia, which showed that Internal Control System influences the behavior and performance of the organizational to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization s objectives.

On the other hand however, McMahon (2001) did not find any significant relationship between use of Control practices and firm performance. Donaldson (2001) found no significant associations were between the use of comprehensive Management Control System and measures of growth in net sales and profitability. 

Additionally, McMahon & Davies (1994) and McMahon (2001) have not found any significant relationships between internal control practices and performance of businesses. Thus, the empirical results on the relationship between various dimensions of Management Control System and performance seem to be rather mixed

Jonathan (2005), study findings revealed that most of the microfinance institutions in Namibia are not yet financially sustainable and it was attributed to the fact that interest rates that Microfinance institutions require to break-even exceed the ceiling imposed. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in financial institutions (Srinivasan, 2006), Studies by Bontis (2002), Chong and Richardson (2006), explained similar performance trends in Portuguese. Study findings revealed that average ROA for MFIs is 3.57%. This concur with study findings of Lafourcade (2005), the findings revealed that, Africa MFIs have the lowest financial performance of ROA of 2% as compared to 7.6%-10% of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The findings are in agreement with Tilahun (2009), study findings on ‘the financial performance and sustainability of microfinance institutions in Ethiopia’; the result of the study indicates that there was a negative shift in the performance indicators particularly in the year 2009  and the gross loan portfolio has declined by 15.73% in the year 2009.

Furthermore, contrary to Chong and Richardson (2006),  study findings, McMahon (2001), did not find any significant relationship between use of control System of Australian business firms and profitability.

Furthermore, Perera et al. (1997) have also reported a respective non significant relationship in manufacturing firms. Malmi et al. (2004) likewise did not find a significant direct relationship between management practices and profitability, even though they reported an interaction effect of the practices and use of other relationship management control systems to be significant in relation to firm performance.

Both theoretical and empirical studies show that strong and efficient systems that maintain high levels of capital adequacy are important in determining financial institutions profitability. Sufian and Habibullah (2009), found out that good systems have a positive impact on bank profitability in China. This confirms Athanasoglou, et al. (2008, 2006) and Kosmidou (2008) who also finds a positive and significant effect of strong control system on bank profitability, reflecting the sound financial condition of banks.This shows that maintaining strong and efficient Managementl control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions (Gramling et al. 2004; Hermanson & Rittenberg 2003; 2004

First, Reid & Smith (2000) found out those developing control  systems, especially in the areas of management and accounting applications, lead to high firm performance, Reid & Smith (2002) , Reid & Smith (2000, 2002) holds that high performers  firms  use and apply internal control systems for daily financial monitoring and for identifying important trends in key variables for their further survival.  On the other hand, Reid & Smith (2002), argue that static performers at satisfactory financial levels tend not to value control systems as much as the others. Consequently, the relationship between Management control system and firm performance seem to be U-shaped

The foregoing reviews reveal that the application of Management control system elements in any organization differ and different interactive use of Management controls to raise firm performance.

The level, application and interactive use of internal control system in Ugandan microfinance industry is elusive. This, therefore, caused the need for a scientific investigation on the use internal control system elements influences financial performance in Uganda’s microfinance industry. This necessitated the study to evaluate the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda. Hence to the hypothesis that “Management control system positively influences financial performance of microfinance institutions”

Methodology 

The study adopted a positivist quantitative paradigm with cross sectional and correlation designs. Correlation design was used to establish relationships between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs. Logical positivism quantitative designs were applied in data collection, analysis and presentation which also helped to test hypothetical deductive generalizations. The study population consisted of 36 MFIs in central region Uganda registered with AMFIU from where the sample size of 33 MFIs were determined comprising a sample of 356 which was consistent with the sample size guidelines of Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006). Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006), multistage, simple rondom sampling and purposive tequniques were used. Primary and secondary data sources were used in the study.Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were also used to for statistical modeling.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the instruments and the instruments were found to be reliable at 0.78. Content  validity of  the  two  instruments was ensured  through use of  valid  concepts  which  measure  the  study  variables .  Content  validity  was  used  to  ensure  that  the questionnaire  was  content  valid. The content validity results were obtained and for all the constructs were above 0.7 as recommended by Sakaran (2000). The study used Means and standard deviations in order to summarize the results. The means were used because they show a summary of data and standard deviation clearly shows how well the means represent the data (Field, 2009). Hierarchical regression was used to estimate the predictive power of the predictor variable on the criterion variable in the model fit.

Findings and Discussion 

Descriptive characteristics

Table 1: Mean and Standard deviations of  the predictor and criterion Variables

	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Budgeting	356	1.75	4.00	3.23	.35
ICS	356	1.30	4.00	3.19	.27
P.Measurement	356	.82	4.00	3.21	.33
Financial Performance	356	.91	4.00	3.09	.25

Source: Primary data

The findings reveal that all mean scores of the constructs in question range between 3.09 and 3.23, with the standard deviations in the range of 0.25 to 0.35. Because of the small and minimal standard deviations compared to mean values, it is evident that the data points are close to the means and hence calculated means highly represent the observed data. In effect, the calculated means are a true reflection of reality (Garson, 2000; Field, 2006, & Saunders et al., 2007). The mean value of financial performance (3.09) is the lowest in contrast to other means .This finding coincides with the earlier assertion about the poor performance of Microfinance institutions in Uganda.

Table 2: Criterion Variables (Profitability)

Profitability
	Return on Asset(ROA)		Return on Equity(ROE)		Profit Margin
Mean	3.6540		16.9460		12.2280
Standard Deviation	.20082		.29263		1.56122
Sample Variance	.040		.086		2.437
Skewness	.466		-.274		1.472
Kurtosis	-2.284		-2.994		1.457
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.000		.000

Source: Primary data, 

The findings reveal that, MFIs ability to generate return on capital employed is quite disparate and p value is significant. And it was further revealed that MFIs do not have similar debt equity ratios in the financing mix and the return on equity for these firms is not identical. The findings reveal that there are significant differences in the levels of return on equity, return on assets, and also in profit margin levels. 

Table 3: Criterion Variables (Financial Viability)

Financial Viability
	Operational Self Sufficiency		Financial Self Sufficiency		Debt/Equity
Mean	111.2000		114.4000		4.2600
Standard Deviation	7.04982		1.81659		.424
Sample Variance	49.700		3.300		.424
Skewness	-.091		.267		.918
Kurtosis	-2.834		1.074		-.387
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.000		.000

Source: Primary data, 

The financing mix among the microfinance institutions varied widely with p value being significant. This has mainly emanated from increasing reliance of the institutions on funds being made available by donors and other funding agencies. Most of the firms are not yet dependent on equity as a source of funds in a big way.

Table 4: Criterion Variables (Portfolio Quality)

Portfolio Quality	Portfolio at Risk>30 days		Portfolio at Risk>90 days		Loan Loss rate
Mean	1.484		.9740		1.3060
Standard Deviation	.4867		.31548		.29619
Sample Variance	.237		.100		.088
Skewness	-.871		-2.229		-.422
Kurtosis	-.395		4.975		-2.879
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.002		.001

 Source: Primary data, 2012

The findings reveal that, the p value is significant in case of potential future bad debts, provision for bad debts an indicator that the Microfinance institutions are operating with differing levels of risk appetite. This means that the risk avoidance in MFIs is different

Table 5: Zero order correlation between Management Control, and Financial Performance

	Mean	Std. Deviation	ICS	Budgeting	P.Measurement	Financial Performance
ICS	3.20	.28	1
Budgeting	3.23	.36	.323**	1
P.Measurement	3.21	.33	.499**	.131*	1
Financial Performance	3.10	.25	.388**	.249**	.183**	1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level(2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level(2-tailed)

Source: Primary data

It is evident that there is a positive significant correlation between Budgeting and Internal control system (r= .323^**p< 0.05). This finding means that Efficiency in budgeting is associated with greater structural control systems. Furthermore, the findings reveal that there is a positive and significant relationship between Internal control system and performance measurement exists (r=.499^**, p< 0.05). From correlation matrix the results indicate that the relationship between budgeting and performance measurement is not significant (r= .131^*, p > 0.05).

Table 6: Correlation of MCS variable and Financial Performance

		ICS	Budgeting	Performance m	Financial performance
ICS	Pearson Correlation	1	.323**	.499**	.388**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.000	.000	.000
Budgeting	Pearson Correlation	.323**	1	.131*	.249**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000		.014	.000
P.Measurement	Pearson Correlation	.499**	.131*	1	.183**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.014		.001
Financial performance	Pearson Correlation	.388**	.249**	.183**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.000	.001
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Source: Primary

The findings revealed that appositive and significant relationship between internal control system and financial performance exist in Microfinance Institutions(r= .388^** p(.000)< 0.01.  This shows that a maintaining strong and efficient internal control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions. In a related case, the relationship between budgeting and financial performance is significant(r= .249^**, p(.000)< 0.01). This implies that efficient budgeting systems are associated with higher performance levels in Microfinance Institutions. This is because the budget systems, and processes, in an institution can influence the institution’s level of efficiency and effectiveness, which are important to every institution’s success. The findings, posit that there is a significant and positive effect of budgeting on financial performance

It is further evident that there is a significant and positive correlation between performance measurement and financial performance (r= .183^**, p (.001)< 0.01). This is a sign that a strong relationship exists between performance measurement and financial performance. This signifies that a higher Microfinance Institution’s performance measurement is associated with high performance levels. 

Table 7: Management control system & Financial Performance

	Mean	Std. Deviation	Management Control System	Financial Performance
Management Control System	3.21	.25	1
Financial Performance	3.10	.25	335**	1
	** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Source: Primary data

Results show a positive and significant relationship between management control system and financial performance. The findings further revealed that there is a strong significant relationship between the level of management control system and the degree of financial performance r = .335^{** ,}sig = 0.000 indicating a strong positive co-relation (r > 0) which indeed was big since its sig  value =0.000 < α=0.01 leading to acceptance of the hypothesis to the effect that the  level of management control system has a strong relationship with the degree of financial performance of microfinance institutions in Central region Uganda 

Model estimates 

The hypothesis was structured to ascertain the extent to which management control system can influence financial performance. This was expressed as:

      Y=a+bx 

      FPM= f(MCS)

      Y=α_o+β₁ICS₁+β₂BDGT₂+β₃PFM₃+ ₄  +µ_{…. …………}

       Where

      Y = Financial performance (proxied by Profitability, portifolio quality, financial viability)

 Key predictor of Management control system is given as 

      ICS₁ = Internal control System, BDGT₂ = Budgeting, PFM₃ = Performance Measurement

Table 8: Model Summary and estimates of the Variables

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.524a	.275	.269	.17763
a. Predictors: (Constant), P.Measurement, Budgeting, Internal control system

Table 9:Hierarchical regression with Management control system elements on financial performance

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.499a	.249	.247	.18025
2	.522b	.272	.268	.17771
3	.524c	.275	.269	.17763
a. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System
b. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System, Budgeting
c. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System, Budgeting, Performance  measurement

In the Model, the findings revealed that, internal control system accounted for 24.9 % of variance in financial performance that caused a statistically-significant standardized coefficient (B =0.381, P <0.01); In Model 2, the introduction of budgeting in the equation yielded 27% to the explanatory power of the model. This implies that budgeting accounted for an additional 2% of the variance in financial performance and caused a statistically-significant coefficient (B =0.095, p<0.01) the inclusion of performance measurement, yielded an insignificant additional 0.3% to the explanatory power of the model. This finding means that performance measurement accounted for only 0.3% of the variance in financial performance and caused a statistically insignificant coefficient (B =0.045, p >0.05)This led to the development of structural equation model and a modified frame work respectively 

Figure 2: Structural equation model

Figure 

Financial Performance

Management Control System

3: Modified Conceptual model

Profitability

Portfolio Quality

Financial Viability

ICS

Budgeting

Source: Developed by the Author-New Knowledge Generated        

The study findings revealed that performance measurement was dropped from the modified frame work, since it caused a statistically insignificant contribution on Financial Performance of Microfinance Institutions, with coefficient (B =0.045, p >0.0

The findings indicate that microfinance institutions in central region Uganda are efficient in preparing budgets and receive budget targets,and it was revealed that budgeting provides basis for control and performance evaluation because budgets act as a benchmark against which the performance of microfinance institutions is measured. The findings further revealed that the purposes of the budget are not always communicated to the stake holders of the institution and yet itis necessary in an efficient organization that all people be informed about the objectives, policies, programs, performance and expectations of the organization. This is always made possible through their participation in budgeting process

It was further revealed that those microfinance institutions in central region Uganda are efficient in performance measurement in a way that, the microfinance institutions are very efficient in resource utilization, however it was discovered that much as good performance is always received on good performance, exceptional performance is not always recognized by the microfinance institutions in central region Uganda. 

The findings further revealed that the microfinance institutions have a good and strong internal control system in that the institutions are very efficient in proper authorization for acquisitions. it was further discovered that much as most microfinance institutions in Uganda maintain debtors ledgers control accounts, they are sometimes not independently checked on a regular basis. Due to the high levels of management control system. This exhibited the existence of management control systems among the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda

The findings revealed that the microfinance institutions in Uganda have a weakness in charging interest on delinquent loans and yet loans and interest income are among the highest yielding assets of microfinance institutions because they provide the largest portion of operating revenue for most microfinance institutions in Uganda.

In terms of financial viability and portfolio quality, the findings revealed that the microfinance institutions have the ability to reach significant number of people in durable and stable manner and this shows that the microfinance institutions were highly successful in ensuring repayments although the delivery systems for loan recovery are not efficient and it was further revealed that still have challenge of not holding sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress.  

Most microfinance institutions in Uganda have and apply management control systems. However Low levels of management controls were established in Microfinance Institutions. The weak and ineffective control system is attributed to lack of implementation and close monitoring of the system. Since performance measurement is at the center of all the controls, Its weak position, has equally affected the two adversely internal control system and Budgeting

It can be seen that since the three management control elements complement each other, their combination has translated into a weak overall management control system, which has, in turn, led to adverse effects in MFIs’ financial performance in Uganda.

Since the three management control system elements complement each other, their combination has translated into a weak overall system, which has, in turn, led to adverse effects in MFIs’ financial performance. The adverse effect of weak management control system is manifested in increased operational inefficiencies that have resulted into increased operating costs and loan loss write-offs. More so, weak management control system has weakened the MFIs credit policy, which has, in turn, led to increased non-performing loans and portfolio at risk (PAR). Microfinance Institutions’ poor performance is explained by weak performance measurement that has, in turn, affected internal control system and budgeting. 

The study has addressed matters that have not been covered in the literature, more especially in the microfinance industry. The study has attempted to verify and affirm whether the theoretical assumptions are empirically supported in Microfinance Institutions. Consequently, the study has contributed to the management control debate in the field of microfinance industry in Uganda.

Though many researchers and scholars have different views on management control system elements, this study has ascertained that it is a multi-dimensional predictor encompassing management control system, budgeting and performance measurement. However, internal control system is crucial in enhancing the strength of other management control system elements. The study has, therefore, brought to light the true composition of management control system in Uganda’s Microfinance Industry.

This study further established that management control system dimensions operate in a synergic way to affect financial performance in Microfinance Institutions in Uganda. However, internal control system is the most important predictor among the three management control system dimensions in explaining performance variance. Thus, the mixed results on the contribution of individual management control system elements to financial performance have been looked at in this study.

This study has introduced a clearer understanding of the extent to which management control system influence performance in Microfinance Institutions. This can promote management efforts of Microfinance Institutions to improve performance, which can be facilitated through the appropriate management systems of leading elements of management control system combination that can foster performance in Uganda’s Microfinance Industry.

Finally, the empirical studies on the management control system in MFIs context are few in number, making this research area of special interest for exploration. 

On the basis of the study findings, and reviewed literature, the following recommendations are pertinent to the success of Ugandan microfinance institutions. MFIs should enhance controls that will ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. And this will enhance the levels of management control system

MFIs should put a lot of emphasis on internal control system since it’s a high contributor of financial performance. MFIs should hold sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress 

Managers MFIs in Uganda have to continuously re-evaluate and try different new methods of measuring performance to manage performance better. These performance measurement practices require time to succeed and the institutions need to continually re-examine the system alignment, tracking and monitoring effectiveness and modifying the system to accommodate the changing needs 

Microfinance institutions set and establish   effective control systems:  all of the financial, operational and other control systems which are carried out by internal controllers and which involve monitoring, independent evaluation and timely reporting to management levels systematically in order to ensure that all the institutions activities are performed by management levels in accordance with current policies, methods, instructions and limit 

MFIs should pay more attention to the internal effects of performance measurement systems. These effects are namely directly affected through performance measurement and drive the organizations to external effects. MFIs, should establish portfolio monitoring and control system to improve and monitor the portfolio quality and this will  improve financial performance. MFIs should find ways to reduce costs, increasing the number or size of loans disbursed, without compromising the loan portfolio, or reducing default rates

The Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Bank of Uganda, Microfinance support centre should provide a favorable platform for microfinance institutions to access financing that can enable them to set Interest rates that will not have a negative effect on the customer base. MFIs in Uganda charge relatively high interest rates this has led to lower repayment rates that negatively impacts on the institutions portfolio quality and profitability

The MFIs have to allocate more of their assets in to productive uses such as loans rather than current assets or fixed assets. MFIs should have a depth of outreach with clear market segmentation in order to improve on the sustainability the portfolio quality and the related loan loss provision. MFIs should enhance controls that will ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. MFIs should put a lot of emphasis on internal control system since it’s a high contributor of financial performance. MFIs should hold sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress 

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Dr Arthur Sunday, Dr Abanis Turyahebwa, Dr Derick Ssekajugo, Dr Mabonga Eric

Abstract

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion. Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability and not on internal control system and lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions. Failure by MFIs to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda. The study analyzed the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda and it was hypothesized that internal control system positively influences   financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. MFIs have come under spotlight for cases of poor financial performance. Lack of empirical studies to assess the impact of internal control system on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda is the motivation behind this study. Therefore, this study is important not only because it fills the gap, but also it set out to address this evident knowledge gap. The study adopted positive-phenomenological, epistemology and quantitative-qualitative methodology dimension with cross sectional and correlation designs, the unit of analysis was Microfinance Institutions registered with Association of Microfinance Institutions, and employees were the units of inquiry. Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were used to for statistical modeling

Besides, Hierarchical regression was used to test the predictive power of the variables and indicate precisely what happens to the model as different predictor variables are introduced in the model fit. This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that internal control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance. And internal control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance.  The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient internal control systems. These models can then used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda .Regardless of the existence of control systems in MFI, the results revealed that internal control systems were less efficient due to lack of close monitoring. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals  Policy makers, AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy

Key Words : Internal Control System, Financial Performance, microfinance, Institution

Introduction

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion .The microfinance movement has received enthusiasm as a poverty alleviation tool that has eventually become a self-sustaining industry. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2002). Most microfinance institutions have embraced a more business-oriented outlook and maintained their target groups of economically-active poor, in order to achieve financial sustainability (Kalyango, 2004; Baguma, 2008). The micro finance institutions in developing economies are widely growing from time to time. Various studies on different countries on the performance of the MFIs confirm this (Adongo and Stork 2005, Zeller and Meyer 2002, Meyer 2002, Robert cull et al. 2007).

Approaches used by microfinance institutions in Uganda to deliver financial services to the poor are similar to those used in other countries where microfinance institutions operate. The approach used depends on the nature and structure of the respective microfinance institution. The institutions providing microfinance services include: Tier I: formal financial institutions Comercial banks, TierII; credit institutions, Tier III; microfinance deposit taking institutions, Tier IV; Saccos (BOU Policy on MFIs 1999).

Microfinance institutions in Uganda from time and again been faced with high operating costs to provide financial services to the poor people and Small and Medium Enterprises (Micro banking Bulletin, 2002). And as such,  are unable to meet their obligations when they become due usually resulting from poor cash flow planning, failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending and micro loan portfolios  (Srinivasan, 2006 due to unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which are volatile. IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears. An enduring problem facing microfinance institutions, however, is how to attain financial sustainability (Dunford, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Woller 2000; Hollis and Sweetman, 1998; Christen et al, 1995). This problem has attracted attention of numerous researchers in recent decades and, as a result many strategies have been identified to ensure that institutions are sustainable (Randhawa and Gallardo, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Yaron, 1992). Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of management control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal control systems can alleviate disruptive performance in a business enterprise. Ledgerwood (1999) as cited by Lincolin Arsyad (2005), conceptualizes financial performance as; Financial viability (operational self-sufficiency, financial self-sufficiency) Profitability (return on assets ratio, return on business ratio, return on equity ratio) and Portfolio quality (portfolio at risk, repayment rates).  Financial performance being a critical factor in the success of microfinance Institutions, therefore, this research focused on financial performance and not social performance

Most of the studies on financial performance of microfinance institutions apply and use different methodologies as in the case of Tilahun (2009) , however this study employed a descriptive research design based on quantitative data. The researcher collected and analyzed annual reports using descriptive statistics.  A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between management control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions. 

Poor financial performance marked by deteriorating returns and portfolio quality has taken a center stage and remained unexplained in microfinance Institutions (Performance Monitoring Tool 2006/2009/). Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which tend to be more volatile (Ssewanyana 2009). According to the IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears hardly existed. Microfinance institutions in Uganda face poor cash flow problems due to changes in market interest rate and failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda (Bank of Uganda 2010/2011)

Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability (Migiri, 2002). Lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions.  Though some studies have identified ICS as a possible predictor of financial performance in different industries, there are still gaps as a result of absence of representative empirical studies that would address the issue of financial performance of microfinance institutions as a result of management control systems (PekChen, 2005).More so, theories and models apparently used to explain financial performance in firms have proved to be weak and inadequate in explaining this phenomenon. Empirical studies aimed at assessing the impact of ICS on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda are missing. Therefore, this study is important because it fills this gap of knowledge

Literature Review 

Synthesizing existing studies in the broad area of explaining financial performance of MFIs, indicate a clear dearth of studies examining multiplicative effect of various elements the predictor variable ie internal control system(control procedures, risk assessment, control environment, Monitoring and internal audit ) on  financial performance of  MFIs . (see for review

Welsh (2003), Simons (1995), Chow et al (1999), Merchant (2007), appreciate that internal   control systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers that ensure that errors and fraud are detected, safe guard company’s  assets and opine that ICS greatly influences firm performance.

Recent studies draw from the original organizational theorists (Burns & Stalker 1961, Lawrence & Lorsch 1967, Thompson 1967, Perrow 1970, Galbraith1973) to develop arguments that explain how the effectiveness of control systems  (Chenhall 2003).

Bisbe and Otley (2004), findings indicated that the application of control systems has a huge contingency effect on firm performance. However, Bisbe’s research did not discuss the importance of human effect to control system (Snell, 1992; Abernethy and Brownell, 1997; Keller, 2001; Widener, 2004)

Simon (1995), asserted  that internal control systems  have different impacts on organization performance, Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of internal control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies, Davila (2000), in his study his study findings indicated that different strategies will need different interactive use of management controls to raise firm performance.

Dexon  (2010), findings revealed that Internal Control Systems have a significant positive effect in achieving Value for Money. All the constructs of Internal Control Systems (Control environment, control activities, risk assessment) have a significant positive relationship with Value for Money in a business entity

Internal control  process reduces uncertainty and improves firm performance, Ivancevich (1976), Steers (1976), Imoisili (1989), Locke & Schweiger (1979), Mia (1989), Ezzamel (1990), Hirst & Lowy (1990) etc. Another study on control process and firm performance relationship by scholars (Merchant, 1980; Peel & Bridge, 1988; Edward, et al., 2001) and empirical results (Merchant, 1980) show that control systems enhance the accuracy the degree of information accuracy. In turn, it results in higher performance in organizations.  The increased use of comprehensive ICS practices can be assumed to result in better improved financial performance among firms (e.g. Chenhall 2003, see also discussions in Gul 1991, Gul & Chia 1994, Hoque & James 2000, Ittner et al. 1998, 1998, Scott & Tiessen 1999)

ICS acts as a driver variable in firm strategy and performance as found in Chong & Chong (1997) and Baines & Langfield-Smith (2003). Report of bank of Uganda (2002), Simon (1995), results showed that there is indeed a positive association between certain internal control practices when are used concurrently with other strategic initiatives and improvement in financial performance.  Abernethy and Brownell (1999) also discussed the interactive use of internal  control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies

The findings confirm the report findings of Armesh (2010) on the influences of internal control system on organizational performance in Malaysia, which showed that Internal Control System influences the behavior and performance of the organizational to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization s objectives.

On the other hand however, McMahon (2001) did not find any significant relationship between use of internal control practices and firm performance. Donaldson (2001) found no significant associations were between the use of comprehensive Management Control System and measures of growth in net sales and profitability. 

Additionally, McMahon & Davies (1994) and McMahon (2001) have not found any significant relationships between internal control practices and performance of businesses. Thus, the empirical results on the relationship between various dimensions of MCS and performance seem to be rather mixed

Jonathan (2005), study findings revealed that most of the microfinance institutions in Namibia are not yet financially sustainable and it was attributed to the fact that interest rates that Microfinance institutions require to break-even exceed the ceiling imposed. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in financial institutions (Srinivasan, 2006), Studies by Bontis (2002), Chong and Richardson (2006), explained similar performance trends in Portuguese. Study findings revealed that average ROA for MFIs is 3.57%. This concur with study findings of Lafourcade (2005), the findings revealed that, Africa MFIs have the lowest financial performance of ROA of 2% as compared to 7.6%-10% of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The findings are in agreement with Tilahun (2009), study findings on ‘the financial performance and sustainability of microfinance institutions in Ethiopia’; the result of the study indicates that there was a negative shift in the performance indicators particularly in the year 2009  and the gross loan portfolio has declined by 15.73% in the year 2009.

Furthermore, contrary to Chong and Richardson (2006),  study findings, McMahon (2001), did not find any significant relationship between use of control System of Australian business firms and profitability.

Furthermore, Perera et al. (1997) have also reported a respective non significant relationship in manufacturing firms. Malmi et al. (2004) likewise did not find a significant direct relationship between management practices and profitability, even though they reported an interaction effect of the practices and use of other relationship management control systems to be significant in relation to firm performance.

Both theoretical and empirical studies show that strong and efficient systems that maintain high levels of capital adequacy are important in determining financial institutions profitability. Sufian and Habibullah (2009), found out that good systems have a positive impact on bank profitability in China. This confirms Athanasoglou, et al. (2008, 2006) and Kosmidou (2008) who also finds a positive and significant effect of strong control system on bank profitability, reflecting the sound financial condition of banks.

This shows that maintaining strong and efficient internal control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions (Gramling et al. 2004; Hermanson & Rittenberg 2003; 2004

First, Reid & Smith (2000) found out those developing control  systems, especially in the areas of management and accounting applications, lead to high firm performance, Reid & Smith (2002) , Reid & Smith (2000, 2002) holds that high performers  firms  use and apply internal control systems for daily financial monitoring and for identifying important trends in key variables for their further survival.  On the other hand, Reid & Smith (2002), argue that static performers at satisfactory financial levels tend not to value control systems as much as the others. Consequently, the relationship between internal control system and firm performance seem to be U-shaped

The foregoing reviews reveal that the application of internal control system elements in any organization differ and different interactive use of internal  controls to raise firm performance. 

The level, application and interactive use of internal control system in Ugandan microfinance industry is elusive. This, therefore, caused the need for a scientific investigation on the use internal control system elements influences financial performance in Uganda’s microfinance industry. This necessitated the study to evaluate the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda

Methodology 

The study adopted a positivist quantitative paradigm with cross sectional and correlation designs. Correlation design was used to establish relationships between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs. Logical positivism quantitative designs were applied in data collection, analysis and presentation which also helped to test hypothetical deductive generalizations. The study population consisted of 36 MFIs in central region Uganda registered with AMFIU from where the sample size of 33 MFIs were determined comprising a sample of 356 which was consistent with the sample size guidelines of Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006). Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006), multistage, simple rondom sampling and purposive tequniques were used. Primary and secondary data sources were used in the study.Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were also used to for statistical modeling.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the instruments and the instruments were found to be reliable at 0.78. Content  validity of  the  two  instruments was ensured  through use of  valid  concepts  which  measure  the  study  variables .  Content  validity  was  used  to  ensure  that  the questionnaire  was  content  valid. The content validity results were obtained and for all the constructs were above 0.7 as recommended by Sakaran (2000). The study used Means and standard deviations in order to summarize the results. The means were used because they show a summary of data and standard deviation clearly shows how well the means represent the data (Field, 2009). Hierarchical regression was used to estimate the predictive power of the predictor variable on the criterion variable in the model fit.

Findings and Discussion 

Descriptive Statistics of the Predictor Variable and Criterion Variable
	N	Range	Minimum	Maximum	Mean		Std. Deviation	Variance
C. Procedure	356	2.67	1.24	3.90	3.2002	.01436	.27098	.073
C. Environment	355	3.18	.82	4.00	3.2101	.01757	.33106	.110
R. Assessment	356	2.70	1.30	4.00	3.1967	.01465	.27644	.076
Monitoring	356	2.11	1.50	3.61	2.9259	.01350	.25466	.065
I. Audit	356	2.25	1.75	4.00	3.2342	.01894	.35735	.128
F.Performance	356	2.89	.91	3.81	3.0993	.01325	.25005	.063

Source: Primary Data 2017

Results showed that internal control system among MFIs is defined in terms of the five observed variables, control procedures, control environment, risk assessment, and monitoring and internal audit. And financial performance was conceptualised in terms of Return on Assets, return on Equity, profit margin and portfolio quality. The findings indicate small and minimal standard deviations compared to mean values; it is evident that the data points are close to the means and hence calculated means highly represent the observed data. The findings revealed that standardized regression weights for the predictor variable(Internal control system), in explaining financial performance  were significant(p<0.001) signifying a strong relationship between internal control system  and financial performance  of MFIs in  central region Uganda and Zero order correlation  was applied to determine the correlation  between internal control system  and financial performance  of MFIs

Zero order correlation between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs

Variables	a	B	C	D	E	f
C. Procedure     (a)	1	1
C. Environment(b)	.131*
R. Assessment  (c)	.310**	.499**	1
Monitoring       (d)	.259**	.151**	.264**	1
I.Audit              (e)	.133*	.131*	.323**	.127*	1
F.Performance  (f)	.650**	.183**	.388**	.638**	.249**	1

	*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
	**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Hypothesis		Supported/not supported
H1: There is a positive and significant relationship between control procedure and Financial performance of MFIs          (r= 0.650, p< 0.05).		supported
H2: There is a positive and significant relationship between control environment and Financial performance of MFIs      (r= 0.183, p< 0.05).		supported
H3: There is a positive and significant relationship between risk assessment and Financial performance of MFIs                             (r= 0.388, p< 0.05).		supported
H4: There is a positive and significant relationship between monitoring and Financial performance of MFIs                                  (r= 0.638, p< 0.05).		supported
H5: There is a positive and significant relationship between internal audit and Financial performance of MFIs                           (r= 0.249, p< 0.05).		supported
H5: There is a positive and significant relationship between internal control system and Financial performance of MFIs              (r= 0.355, p< 0.05).		supported

To test the predictive power of the study variables, from the hypothesized model 

Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+ β₅X₅+e

Where Y is the Dependent Variable – Financial Performance

α = Constant

X = representing the constructs of the predictor Variable- ICS

X₁  = Control Procedure 

X₂  = Risk assessment 

X₃  = Control Environment

X₄  = Monitoring

X₅  = Internal Auditing

ß₁–₅ = Coefficients of beta 

e = error term in ascertaining the influence of individual element on Financial       performance, all the models as indicated the model fit 

Model1:          Y = α+β₁X₁+e 

Y = 1.154+0.607X₁

(t =14.201), (t=7.830), R²= 0.431, F = 83.26, DW = 1.366

Model2:          Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+e

Y = 1.470+0.536X₁+0. 250X₂

(t =13.011), (t=5.190), (t= 6.693) R²= 0.491, F = 76.07, DW = 1.366

Model 3           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+e

Y = 1.427+0.535X₁+0.264X₂+0.022X₃

(t =12.102), (t=4.6513), (t= 5.353) (t=1.671) R²= 0.492, F = 42.08, DW = 1.366

Model 4           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+e

Y = 1.474+0.452X₁+0.160X₂+0.026X₃+0.457X₄

(t =10.261), (t=3.544), (t= 4.773) (t=1.482) (t =1.875) R²= .683, F = 39.28, 

DW = 1.366

Model 5           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+ β₅X₅+e

Y = 1.295+0.450X₁+0.131X₂+0.023X₃+0.455X₄+0.061X₅

(t =9.371), (t=3.623), (t= 4.897) (t=1.495) (t =1.910), (t = 2.130) R²= .690, F = 33.66, DW = 1.366

In Model 1, Control Procedure accounts for 43.2% of variance in financial performance of MFIs (F =  83.26, P < .005) and caused a statistically-significant non-standardized coefficient (B =0. 607, P <0.05).

In Model 2, the introduction of Risk Assessment in the equation yielded an extra effect 6% to the explanatory power of the model. This clearly implies that Risk Assessment accounts for an additional 6% of the variance in financial performance. This means that a unit change in Risk Assessment leads to 6% increase in financial performance (F=76.07, p < 0.05), and caused a statistically-significant coefficient (B =0. 250, p <0.05); 

Results for Model 3 indicate that the introduction of Control Environment in the equation yielded a low significant effect of 0.1% to the explanatory power of the model. This means that Control Environment explained an additional 0.1% of the variance in financial performance (F = 42.08, P < 0.05), and caused statistically very low significant coefficient (B =0.022, p<0.05); these results indicate that Control Environment influence financial performance of MFIs but with minimal effect. 

In Model 4, the introduction of Monitoring in the equation also yielded a less significant 19.1% to the explanatory power of the model. Thus monitoring account for additional 19.1% of the variance in financial performance (F =39.28, p<0.05) and lead to statistically significant contribution in coefficient (B = 0.457, p<0.05). 

In Model 5, after the internal audit was included, a less significant additional 0.7% was yielded and added to the explanatory power of the model. These results indicate Internal audit account for only 0.7% of the variance in financial performance (F= 33.66, p < 0.05), and caused a statistically less significant coefficient (B =0.061, p <0.05). However, model 5 shows the overall explanatory power of the model to be 69%.  This clearly shows that internal control system predicts 69 % of the variance in the financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. Considering, the unstandardized coefficients, control procedures has the highest beta followed by monitoring and then risk assessment, internal audit and finally control environment. 

This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that internal control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance leading to the acceptance of the hypothesis that internal control systems are positively related with financial performance among the MFIs in central region Uganda.. And internal control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance. 

The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder and resource based view as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed that efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient internal control systems. These models can then used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals 

Policy makers, BOU, MOFEP AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy.  

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–Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Agricultural marketing is a critical component of the agricultural sector that involves various activities, processes, and systems that facilitate the movement of agricultural products from producers to consumers. It encompasses the planning, execution, and monitoring of the production, transportation, storage, and distribution of agricultural goods. Efficient agricultural marketing is essential for the growth and sustainability of the agricultural industry, as it ensures fair returns to farmers, availability of goods to consumers, and stability in prices.

Importance of Agricultural Marketing

Agricultural marketing plays a pivotal role in the agricultural value chain. Here are some of its key significance:

1. Economic Growth:

Efficient agricultural marketing contributes to the overall economic development of a country by promoting increased agricultural production and generating income for farmers and stakeholders. When farmers receive fair prices for their produce, they are incentivized to invest in better farming practices, leading to higher productivity.

2. Price Stabilization:

By balancing demand and supply, agricultural marketing helps in stabilizing the prices of agricultural products. This is achieved through effective storage, distribution, and market intelligence, which enables market players to anticipate changes in demand and supply and make informed decisions.

3. Market Access:

Agricultural marketing facilitates access to markets for farmers, allowing them to sell their produce beyond local markets. This increases market reach and creates opportunities for farmers to engage with larger markets, both domestic and international, thereby expanding their customer base.

4. Reduction of Wastage:

Efficient marketing reduces post-harvest losses by ensuring that produce reaches consumers in a timely manner. Proper storage and transportation facilities are vital components of this, minimizing spoilage and wastage of agricultural goods.

5. Consumer Satisfaction:

Agricultural marketing ensures that consumers have access to a variety of high-quality agricultural products at reasonable prices. This results in enhanced consumer satisfaction and promotes a healthier population.

Components of Agricultural Marketing

Agricultural marketing comprises several key components that work in conjunction to facilitate the smooth movement of agricultural goods in the market:

1. Market Research and Information:

This component involves the collection and analysis of data related to agricultural production, demand, prices, and consumer preferences. Accurate market information helps farmers and other stakeholders make informed decisions regarding production, pricing, and market entry.

2. Storage and Warehousing:

Proper storage and warehousing facilities are crucial for preserving the quality and value of agricultural products. Storage facilities help in reducing post-harvest losses and ensuring a continuous supply of products in the market.

3. Transportation:

Efficient transportation systems are essential for the timely and cost-effective movement of agricultural products from production centers to consumption areas. Well-maintained transportation networks, including roads, railways, and ports, are vital for the success of agricultural marketing.

4. Processing and Value Addition:

Processing and value addition involve converting raw agricultural products into more marketable and valuable forms. This adds value to the produce and creates new market opportunities, encouraging a higher price realization for farmers.

5. Market Infrastructure:

Market infrastructure includes physical facilities such as market yards, wholesale markets, cold storage facilities, and packaging centers. These infrastructures provide a platform for buyers and sellers to interact and conduct transactions efficiently.

Challenges in Agricultural Marketing

Despite its importance, agricultural marketing faces various challenges that hinder its efficiency and growth:

1. Lack of Infrastructure:

Inadequate market infrastructure, including storage facilities, transportation networks, and processing units, can limit the smooth flow of agricultural goods and increase post-harvest losses.

2. Information Asymmetry:

Uneven access to market information and lack of transparency in pricing mechanisms often result in farmers not receiving fair prices for their produce.

3. Fragmented Markets:

Fragmented markets and a lack of a unified market approach can lead to inefficient pricing and distribution, impacting both farmers and consumers.

4. Policy and Regulatory Barriers:

Complex regulations and policies can hinder market access and growth, particularly for small-scale farmers and new market entrants.

Future Prospects

To overcome these challenges and enhance agricultural marketing, various stakeholders including governments, farmers, private sector entities, and development organizations need to work collaboratively. Investing in modern infrastructure, promoting digital technologies for market information dissemination, encouraging farmer cooperatives, and reforming policies can significantly improve agricultural marketing efficiency.

Efforts should be directed towards creating an integrated and well-organized agricultural marketing system that not only benefits farmers but also ensures food security, stable prices, and economic development. By addressing the existing challenges and fostering a conducive environment for agricultural marketing, we can unlock the true potential of the agricultural sector and contribute to sustainable growth and development.

References

Agarwal, Sarika, and Shashikant Nishant Sharma. “Universal Design to Ensure Equitable Society.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 1.

Ayuba, Dauda. “Understanding the Urban Development Dynamics.” Think India Journal 26.3 (2023): 13-17.

Bhan, Suraj, and U. K. Behera. “Conservation agriculture in India–Problems, prospects and policy issues.” International Soil and Water Conservation Research 2.4 (2014): 1-12.

Dhawan, Vibha. “Water and agriculture in India.” Background paper for the South Asia expert panel during the Global Forum for Food and Agriculture. Vol. 28. 2017.

Deshpande, Tanvi. “State of agriculture in India.” PRS Legislative Research 53.8 (2017): 6-7.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, Shankar Chatterjee, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Challenges and Opportunities.” Think India Journal 26.1 (2023): 7-15.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Sustainable development strategies and approaches.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 2 (2013).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Introduction to Sociology.” New Perspectives in Sociology and Allied Fields (2016): 1.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Review of most used urban growth models.” International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET) 10.3 (2019): 397-405.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

¹Glenn I. Arbis  ²Reymon R. Dumale  ³Michel D. Galavia  ⁴Mark Kevin C. Marbani, ⁵Michelle M. Navarro, ⁶Veverlyn A. Salvador, ⁷Jet Seth Mae A. Segura

^{1 2 3 4 5 6 7}Faculty, St. Paul University Surigao

¹ ORCID: 0000-0002-8644-0298

² ORCID: 0000-0003-1159-8936

³ ORCID: 0000-0001-7368-5408

⁴ORCID: 0000-0002-8777-2577

⁵ ORCID: 0000-0003-4620-9072

⁶ ORCID: 0000-0001-5043-7313

      ⁷ORCID: 0000-0001-5817-0043    

Abstract – This study investigated the learning gaps in English 9 of the Junior high school students at St. Paul University Surigao. In this study, quantitative quasi-experimental research using a pretest-posttest design was employed. The results showed that the pre-test/post-test design is more effective in achieving the learners’ mastery of the competency given than post-test- only design. While the interventions given by the teacher for the First Quarter are effective in mastering the competencies, a significant difference is found, especially for those with low mastery levels. This indicates the need for targeted interventions to bridge the learning gaps and further develop students’ understanding of the aspects of language arts that are essential for comprehension, expression, and effective communication. The study recommends that Grade 9 students execute targeted interventions that address the identified learning gaps. These interventions should consist of more modified teaching methods and resources, effective communication between educators, administrators, parents, and communities, and continual formative assessment. By implementing these suggestions, educators can significantly improve their students’ academic performance and competency in English.  

Keywords: Learning gap, Learning gap assessment, English 9, Mastery, Performance

I. Introduction

            In modern educational systems, the assessment of learning gaps plays a vital role in identifying areas where students may require additional support and intervention. The concept of learning gaps refers to the disparities between what students have learned and what they are expected to know at a particular grade level or academic milestone. These gaps can hinder their progress and overall academic achievement if left unaddressed.

            Moreover, Integrated English 9 serves as a pivotal year in secondary education, as it builds upon the foundation laid in earlier grades and prepares students for advanced studies. It encompasses various aspects of language arts, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening, which are essential for comprehension, expression, and effective communication. 

            Understanding the root causes of these learning gaps is crucial for educators to develop targeted interventions and support systems that address the unique needs of individual students. By identifying the factors contributing to these disparities, educators can implement evidence-based strategies to minimize learning gaps and create a more inclusive and equitable learning environment.

            In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has widened the learning gap in English proficiency among students, as online learning platforms may not adequately address the needs of diverse learners (Smith, 2021). According to a study by Johnson and Brown (2022), the disruption caused by the pandemic has led to significant setbacks in English language acquisition, particularly for students from low-income backgrounds.

            In connection with this, diagnostic tests were administered at the start of each quarter at the Basic Education Department of St. Paul University Surigao. Assessments of learning gaps give teachers the ability to precisely identify students’ gaps in English knowledge. By evaluating students’ comprehension and conceptual understanding, teachers gain knowledge of the areas in which students’ struggle. The use of this data assists in the development of instructional strategies and materials that are specifically tailored to the needs of particular students or groups. Without such assessment, students with knowledge gaps might struggle and regress in comparison to their peers, preventing them from moving forward generally in English education.

             By utilizing efficient learning gap evaluation methodologies, a more inclusive and effective learning environment may be created where students can develop a solid foundation in English topics and reach their full potential. This study evaluated first-quarter students from St. Paul University Surigao’s identified learning gaps in English 9.

II. Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to determine the learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the identified learning gaps in English 9?
2. What is the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9?
3. Is there a significant difference in the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9?
4. What interventions may be proposed?

III. Hypothesis

            At 0.05 level of significance, it is hypothesized that there is no significant difference in the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9.

IV. Methodology

In this study, the researchers used a quasi-experimental research method, employing a pretest and posttest design. In this design, the dependent variable is measured once before and once after the intervention or treatment in the test is administered. The participants involved in the research study were the Grade 9 students at St. Paul University Surigao- Basic Education Department during the First Quarter of the School Year 2022-2023, the resumption of face-to-face classes after the global crisis brought by COVID-19 pandemic. Utilizing a validated test-questionnaire, the test was administered to 32 students out of 33, which comprised 97% population of the total number of participants. The test-questionnaire encompassed the learning competencies indicated for the first quarter in the English 9 level, thus, concreting and measuring the desired level of competency for each specified criterion. The participants were given intervention as specified in their least learned competencies before employing the posttest. The administration of pretest and posttest was done during the synchronous face-to-face classes of the English subject.

Pertinent to the declaration of policy enshrined in the Data Privacy Act of 2012, the researchers ensured that the data gathered should be placed with utmost confidentiality. Hence, students were informed of the essential purpose of the undertakings and its benefits. Further, the researchers’ questionnaires undergone rigorous review and validation to ensure its reliability, validity and purposefully achieve consistency of the desired outcomes.

To achieve the primary objective of having the most reliable and accurate results and findings on the learning gap analysis of the Grade 9 students in English, the researchers made use of the following statistical tools to treat and analyze the data:

Paired t-test. It is used to test the difference between a set of paired samples.

Frequency Count and Percentage Computation. These were used to determine the distribution of the correct responses of the respondents.

The collected data provided would play a crucial role in the study. In this regard, the researchers established an unbiased manner of providing the test questionnaire without having the participants know the questions to be administered to prevent inconsistencies that would have risked the data retrieved. Hence, under no circumstances should the researchers influence the participants’ answer by inappropriate interventions or disclosure of answers prior to the implementation of the pretest and posttest examinations.

V. Results and Discussions

Identified learning gaps in English 9

            Table 1 presents the identified learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023.

Table 1. Identified learning gaps in English 9

Learning Competencies	Pre-Test		Post-Test
	%	Interpretation	%	Interpretation
The learner…
EC: Identifies the use of modals in expressing permission, obligation, and prohibition	75.00%	Moving Towards Mastery	68.75%	Moving Towards Mastery
PPre-requisites:DDetermines the use of conditionals in expressing argumentsEC: uses conditionals in expressing arguments EN9G-IIe-20	31.25%	Low Mastery	57.29%	Average Mastery
EEmploys the appropriate communicative styles for various situations (intimate, casual, conversational, consultative, frozen) EN9OL-Ic	60.42%	Average Mastery	76.04%	Moving Towards Mastery

As presented in the table, this provides information on the learning competencies of a learner before and after a learning intervention. Firstly, the enabling competency identifying the use of modals in expressing permission, obligation, and prohibition got 75.00% in the pre-test and 68.75% in the post-test, both interpreted as Moving Towards Mastery. The percentage of correct responses in the post-test had a slight decrease of 6.25% compared to the pre-test. Nevertheless, the responses of the students in the competency remain as Moving Towards Mastery. 

Secondly, the pre-requisite competency determining the use of conditionals in expressing arguments and enabling competency uses conditionals in expressing arguments EN9G-IIe-20, got 31.25% in the pre-test, interpreted as Low Mastery. This was supported by the study of Jusuf et. al., 2021, states that one factor affecting the student’s performance is lack of exposure to English language. However, 57.29% in the post-test, interpreted as Average Mastery. This indicates that there is an improvement on the performance of the students.

Lastly, the competency employing the appropriate communicative styles for various situations (intimate, casual, conversational, consultative, frozen) got 60.42% in the pre-test, interpreted as Average Mastery and 76.04% in the Post-Test, interpreted as Moving Towards Mastery. This implies that there is an improvement in the percentage of correct responses of students after the intervention was conducted. 

On the whole, the learner’s performance has shown improvement in two out of the three learning competencies. They have made progress in identifying the use of modals and employing appropriate communicative styles. However, their performance in using conditionals to express arguments still needs improvement, although they have made some progress.

Pre- and Post-test Performance of the learners 

            Table 2 presents the identified learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023. 

Table 2. Identified learning gaps in English 9

Scores	f (n=32)	%
Pre-Test
Average	2	6.25
Good	18	56.25
Excellent	12	37.50
Post-Test
Good	14	43.75
Excellent	18	56.25

As presented in the table, this provides the scores and percentages of the 32 participants in the pre-test and post-test. In Pre-test, two (2) participants got 6.25%, scored Average. Eighteen (18) participants got 56.25%, scored Good. And twelve (12) got 37.50%, scored Excellent. On the other hand, in the post-test, fourteen (14) participants got 43.75, scored Good and eighteen (18) participants got 56.25%, scored Excellent. 

Overall, in the pre-test, the majority of participants (56.25%) scored Good, followed by 37.50% of participants, scored Excellent, and a small percentage (6.25%) scored Average. In the post-test, the distribution shifted slightly, with 43.75% of participants scored Good and the majority (56.25%), scored Excellent. This indicates an improvement in the overall performance of the participants between the pre-test and post-test, as there was an increase in the percentage of participants in the Excellent range and a decrease in the percentage in the Good range. However, it’s important to note that the exact improvement or change in individual scores cannot be determined from this table alone.

Table 3. Significant Difference of the Identified learning gaps in English 9

Scores	t	df	p-value	Decision
Pre-Test – Post-Test	-2.98	31	0.006	Reject Ho

Findings revealed that at 0.05 level of significance there is a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test results after giving an intervention, especially to those with low mastery levels (t (31)=-2.98, p =0.006). This means that the interventions used by the teacher are effective in mastering the competencies in the First Quarter of English 9 of the school year 2022-2023. 

According to the study by Thompson et al. (2022), the interventions implemented by the teachers were found to be effective in enhancing students’ mastery of competencies. The study reported significant improvements in student performance after the interventions were administered. This could entail a change in how they approach the students’ preferences, new instructional materials, and revised class activities. Additionally, teachers should spend more time on students who are falling behind in class, explain everything in detail, and stick to a structured lesson plan. Every student should have their needs met, and instruction should be given with more fervor, repetition, and regularity. Time should be given for students to consider what they have learned or absorbed. Teachers should implement formative assessments to track students’ performance, assess their progress, and work to close the achievement gap. They must establish standards, devise achievable objectives, be honest with the students regarding their performance, and utilize technology to advance. Furthermore, according to Johnson and Smith (2021), bridging the learning gap requires targeted interventions and instructional strategies tailored to students’ individual needs. Additionally, a study by Roberts et al. (2020) found that implementing personalized learning plans significantly improved academic outcomes for students at risk of falling behind.

                                                VI. Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn;

1. Pre-test/post-test design is more effective in achieving the learners’ mastery of the competency given than post- test- only design.
2. Interventions given by the teachers play a very important role and are efficacious in mastering the competencies of the learners.

VII. Recommendation

From the conclusions drawn, the following recommendations are given;

1. Effective communication between educators, administrators, parents, and communities is among the most crucial elements in bridging the learning gap.
2. Teachers should intensify the use of pre- test/ post-test design, injecting a variety of engagement activities/ intervention to sustain its effectiveness and eventually enhance the academic achievement of the students.
3. Students together with their parents are encouraged to collaborate and cooperate on the use of pre- test/ post- test design implemented by the teachers to track students’ performance, assess their progress, and work to close the achievement gap.

IX. References

Johnson, B., & Brown, C. (2022). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on English language learning: A case study of low-income students. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 40(3), 189-205.

Johnson, R., & Smith, S. (2021). Bridging the learning gap: Targeted interventions and instructional strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(2), 145-162.

Jusuf, S., Fatsah H., Dako, R., 2021 Students’ Performance in Speaking English (A Case Study on Students’ Poor Performance In Speaking English)

Roberts, L., Brown, K., & Davis, M. (2020). Personalized learning plans: A pathway to improved academic outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 321-335.

Smith, A. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on education: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Education and Development, 25(2), 45-60.

Thompson, A., Smith, B., & Johnson, C. (2022). Enhancing students’ mastery of competencies: Effective interventions implemented by teachers. Journal of Education, 45(3), 215-230.

LINK TO DOWNLOAD FULL PAPER

Dr. A. Kusuma

Assistant Professor,

Department Sociology, S.V. University, Tirupati.

Email: drsumasvu20@gmail.com

drsumavsu09@gmail.com

K. Chinna Veeranna

Research Scholar.

Abstract

Child labor remains a pervasive violation of human rights, drawing global attention to the welfare of children. The 20th century marked a significant turning point in the advancement of child welfare, leading to heightened awareness of children’s rights as distinct individuals. This study aims to assess the level of parental awareness regarding government welfare schemes designed to support female child laborers. Our findings reveal that 46.3% of respondents acknowledge that child labor forces children into premature adulthood, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation due to their vulnerability. Furthermore, 33.5% of respondents recognize that a sense of inferiority among child laborers stifles their courage and creativity. The creation of additional employment opportunities for unskilled and unemployed individuals in rural areas can contribute to economic growth. Implementing awareness generation programs focusing on child labor laws and involving various stakeholders such as government departments, youth associations, self-help groups (SHGs), and civil society members is crucial for reducing the prevalence of child labor.

Keywords: Child Labor, Welfare, Female Child Labor, Economic Development, Legislation, Parental Awareness

Introduction

Child labor remains a pressing concern in India, with a pronounced presence in rural areas. Although legislative measures have been introduced worldwide to restrict the employment of children below a certain age and define acceptable conditions for minors working in various professions, the effectiveness of laws designed to protect children from hazardous labor is often lacking. In many instances, children find themselves aiding family members in agricultural endeavors, working as part of contractual family labor arrangements, or participating in plantation work. Rural India witnesses a common practice of school-aged children engaging in agricultural work as part of their family responsibilities. Regrettably, the implementation of Child Labor Laws at the state and district levels has been inadequate.

This study seeks to shed light on the perspectives of parents and employers regarding child labor issues, aiming to enhance their awareness, knowledge, and understanding of the prevalence and conditions of child labor within the study area. The situation of female child laborers is especially distressing due to gender discrimination prevalent in many Indian societies. Agriculture, which contributes three-fourths of the national income and supports over 75 percent of the population for subsistence, is heavily intertwined with child labor. Poverty and the absence of social security remain primary drivers of child labor, trapping children in work that offers limited opportunities for physical, social, and mental development. Both girls and boys are ensnared in the worst forms of child labor, but societal expectations, duties, and responsibilities imposed on girls often render them more susceptible to exploitation. Addressing the issue of female child labor is a complex challenge, compounded by the fact that the labor of female children is often unacknowledged or underrepresented in formal labor statistics. The absence of quality universal education further contributes to children dropping out of school and entering the labor force, making it difficult to accurately detect the true extent of child labor.

Welfare schemes for female child labor are essential in combating this pervasive violation of human rights. Child welfare has garnered global attention, particularly in the 20th century, with growing awareness of children’s rights as independent entities. Article 18 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 emphasizes the need to protect children from economic exploitation and hazardous work that interferes with their education, health, or overall development. The International Labor Organization (ILO) also opposes child labor, particularly in situations where children face educational and social disadvantages or work in exploitative conditions harmful to their well-being.

The Indian Government recognizes child labor because of poverty and has taken steps to address it through legislative measures. In 1986, the 

Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was enacted, replacing the Employment of Children Act of 1938. While the 1986 Act does not completely ban child labor, it focuses on “projecting” working children. The government has established unique schools to rehabilitate children engaged in dangerous or hazardous occupations, offering them education, vocational training, monthly stipends, and nutrition and health services.

The commitment of the Government of India to eradicate child labor is enshrined in the Constitution, which provides for the protection of children from engaging in economic activities unsuitable for their age. The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution reinforce this commitment. The Central Labor Service (CLS), established in 1987, aims to improve industrial relations, labor welfare, and the enforcement of labor laws. Various schemes offering medical, housing, educational, recreational, water supply, and family welfare benefits are implemented for workers as part of the government’s ongoing efforts to safeguard the welfare of children and laborers.

Material and Methodology

Objectives

The present study broadly aims at studying the socio-economic and social participation, employment support and knowledge on welfare schemes available to female child labors. The following are the main objectives of the present study:

• To study the level of knowledge on welfare schemes provided by the Government for girl child labor. 
• To study the level of knowledge on girl child rights
• To examine the economic and social conditions of female child labor in the sample district. 

  Sample design and study area

The researcher has purposively selected the Kurnool district due to its proximity and familiarity. Stratified random sampling method was used in selection of study sample. The study has conducted in six Mandal’s of three revenue divisions of the Kurnool district. Four villages from each Mandal were selected. 20 respondents each were selected at random in 24 villages and the total sample is comprises of 480 female child labor residing in agricultural families in the Kurnool district for the present study.  

 Results

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the respondents

A study of the background characteristics of sampled population is an important task in the study. Several studies have been shown that there is a strong relationship between socio-economic status and Girl Child Labor in Agriculture Families. 

Table No.1: Percentage Distribution of the respondents by their Socio-Demographic Characteristics (N=480)

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the respondents	Frequency	Percent
Age of the Respondent
5-8 Year	47		9.8
9-11 Years	115		24.0
12-14 Years	318		66.2
Religion
Hindu	242		50.4
Muslim	59		12.3
Christian	146		30.4
Others	33		6.9
Education
pre-school	137		28.5
Primary	98		20.4
Upper-Primary	177		36.9
High School	68		14.2
Work Experience (Years)
≤ 2 Years	151		31.5
2- 4Years	223		46.5
≥ 4 Years	106		22.1
Girl Child Income
≤ 5000	16		3.3
5001 and above	464		96.7
Source of Family Income
Agriculture	177		36.9
Allied Labor	155		32.3
Business	45		9.4
Others	103		21.5

  Age plays an important role in measuring the respondent’s perception on their present working condition. Data has been collected on the girls who involved in the agriculture labor to analyze the girl’s working condition in the agriculture field. In the study area nearly two-thirds (66.3 %) of the respondents were in 12-14 years age group. One-fourth (24.0 %) of them were in 9-11 years and the remaining (9.8 %) were in the age group of 5-9 years. One half (50.4 %) of the respondents were Hindus, less than one-third (30.4 %) of them were Christians, 12.3 percent were Muslims and 6.9 percent belong to other religions. It is observed from the above table that more than one third (36.9 %) of the respondents have completed upper-primary education in the study area. More than one-fourth (28.5%) the girls had pre-school education and two-fifth (20.4 %) had primary education and 14.2 percent of the respondents had high school education. More than two-fourth (46.5 %) of the respondents were having ≤ 2 years of experience in the agriculture field, less than one-third (31.5 %) of them were working experience of 2-4 years and more than one-fifth (22.1 %) of them were working 4 years and above in the agriculture field. Almost all (96.7 %) of the respondents were getting a monthly income Rs. 5000 and above the study area. More than one-third (36.9 %) of the respondents’ parents were having agriculture background, followed by allied labor (32.3%) and other types of activities (21.5 %). 

The data was collected on parents opinion on child labor, sociological and economical aspects of the girl child labors in agricultural families namely on 1) fulfillment of social obligation 2) prone to habits like smoking, gambling and extravagancy 3) loss of potential intellectuals and thinkers in 4) prone to exploitation 5) violation of human rights 6) enforcement of laws 7) punishment under child labor laws 8) parents knowledge on girl child welfare schemes etc.

Table No. 3: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents opinion on Sociological and economical aspects of female child labor

Sociological aspects		Agree	Disagree	Un-Decided	Total
GCs need proper nurture and nourishment to make them best fits in future life	N	355	71	54	480
	P	74	14.8	11.3	100
CL has no rationale as it is the decision of the parent who are second to none as well wishes of children	N	256	160	64	480
	P	53.3	33.3	13.3	100
CL is not unethical rather fulfillment of social obligation by employers towards poor of whom government fails to take care of	N	199	173	108	480
	P	41.5	36	22.5	100
CL keeps children away from education and breeds illiteracy in a society	N	209	187	84	480
	P	43.5	39	17.5	100
Working children are prone to the habits of smoking, gambling, and extravagancy	N	209	200	71	480
	P	43.5	41.7	14.8	100
Child labor compels children to lead pre-mature adults’ lives	N	222	161	97	480
	P	46.3	33.5	20.2	100
CL has high opportunity cost as it leads to loss of potential intellectuals and thinkers	N	225	188	67	480
	P	46.9	39.2	14	100
Inferiority complex suppresses courage and creativity of children	N	161	95	224	480
	P	33.5	19.8	46.7	100
Children as workers are prone to exploitation by reason of their docility	N	164	157	159	480
	P	34.2	32.7	33.1	100
Child labor is an off school of poverty which is the result of unequal distribution of wealth	N	288	141	51	480
	P	60	29.4	106	100

In the table no.3 shows that 33.5 percent of the respondents agreed that inferiority complex among the children will suppress their courage and creativity. 46.3% of the respondents agreed that child labor compels children to lead premature adults and there is a chance to exploit by reason of their docility. 43.5 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor leads to children keep away from education and breeds illiteracy in society. 46.9 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor is one of the opportunities to forego the potential intellectuals and thinkers of nation. Nearly three-fifth (60 %) of the respondent’s parents opinioned that unequal distribution of wealth is one of the reasons for child labor as it leads to more dropouts. Nearly three-fourth (74 %) of the parents agreed that girl child require proper nurture and nourishment to make them best fits in future life.

Table No 4: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents opinion on Sociological and economical aspects of female child labor 

Knowledge on Legal aspects		Agree	Disagree	Un-Decided	Total
Employing CL is a violation of human rights	N	235	211	34	480
	P	49	44	7.1	100
Employment of children in hazardous work is a crime	N	201	200	79	480
	P	41.9	41.7	16.5	100
Child labor is a moral crime against humanity	N	217	183	80	480
	P	45.2	38.1	16.7	100
Hazardous nature of job coupled with excessive workload and long hours of work are so heinous crime	N	138	226	116	480
	P	28.8	47.1	24.2	100
Child labor is a punishment to tender hands for no fault of theirs	N	111	267	102	480
	P	23.1	55.6	21.3	100
CL laws fail as these are unacceptable to people with unsound financial position	N	148	251	81	480
	P	30.8	52.3	16.9	100
Weak enforcement of laws leads to child labor with impunity	N	141	209	130	480
	P	29.4	43.5	27.1	100
The parents of child workers shall be booked under the relevant laws	N	144	166	170	480
	P	30	34.6	35.4	100
Child labor shall be completely banned in all aspects	N	202	205	73	480
	P	42.1	42.7	15.2	100
The employers of CL shall be dealt with stringent punitive measures	N	136	243	101	480
	P	28.3	50.6	21	100
Enforcement of child labor laws shall be strictly observed	N	155	275	50	480
	P	32.3	57.3	10.4	100
Child labor is subject to punishment under child labor laws.	N	167	112	201	480
	P	34.8	23.3	41.9	100

In this study an attempt is made to assess the parents’ opinion on the sociological and economical aspect of the child labors related aspects. Nearly one-half (49 %) of the respondent’s agreed that working as a child labor is violation of human rights. 45.2 percent of respondents accepted that child labor is moral crime against humanity and 41.9 percent of the respondents agreed that employment of child in hazardous work is crime and 28.8 percent of respondent’s expressed that excessive workload and long hours of work in hazardous Work is heinous crime.  Only one-third (29.4 %) of the parents were having knowledge on child labor laws as they expressed that the Child labor laws are failed in implementation and weak enforcement of law were the causes of child labor.  Nearly one-third (32.3 %) of parents expressed that they have observed strict enforcement of child labor laws. 30% of the respondents were agreed that parents of the child labor should be punished under the child labor laws. More than one-third (34.8 %) of the respondents were aware that child labor is subject punishment under child labor laws. 42.1 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor shall be banned in all aspects. It is interesting to note that more than two-fifth (41.5 %) of the parents agreed that child labor is not an unethical and the employers of the child labor were giving an opportunity to get the financial source for those who are neglected by the governments. 

The findings from the above table shows that majority of the parents were aware of the ill effects of the child labor and the laws and functioning of law enforcement authorities related to child labor. 

Parent’s knowledge on various welfare schemes implemented by the government to avoid Child Labor is presented in the table no. 5. Cent percent of the respondents (100 %) in the study area agreed that free education for girls up to higher education will help to eradicate the child labor.  Higher proportion (85 %) of the respondent’s expressed that Balika Sam Rakshana scheme is very useful to balance sex ratio and prevent gender discrimination and the scheme is also encouraging employment skills, opportunities and creates awareness on health and family life education to girl Child.  More than one-half (51.7 %) of the respondents felt that Apana Beti Apne desh scheme is providing rehabilitation services for those who were rescued from child labor and brothel home. Similar percentage (62.5 %) of the respondents agreed that strict implementation of prenatal diagnostic technique act helps in reducing female feticides and the gender discrimination. The girl child agreed that implementing the constitutional provisions and human rights for girl child reduces gender discrimination (60 %) and welfare measures are sufficient to improve the girl child status provided by the government and non-government organizations (60.2 %). More than one-half (52.5 %) of the respondents agreed that national policy for children and legal enactment facilitates the development of girl child.

     Table No. 5: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents knowledge on welfare schemes for female child labor

Parents knowledge on welfare schemes		Agree	Disagree	Total
Free education for girls up to degree level is very beneficial for girl education	N	480	0	480
	P	100	0.0	100.0
Balika samrakshna pathakam is very useful to balance sex ratio and prevent gender discrimination	N	408	72	480
	P	85	15	100
The KB scheme is encouraging employment skills, opportunities, and health awareness of girl children	N	290	190	480
	P	60.4	39.6	100
KB scheme is providing awareness on family life education to girl children	N	290	190	480
	P	60.4	39.6	100.0
ABAD programmer is very useful to rehabilitate the girls who are rescued from CL and brothel home	N	248	232	480
	P	51.7	48.3	100.0
Strict implementation of pre –natal diagnostic technique Act, 1994 helps in reducing female feticides	N	300	180	480
	P	62.5	37.5	100.0
Constitutional provision and human rights for GC reduces gender discrimination	N	288	192	480
	P	60	40	100.0
National policy for children and legal enactments facilitates development of GC	N	252	228	480
	P	52.5	47.5	100.0
The present welfare measures taken by govt; NGOs are sufficient to improve the girl child status	N	289	191	480
	P	60.2	39.8	100.0

Conclusion

Equality of opportunities is the foundation of modern welfare states.  The crucial role that education can play in the reduction of girl child labor and improvement in the economic wellbeing of individuals can go a long way in achieving such ends.  In India, poverty remains the key determinant of children not being sent to school. Most of the parents are not able to afford to send them to school. The path to progress in terms reducing the number of girl child laborer’s by taking into consideration the cultural and economic measures, their future will continue to remain bleak.  The study suggests that promotions of non-agricultural economic activities like micro and small industries and self-employment with the support of SHG groups (Women Groups) are the best alternatives to improve employment and income generation for the rural poor. Creation of more employment opportunities to the unskilled Unemployed will help to economic growth in rural areas. Through awareness generation programmes related to the Child Labor Laws with involvement of convergent departments, youth associations, SHGs, Civil Society members will be helping to   decrease the number of child labors. Educate the parents of girl child on importance of sufficient nutritious food and proper education for the growth of girl child and its impact on future generations.

Reference

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10. UNICEF (2021). Child Labor and Exploitation, UNICEF main web page, https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/child-labour-exploitation
11. Vineet J Samuel. (2018) Child Labor & Child Rights in India: Myth or Reality, Economic Justice.  https://www.oxfamindia.org/blog/child-labour-india
12. World Day Against Child Labor (2020). Preventing child labor in agriculture during COVID-19 and beyond. News and Press Release Source FAO, Posted 12 Jun 2020.
13. Y. Janardhana Reddy (2020). An Analytical Study of Child Labor in India. Vol-15-Issue-4.https://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/WCMS_172261/lang-en/index.htm
14. Rupinder Singh (2019). Child Labor in India: A Legal Study. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, Vol: 6, Iss: 1.

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¹*Fawziah Zayed Eid Almutairi,²Nasier Abdullah Nasier Al-Degashiem,³Zainah Turki Alqahtani,⁴Sarah Shouib Alrashedi,⁵Mariam Saud Awadhah Almoteri, ⁶Laila Mashawi Hawas Ghazwani, ⁷Abdulrahman Meshal Dakhelallah Almutairi, ⁸Fathia Ahmed Saad Alshehri.

^1*Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA) (e-mail: fof0-2030@hotmail.com ).

²Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), e-mail: nad1425@hotmail.com .

³Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), e-mail: (zalghtani@moh.gov.sa  )

⁴Nursing Technicians RN, King Faisal Primary Health Care Centre Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA),  Email: sashalrashedi@moh.gov.sa

  ⁵Nursing Technician, RN, Nurse at school health Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), e-mail:Umshaher1440@hotmail.com

⁶Technician-Nursing, RN, Nurse at Alsadah primary health care center Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), Email: rorooo201395@gmail.com   

⁷Nurse Specialist, Eradah, Complex for Mental Health-Riyah Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (KSA), (e-mail: aalmutairi356@moh.gov.sa).

⁸Nursing Specialist RN, Nurse at school health, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) (e-mail: fatooo1111@hotmail.com .

Abstract

 Background: Non psychiatric nurses care for hospital patients with
behavioral health conditions.. 

Objectives:  The current study aimed to assess practice towards Psychiatric, Patients with Aggressive Behaviors at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals.

 Materials and methods:    

Descriptive cross sectional hospital based design was used to conduct this study at a Psychiatric Hospital in Khartoum. The target population consisted of 60 nurses employed at the Khartoum Psychiatric Hospital. Structured questionnaires were distributed to the participants for data collection.  Data analysis was done using a Statistical Package for Social Science, version 24, and nominal as well as ordinal data was analyzed using descriptive analysis.  

Results:  The study showed that the overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior was found good among 71.5% and poor among 28.5%. There was association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and age group<0.05.

Conclusion:    Nurses has overall adequate practice towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. While the age was significantly influence the practice of nurse towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. Future studies with large sample size will be recommends.

  Keywords: practice , Psychiatric, Khartoum psychotic hospital

1. Introduction:

Aggression is a serious problem on psychiatric wards and has large consequences for patients as well as staff working in mental healthcare: aggressive behavior is an important reason to seclude or restrain a patient (Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2003), but, according to patients, this feels as being controlled and punished with no therapeutic value (Meehan et al., 2004).  Health care workers experience feelings of anger, anxiety and guilt after an aggressive incident (Needham et al.,2005)  and higher levels of burn-out (de Looff et al., 2019).  Development and expression of aggression is generally explained as multifactorial: being environment-related (design of the ward, privacy, locked doors, ambiance, noise level, overstimulation), mental health care-system related (regional policy, hospital policy, ward rules, attitude towards patients, cultural factors), patient-related (demographics, cognitive and emotional state, malevolence, pathology) and clinician-related (degree of communication, de-escalation skills, attitudes towards aggression, clinicians’ stress level) (Cutcliffe et al., 2013). Previous reviews on aggression on psychiatric wards were mainly focused on patient-related factors e.g. isolation of high-risk patients who were prone to develop aggression (Cornaggia et al., 2011). From a prevention perspective, ward and staff factors provide an interesting avenue for prevention of aggression, while treatment of the psychiatric illness is the only patient factor that reduces the risk of aggression development (Hamrin et al., 2009).  Nevertheless it remains unclear how the various factors that explain aggression development interact with each other. The term aggression is ambiguous: multiple interpretations have been found, and it is often used interchangeably with agitation and violence. Agitation is defined in the DSM-5 as “a state of excessive psychomotor activity accompanied by increased tension and irritability” resulting in non-productive and repetitious behaviour” (Garriga et al., 2016).  Generally it is seen as the precursor of aggression (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2008).  The WHO defines aggression and violence as the same principal: “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation” (Krug et al., 2002).  The British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines define aggression as: “a range of behaviours or actions that can result in harm, hurt or injury to another person, regardless of whether the violence or aggression is physically or verbally expressed, physical harm is sustained or the intention is clear” (National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, 2015).  In these definitions agitation, aggression and violence can be understood as a continuum of severity, where agitation evolves into aggression and ultimately into violence. Violence differs from aggression by the severity and intentionality of the behaviour. The vast amount of literature on aggression may reflect that the topic is important and of interest. Reviews on violence on the emergency ward (Stowell et al., 2016) , aggression in forensic settings (Gadon et al., 2006)  and on interventions to reduce seclusion and restraint (Steinert et al., 2010) have been published earlier. Reviews on the development of aggression in psychiatric hospitals have also been performed before, but they focussed on a single part of aggression development, such as patient factors (Cornaggia et al., 2011) and staff and ward factors that may contribute to aggression development were left out.  The present study aimed to assess practice towards Psychiatric Patients with an Aggressive Behaviors at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

The study design was a quantitative descriptive cross sectional hospital study. 

STUDY AREA

This study was conducted in   Khartoum psychotic hospital.

 The population chosen for this study includes registered nurses as well as nursing unit managers working in Khartoum psychiatric hospital. 

1. SELECTION CRITERIA

1.2.4.1. Inclusion criteria:

The inclusion criteria for those eligible for the study was include male and female registered nurses and nursing unit managers who have worked in Khartoum psychiatric hospital. .  

1.2.4.2. Exclusion criteria:

Those who were not agree to participate in the study and those who are not found at the time of data collection.

1. SAMPLE SIZE AND   SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The sample size was taken conviencely as 60 nursing in Khartoum psychiatric hospital.

 1.2.5.6. DATA COLLECTION

 Data collection is the precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the
research purpose or the specific objectives (Polit and Beck ,2008). According to Polit and Beck (2008), a data collection plan for quantitative studies should yield accurate, valid and meaningful data that are maximally effective in answering research questions. The researcher used a self-designed, structured questionnaire, consisting of 30 closed ended questions, to collect data. Brink et al. (2012) define questionnaires as a self-report instrument where the participants respond to given questions. The questionnaire was developed by the researcher.

  1.2.5.8. Data analysis:

Descriptive statistics are used to describe and synthesize data. This helps to set the stage for the understanding of quantitative research evidence (Polit and  Beck, 2012). The data was arranged into frequency distribution that is described by Polit and  Beck (2012) as a systematic arrangement of values from the lowest to the highest value, together with the number of times each value was obtained. 

1. Study findings:

  Fig.1: Distribution of nurses according to gender (n=60)

  Fig.2: Distribution of nurses according to age group (n=60)

      Fig.3: Distribution of nurses according to years of experience (n=60)

      Fig.4: Distribution of nurses by education level (n=60)

      Fig.5: Distribution of nurses by type of aggression (n=60)

    Table 1: Overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals

Practice	Good		Poor
	No.	%	No.	%
I can communicate effectively with clients with a mental health problem	35	58.3	25	41.7
I can carry out a comprehensive psychosocial assessment of clients	49	81.7	11	18.3
I can conduct a mental status examination	50	83.3	10	16.7
I can develop a nursing care plan on the basis of my assessment	42	70.0	18	30.0
I can assist clients with a mental illness to clarify treatment goals	51	85.0	9	15.0
I am able to provide basic counseling for clients with a mental illness	36	60.0	24	40.0
I am able to be empathic with clients with a mental illness	50	83.3	10	16.7
I can provide information and education for clients regarding their diagnosis	43	71.7	17	28.3
I am able to assist clients to develop living skills	45	75.0	15	25.0
I have a basic knowledge of antipsychotic medications and their side effects	34	56.7	26	43.3
I am able to provide client education regarding the effects and side effects of medications	45	75.0	15	25.0
I can conduct a suicide risk assessment	35	58.3	25	41.7
Overall practice	515	71.5	205	28.5

                      Mean score =  Mean± SE= 19.2 ±  (.3)

Table 2: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and age group

Age	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
<35	17.5882	.51492
36-40	19.5000	.65192
41-55	20.2857	.70655
>55	19.6923	.77942
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	3.385
P-value	.024*

*P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

Table 3: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and gender

Gender	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
Male	19.6316	.65877
Female	18.9756	.40648
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	.773
P-value	.383

   *P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

Table 4: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and years of nursing experience

Years of nursing experience	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
1-5	19.8750	.70637
6-10	19.3333	.62234
11-15	18.8125	.66595
<15	18.0000	.61721
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	.928
P-value	.433

*P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

Table 5: Association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and education level

Education	Mean	Std. Error of Mean
Registered nurse	19.7647	.67807
Bachelor of Science in	19.3889	.67223
Diploma	18.1538	.71474
Master of Science in nursing	19.1000	.73711
PhD in nursing Science	19.5000	2.50000
Total	19.1833	.34648
F	.699
P-value	.0051*

*P-value considered significant at less than 0.05 levels

1. DISCUSSION:

  This study aimed to assess practice towards psychiatric patients with an Aggressive Behaviors at Khartoum Psychiatric Hospitals. The study showed that the overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior was found good among 71.5% and poor among 28.5%. Comparable findings i.e.  research by Menzies (1959, Republished in 1988) on nurses in general hospitals with physically ill patients, indicated that these nurses were in the presence of patients who were in pain, dying, frightened and scarred by operations. The nursing practice developed as such that the nurses avoided close relationships with patients and to make decisions. They practiced functional nursing. In such practice, nurses related to only a part of each patient. Minor decisions were passed on to be taken at the top of the nursing hierarchy. This also happened in psychiatric hospitals. In psychiatric wards, nurses also avoided personal contact with patients (Donati, 1989). The medical model the nurses adhered to, focused on medical diagnosis and led to a process of emotional distancing which is not recognized, but becomes standard practice. It assisted the mental health professionals to cope with the impact of mental illness. It did not assist the patients who suffered from mental illness. It rather increased the patients’ suffering. On the contrary, the suffering of mental health professionals were not recognized by themselves nor was it recognized by the management who were suppose to provide support.

Bilgin (2009) studied the interpersonal skills of nurses and found that nurses are more likely to feel that their rights are ignored, while the rights of patients are maintained and protected. According to Lin, Probst and Hsu (2010), research had identified nursing as a high-stress profession. Nurses cope daily with extreme physical and psychological demands inherent in providing care to acute and chronic populations. The demands of caring for others can be extremely stressful on the psychiatric nurse (Van Rhyn & Gostsana ,2004).

According to Van Rhyn and Gostsana (2004), most studies on stress, experienced in a psychiatric setting, focused on staffing levels: overworking and administrative duties. In addition, they face unique challenges in their day-to-day work that reflect in their interaction with a particular patient group. Working with shortages of staff in an inadequate physical working environment and under hierarchical pressure with regard to colleagues, co-workers or medical staff as well as being victims of interpersonal violence, are all indicators of a stressful work environment (Bilgin 2009).

Various studies have been done on aggression in the work environment. Yildirim (2009) states that nurses are at a high risk of being exposed to violence and aggression in the work environment. Both Yildirim (2009) and Bimenyimana et al. (2009) indicated that violence and aggression ultimately had an overt negative psychological effect on the nurses.

The study showed that there was association between overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior and age group<0.05. While gender, years of experience and education significantly not associated with overall practice of nurses towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. The finding is similar to a group of studies showed that age was examined in association with aggression with an average OSQE score of 7.7 (SD = 1.8; range 4–12) (Cho et al., 2014 , Stewart et al.,2013 ). The number of patients included in these studies was 30,143. Age was not associated with the development of aggressive behavior in several studies (Calegaro et al., 2014). In the other studies, younger age was predominantly found to be a factor contributing to the appearance of aggression (Weltens et al., 2021).

Focussing on the age of staff members, younger nurses were more at risk to experience aggression against them (OR = 0.96; 95% CI = 0.94–0.98) (Pekurinen et al., 2019) ; an age under 30 years has an Adjusted Rate Ratio (ARR) = 1.70 (95% CI = 1.17–2.48) for physical aggression (Chen et al., 2009) and the age group 30–39 years has an OR = 1.04 (95% CI = 0.69–1.57) (Chen et al., 2009).  Interestingly, staff with an age between 40–49 years and 50–63 years both experienced less aggression.  Fourteen studies reported data on the gender of the nurse in relation to aggression development (Yang et al., 2018).  

   In other studies, no gender differences were found (Niu et al., 2019), whereas different studies reported that male nurses encountered more aggression, and no clear methodological difference was found on the OSQE. One study reported that female nurses met more aggression (Chen et al., 2009), but this study was of poor methodological quality with an OSQE score of 3. Earlier studies concluded that aggression was more frequent between patient and staff of the same gender (r = 0.32; p < .001), with medium methodological quality (OSQE score 5, 6 and 6). With limited evidence, it appears that male nurses were more often involved in aggressive incidents, which does not mean that they contribute to the occurrence of aggression because of their gender.

In previous studies, the years of professional experience or education level of nurses was studied as a potential factor associated with the occurrence of aggression on the ward (Niu et al., 2019).  Five studies did not find any significant association  (Chen et al., 2009) In the remaining studies, the results are contradictory; increased risk for aggression or assault was found with more years of experience (z = 3.05; p < .002) (Ezeobele et al., 2019)  or OR = 0.95 (95% CI not provided; p = .001) (Al-Azzam et al., 2017) , as well as with fewer years of experience (ARR = 1.23; 95% CI = 1.32–1.18 (Chen et al., 2009)  and ARR = 3.08; 95% CI = 1.47–6.44 (Yang et al., 2018).  The contradictory results cannot be explained by methodological differences, while both high and low scores on the OSQE were present for the different outcomes. Staff members with academic education levels experienced more aggression in one study (OR = 3.0; 95% CI = 1.03–8.9) (Zeng et al., 2013), but not in another (Chen et al., 2009).  Staff training in aggression management showed no effect on the number of aggressive incidents (Sjostrom et al., 2001) , but this study was of poor methodological quality (OSQE score of 4) and during the study period many other changes such as a reduction in beds were implemented, which made results difficult to interpret. No clear effect of work experience to the occurrence of aggression was found.

 Conclusion:

   It can be concluded that nurses has overall adequate practice towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. While the age was significantly influence the practice of nurse towards psychiatric patients with an aggressive behavior. Future studies with large sample size will be recommends.

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Mr. Neeraj Tiwari                             Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Civil Engg.       Madhyanchal Professional University, Bhopal

 

Abstract. Fiber Reinforced Concrete FRC can be used for a variety, of applications. Fibers are utilized in concrete crack requiring reduction of physical property protection, drying reduction and improved strength and toughness, increased service life and decrease bleeding from water, concrete permeability, and construction value. The utilization of sisal, a natural fiber with increased mechanical efficiency, as reinforcement in an exceeding matrix based on supported cement. The proportion of sisal fiber used in concrete ranged from 0.1% to 2% of concrete and length of fiber 50mm to 60mm fiber length in concrete with aspect ratio. By adding short fibers, tensile strength is improved, thaw resistance is frozen, impact resistance, andconcrete brittleness are reduced. In general, fiber does not enhance the concrete strength, as the replacement moment is reduced in the reinforcement of structural steel. This paper also represents fiber limitation content, environmental aspects, and FRC is the modern technical enhancement in the civil substructure. This review paper also describes the compressive strength test, flexural strength test, tensile strength test, impact strength test of FRC sisalfiber effect strength test.

Keywords: Sisal fiber, flexural strength, compressive strength, split tensile strength, Impact strength test.

Introduction

Cement is that the world’s most generally used artifact with an estimated annual use of about 2.86 billion a lot of cement. However, cementproduction is harmful to the environment thanks to the emissions of dioxide. Approximately 0.8 a lot of CO2 per ton produced is estimated to be released into the atmosphere [1]. It found that different structural applications like Fiber ferroconcrete within 20th century. Fiber ferroconcrete (FRC) might be a class of composite materials [2]. Reinforced Natural Fiber cement and cementitious composites commonly used primarily for low-cost housing activities and there have also been growing interest in natural fiber composites and lots of research goes round the world. The foremost important technical features like excellent lightweight tensile properties, more strength, high impact resistance, and better post cracking behavior so on[3]. The main objective is to feature natural fiber to concrete post-fracture. because of high alkaline formation in cement-based concrete composite,the fibers are degraded [4]. It also features high resistance to freezing and thawing tolerance [5]. A wide form of natural fibers have been used in the cement concrete composition. A wide range of natural fiber like coir, jute, sisal, kenaf, banana fibers, etc., were utilized in nominal concrete.Fibers are with high strength,   flexibility,   extensibility,   and   elasticity.   The fiber utilized in concrete which prevents the formulation of cracking reckoning on the changes in temperature. The fiber-enhanced composite strength applications began to be introduced in 1997 [6]. The sisal fiberpercentage added 0.5% to twenty-eight total concrete weight volume. By increase fine content, the shrinkage and creep are randomly increased because it causes the rise in the volume of paste in concrete compaction.By adding fiber to the honeycomb of fresh concrete [7].Locally availablesisal fiber in Kenya, Tanzania, and Brazil. to boost its mechanical strength and lead to concrete, Sisal fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) has been incorporated. It inhibits the crack propagation behavior after yield [8]. Fiber composites will be reduced in strength and sturdiness because of thedegradation of fibers by combining alkaline attack and mineralization of hydrogen migration [9].

No study has yet been recorded for either cement composite, especially for flexible fibers has yet been reported, particularly for durable fibers like natural fibers. This work aims to look at cement/ cementitious composite mortar in two aspects of its fresh behavior, consistency, and low quality,affecting the steadiness and suppleness of the fresh mix [10]. Increases ductility, compressive, flexural, and strength. If we were able to increase the lifetime of concrete from 50 to 500 years, its environmental impact will decrease 10 times. Promoting the utilization of cemented building materials strengthened with vegetable fibers could therefore be the simplest way to achieving more sustainable construction. This paper examines the topic offiber cemented materials by examining previously published work [11].

Many of the natural fiber coir, sisal, jute, banana, palmyra, pineapple, talipot, hemp, etc., are used as a resource for industrial materials. [12]. Sisal (Agave sisalana) became a pestilence monocotyledon plant in Central America that provides papermaking potential for fiber. Additionally, sisal which has historically been utilized in the assembly of natural ropes, cordage sacking, has some assets for the assembly of a variety of special paper varietieslike those utilized in filters [13].FRC fiber alignment relies on many variables, such as fiber properties (shape, material, aspect ratio) and fresh properties of cementitious fresh properties yet because of the placement and casting process [14]. On the premise of the above discussion, we analyzed the mechanical aspects of sisal fiber reinforced properties soils, determined in terms of strength characteristics, the optimum percentage of fibre applied to silty clay and the modes of shear failure of the soil studied. This analysis focuses on the effects of the engineering silty clay propertiesof varying length of fiber and contents [15].The aim of this study is to establish workability, fire resistance, and bonding quality with the concretesubstrate and demonstrate its applicability in fiber replacement. Such another system is believed to own good special applications where thefireplace occurs [5].In general, sisal fiber is a natural fiber [16]. One of the most versatile natural fibers is sisal fiber and is cultivated very readily [17].And Such fibers are harvested into the sisal plant on a farm in Valente, state of Bahia, Brazil, and the mechanical and physical properties of, and morphology of, sisal fibers [18]. The fibers are extracted by a hand extraction machine, which consists of either serrated or non serrated knives. Each fiber is separated and grouped accordingly dependent on the fiber size. The initial fiber size is between 0.5 to 1 m. Fibers were cut into 20mm length in the experiments. The fiber diameter is 0.15 – 0.2 mm, the aspect ratio and as follows [16]. Also, it has been found that the total crack width of slab samples with fibers content and fiber sizes is not greatly varied. The fibers have good impact and sound-absorbing characteristics and also the leaves of fibers improve fire resistance [19]. The energy absorption is found in natural fibers and the reduction sound is absorbed due to low permeability [20].

Sisal Fibers Extraction

The leaves of sisal are colored dark green, straight fleshy [21]. Then the sisal leaves were crushed and separated manually with a smooth-edged stickuntil the fibers separated shown in Fig 1. Then the fiber is cleaned thoroughly in many glasses of water to get rid of dust and surplus wastes and atlast air-dried.

Figure 1. Process of sisal fiber

Treatment of sisal fiber

The chemicals employed in concrete fiber treatment like hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, ashes are employed in variable processes [16]. The ammonium treatment of the sisal was manufactured using the strategy of extrusion. The concrete fiber specimen was used of three major roles using untreated sisal fiber by using an agent of (Na OH) treated fiber also as using Na OH agent, clay sisal fiber treatment. Natural fiber waterabsorption is comparatively high in sisal. Compression molding operates the sisal fiber process for creating a moist sample [22]. Ca(OH)2 [23],Sodium hydroxide, Sodium silicate [24], CaCO3, calcium glutamate, calcium acetate [25], Na2CO3 [26], NaOH solution [27].

Properties of sisal fiber

One of the natural fibers, sisal fiber, with high modulus and unique strength, low price, easy accessibility, recyclability, and high durability with low maintenance and low wear and tear [19]. The water absorption is high, the physical property of sisal fiber seen in Table 1 and Table 2.

Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Concrete, the world’s most inescapable material. The concrete quality is to develop new, durable, advanced composites based on cement includingspecific mechanical characteristics in the upcoming years [30]. The relation of mixed natural or artificial fibers to the concrete composition is referred to as Fiber Reinforced Concrete FRC, the fibers being natural fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers. The current widely used FRC technique the use of a single fiber from within an active restricted range includes cracking and deflection [31]. The bulk of the fiber-reinforced concrete is in single fiber composite [32]. The aim of this research was to explore the possibility of fiber reinforced concrete by using sisal fiber residues within the field,as reinforcement of composites based on cement. The main objective is to improve compatibility with the cement matrix and to review the mechanical properties of sisal fiber residue-enhanced cement-based composites. The purpose of this research is to investigate the composition of fresh conduct mortar reinforced cement and cement fiber mortar. Besides the nominal fresh cement concrete, characterized by durability and strength[10].

Mix Proportions

Mechanical Properties of FRC

Ordinary Portland Cement grade 53 for concrete preparation, was used [39]. Significantly, the presence of short fibers in a cemented matrix can contribute to an improvement in the mechanical behavior of fiber concrete composite. The existence of sisal fibers influences the strength leveldeleteriously [41]. The strength and flexibility of the flexural cement composites [42]. Some of the tests performed for FRC’s mechanical properties such as Compression tests, Tensile test, Flexural test [1, 9, 35, 43-45] Impact test [46-49]. Samples such as cubes, cylinders, and beams shall be castand cured for 7 days and 28 days.

Compressive Strength Test

A material’s to breaking is thought as compression, by which the concrete is powerful in compression and weak in tension. It was then necessary to cast the compressive strength into cement mortar at a ratio 1:3 strengthened sisal fibers at four fiber content (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0% by cement weight) for 7 and 28 days respectively and a facet ratio of 200 [3]. After curing for 28 days, the deflection test was dispensed on beams of size 100×100×500mm [39]. The cube’s diameter is about 100×100×100mm shown in Figure.3[37].

Figure 2. Compressive force test at 7 days [8, 36] Figure 3. Compressive force test at 28 days [8, 36]

Flexural Strength Test

Flexural strength usually referred to as rupture unit, or bending strength, or transverse rupture strength could be a material-specific property, the strain that a cloth yields in an exceedingly flexural test [32]. It’s the strain with which the materials yields in an experiment with flexure. The transverse bending test is most ordinarily used to the above, where a specimen with either a circular or rectangular cross- section is bent to fracture or yielding employing a flexural test of three points. The residual sisal fiber’s ultimate strength values ranged from 129 MPa to 378 MPa before accelerated aging reckoning on the calculation, probably because these fibers are waste produced during the processing of useful fibers used in theindustry [31].

Impact Test

The impact strength of cement mortar slab characteristics composites were found with 300 × 300 × 20 mm slab specimens cast in cement mortar at a ratio of 1:3, sisal-reinforced reinforcement fibers at four fiber composition (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0% by weight of cement) and a side ratio of 200 [51]. The cracking initiation was supported by visual observation and the cumulative collapse made up our minds therefore supported the amount of blows required to open the crack within the sample enough to spread the crack throughout the whole thickness of a specimen [52]. The energy of impact stored by the mortar slab specimens was calculated supported the volume of blows required   to   initiate   the primary crack, the amount required to avoid causing the ultimate failure, and therefore the impact energy of blow [53].

Tensile Strength Test

Friction length shows the strength of things like fiber density, fiber length, and bonding [54]. The orientation of the fibers is incredibly random, whichweakens the composite’s tensile properties [55]. During this analysis, the low fiber loading us with another possible reason used only 20% of fiberloading weight. Several researchers have found that the burden of 20% of sisal fiber composites has lower tensile properties [56]. The bending testswere conducted in an exceedingly deflection mode with a load rate of

0.3 mm/min and therefore the maximum load values were measured and analyzed. The concrete’s flexural strength and fracture energy decrease as temperature increases. Such reduction exists for experiments on preloaded samples with and without higher preloading. The split strength is around 2.03 at 7 days shown in Figure 4. The split strength is around 2.69 at 28 days shown in Figure 5[57].

Figure 4. Tensile strength at 7 days [58, 59] Figure 5. Tensile strength test at 28 days [58, 59]

Conclusion

It is clear that from the above review that the concrete at the fiber content of over 2% and a discount in fiber content is typically over 30 to 50mm in fiber length. The fiber ratio is compared with the diameter size. Water absorption is powerful in natural fibers because it increases the strength of the physical and mechanical properties of high tensile and compressive strength. The paper is thus concluded with improvement within the number of fibers being measured by a decrease in mechanical properties of over 1.5%. The strength is going to be increased by adding the fibers in smallamounts.Introduction of natural sisal fibers to an increase in the flexural strength and fracture strength of the concrete in addition to compositionswithout natural fibers.The mechanical characteristics of the sisal fiber based mostly on the manufacture, condition as well as size of the sisal fiber,which will determine the characteristic properties, and also on the natural parameters, such as the size of the fiber, the length of the gauge, the strain rate and the environment of the study. On the opposite hand, there was higher ductility within the fracturing of the samples using natural fibers, in other words, adding natural fibers to the concrete could better control the cracking of the concrete.After the whole value of flexural strength had been reached at the tip of the research studies for giant deflections, the fibers still allowed the 2 sections of the samples to remains together. Under both tensile conditions, numerous cracking activity was observed and loads of cracking.

Future prospects

It is clear from this review that chemically processed or treated substances became future altered sisal fiber reinforced composites as a consequence of its strong mechanical structural materials, economic and ecological characteristics. In recent literary studies, crack durability and rupture processes of sisal fiber composites doesn’t seem to have become analyzed in any detail. If new enhanced material are to be produced for safe crack growth,this is vital.The material strength of sisal-fiber composites tested by tests are most often inconsistent with the mixture law. Only if the interface strength and the failure mechanisms are understood can a complete description be obtained. In particular, more work is required to understand the’hybrid’ effects of sisal/glass composites.Due to the relatively lesser costs of sisal fibers, inexpensive methods of processing can be formed for thecomposites. It is essential to analyze the interaction amongst mechanical properties and methods of manufacturing.

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Construction and Building Materials18 669-73

Isaac Odoi Danquah

Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua – Eastern Region, Ghana.

ABSTRACT

Man’s ability to have total control of oneself and coordinates all activities in daily life depends on absolute good or healthy state of the mind. The mind is the master control room of every being on earth. And with this mind in its good state or correct state of mind, one can behave very well. Once there is a change in the state of the mind as a result of inhibitor of the mind, once attitudes of behaviour changes. Such changes in behaviour, attitudes or motives can be attributed to drug abuse, breakages in marriages, failure in examinations or life, loss of loved one, loss of job, accidents, spiritual attack etc. Such individuals most at times experiences mental shocks hence mental illness or sufferings. Such people are always sent to mental homes or mental health facilities for rehabilitation or seek for help to bring the individual’s mind to a state of public acceptability for self-control and coordination in daily life. With such facilities and structures in place to address issues of such nature, bad motivated and get rich people (Ocultic world powers) makes use of spiritual powers to generate people who then get exposed to such incapacitated people in mental health facilities in Ghana. Such people of good mental health status exposed to all kinds of treatments and dangers when sent to such facilities with mindset of having the same problem. Such people end up being dragged into the problem and ending up as mentally disable (98% in mental disability) people of no return into natural mental status of public usage and missing among good mental health people again. They go into a state of total mental illness and darkness and seen as mad people of no concern and usage to the public and country again. 

Keywords: mental, health, disability, brain, mind, spiritual, psychoactive, Ocultic, behaviour, rehabilitation, drug abuse, treatment.

 1         INTRODUCTION

Life activities on the planet earth mainly depends on the mind and the sense organs. Coordination between them is what gives the mankind a sense of direction when looking at daily activities. A mind can be full of activities to be accomplished in a day, but a break in chain can be attributed to a change in mind or faulty in thought which is centered on the mind. The mind has its associated problems just like the way the body fights its illnesses on daily basis in order to stay healthy. The mind can never attain 100% efficiency when it comes to its actions, capability and ability. Notwithstanding, any break in the minds coordination in serving as the master control room is a big problem and danger to the individuals or beings involved. Life is never complete without the mind, hence doctors ensures brain functionality during and after every delivery of a baby for a perfect life on earth. Any malfunctioning of the brain results in all kinds of uncoordinated behaviour and actions. Hence any individual with a normal daily life full of acceptable activities is seen as a normal person. Once there is an observed change in Behaviour, motive, attitude and actions is said to be a mentally ill or sick and the need for medical attention. This is the case in daily life in Ghana. Such mental issues or problems do not just happen or occur in our lifes. Most mental problems are as a result of activities such as broken homes, failed marriages, failed examinations, delivery issues, drug abuse, smoking of weed and shisha, loss of loved ones, deportation from abroad, disasters (such as flooding and air masses), excessive sex, spiritual attacks from Ocultic world and higher realms etc. The resultant impacts of these listed scenarios is loss of mind and uncoordinated activities which makes life difficult. 

The cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata coordinates all activities of the mind for total control achievement of purpose, goals and objectives on daily basis. Any damage to any of the parts or chain has is associated repercussions. All kinds of people are exposed to mental health facilities in Ghana and worldwide especially those with the problems listed above. Such people have their mental states disabled to an extent. It can be to 50%, 55%, 60%, 67%, 70%, 78%, 80% etc and the need for work to be done on them for such minds to be brought to normality and originality for perfect coordination in life. With such instability in mind, individuals in such positions exhibit all kinds of actions and behaviors. Some of these actions, attitudes and behaviors includes talking to oneself, staying alone for longer hours, walking aimlessly, picking of things on refuse dumps, wearing dirty clothes for months, walking in the middle of roads etc. Such minds have been lost to a higher degree for those on the streets and working on them is very difficult since the mind is about 93% out of order. But the once below 60% have a higher percentage of working on and bringing it to order or under control or even 95% once can be worked on and brought under control. But with such once, probability is 0.02 possibility. Bringing the mind under control is a very difficult task, since there is a distortion in creation and repairing creation is divinely influenced and nature has to give acceptance into code creation into nature. Since there is distortion in creation and orderliness, bringing the mind to order is not easy. 

Spirituality also plays a role when assessing the number people subjected or exposed to mental health facilities in Ghana. Ghana as a country is recognized as Christian country per counting the number of churches in Ghana comparable to other worshippers. It is also seen as an Islamic country as well as traditionalist. Hence Ghana seen as a country which does not play or joke with spiritual things or spirituality. With this in mind, everyone seen or believed to be rich in life should have an associated spiritual background whichever way. This is what some does by looking for others who will carry their cross in life hence the use of all kinds of super natural powers and means to make others victims while enriching themselves. Most victims of such adventure ends up on the streets or in mental homes looking for salvation keys to come back to normalcy. In some cases also, others do the enrichment journey themselves but ends up losing the mind and finds themselves on the streets of Ghana and Africa. Such people are unable to break secret codes of treasure hunting covered with madness and ends there. Such people also ends up in mental homes looking for help to return back to healthy mental states.

Assuming an intellectual is manipulated and ends in a mental home or facility with the same states of conditions and treatments for good health, you can think of the consequences. This is the case most graduates finds themselves in Ghana after a four year duration degree program, master’s degree program of PHD’s. Such people gets their educated heads exposed to such predicaments and can be generated into a higher degree problem in life. This is a reality problem as individuals who have toiled and educated themselves to to that level of even PHD’s gets their heads formatted and installed into heads of uneducated people of another world for such people to make a learning and education career in life. I think they are of the view that, one PHD head and its exit from life or earth can give twenty folds of educated people of lower class in Ghana.  

This is the case of situations for some people in Ghana which belong to a world and being worked against another world. When such instances occurs once can see the world subjecting the world to all kinds of problems listed above to end and individual in a mental health facility with all forces of nature and different dimensions of accusations. If such an individual doesn’t get an individual or good nature to work on his behalf or force so force of nature to backs his effort of fighting against such a cause and world, that soul is gone for good. Mental health facilities therefore exist to protect and fight for such victims but continues use of drugs to curtain the problem works on the brain negatively and the person ends up as a drug addict or victim of circumstances. Exposure and out of the mental health facility has its consequences. Stigmatization by people after being treated on drugs and subsequent going to the facility makes life difficult to live with if not of strong mind. Even the educated in Ghana have a problem with such people or people with mental health problems. They think once subjected to mental health facilities, then the head and mind is out of order and not programmable to work again or coordinated to function effectively. Mental health problems and issues can be associated with anyone hence the need for no stigmatization by any one. Assuming being arrested by five strong men, forced and sent to the mental health facility and treated harshly after which a sleeping injection is given for you to sleep for hours. After wakening up, you find yourself locked up and no way out of the facility and it happens three times to you. It can create a problem for you. In doing this, once brain is formatted and your intelligence into a system and become a routine thing done anytime one wants to builds his/her intelligence to a higher degree or level and everybody sees it. Won’t it be a routine for everyone who wants to access the head, intelligence or information gotten? This is a real time scenario generated on several occasions and people of no intelligence are using in Ghana to access intelligence and brains to make a living. This can create a problem for one at home, at the work place, among peers, in the community, in the church and among social groups etc. If not handled carefully, such a person will lose his/her mind, goes mad, become a nuisance and finally ends in death. If death does not occur, stigmatization can even lead to madness or lonely life. Some even ends up becoming a burden on families and friends with them acting as if they love the 100% and the feel their situations. This brain formatting and installation is what is generating kids of high accepted IQ’s but after getting degrees and PHD’s, one do not see their impact on country and generations. It therefore deems fit for occupation therapist (OT), psychiatric doctors, and health professionals such as counsellors to be very careful when dealing with mental health problems. 

In a way, most people end up as mental health patients on their way to treasure hunting in life. Wealth is spiritually bound and most wealth and treasures are spiritually covered. Hence the need to embark on spiritual journey before assessing the treasure. This is the case among gold treasure hunters in Ghana especially illegal gold miners. In Ghana, illegal gold miners believes gold mining has its associated spirits which needs to be worked on before assessing the treasure. Anyone who fails to do this rites may end up as mad or even in death. This is the reality for most of the people one finds in mental health facilities in Ghana and was seen during this work with real time investigations. Divine creation rendered unto mankind the Garden of Eden where man was authorized to have dominion and nurture the garden towards beauty and self-freedom. This was mainly dependent on man’s ability to make use of his mind, think like the creator and nurture it. Man faulted after being deceived by the enemy and resulted in a limitation placed on man. The beautiful treasure given to mankind was lost and the creation was taken over by the enemy with the enemy becoming the new owner. This new owner has total control over earth’s creation and now plays the tune for whoever wants to be rich to dance by it and become rich. Hence to be rich or access greater wealth in life, one ought to access the wealth or riches through evil means of which most ends up in psychiatric wards as mental patients looking for treatments. It is therefore necessary to understand the mental make-up of mankind, the psychological behaviour of people and how they think when it comes to their daily way of life and happenings. The human brain which is the master control room of the body ought to be analyzed for its make-up and functionality so that any shortfall can be worked on.

2 Related Works on Mental Health and associated problems

2.1 The Human Brain

The human brain is the control room of the body spearheading all affairs of mankind. Some brain structures are clearly demarcated. Others gradually merge into others; this leads to debate about their exact boundaries and the functions they control (Atkinson et. al., 1990). All the neurons in the brain and the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system. The human brain is composed of three centric layers; a) central core b) the limbic system c) the cerebral hemisphere (together known as the cerebral hemisphere (Atkinson et. al., 1990). The central core includes most of the brain stem. The first slight enlargement of the spinal cord as it enters the skull is the medulla, a narrow structure that control breathing and some reflexes that help the organism maintains upright posture (Atkinson et. al., 1990). Attached to the rear of the brain stem is a convoluted structure called the cerebellum. The cerebellum is primarily concerned with coordination of movement. Located just above the brain stem inside the cerebral hemispheres are two egg – shaped groups of nerves cell nuclei that make up the thalamus. One region of the thalamus acts as a relay station and directs incoming information to the cerebellum from the sense receptors for vision, touch, hearing and taste. Another region of the thalamus plays an important in the control of sleep and wakefulness (Atkinson et. al., 1990). Any injury to this region of the thalamus that plays a role in sleeping and wakefulness may have effects on once sleep and hence the resultant mental problem.

2.2    Neurons, nerves and Coordination

Even though neurons differ, they have certain common characteristics. Projecting from the cell body are a number of short branches called dendrites (Atkinson et. al., 1990). The dendrites and cell body receive neural impulses from adjacent neurons. These massages are transmitted to other neurons by a slender extension of the cell called an axon. At the end of the axon branch into a number of fine collaterals that end in small swellings called synaptic terminals. When neural impulses travels down the axon and arrives at the synaptic terminals, it triggers the secretion of a chemical called neurotransmitter. Although all neurons have these general features, they vary greatly in size and shape (Atkinson et. al., 1990). There are three types of neurons; sensory neurons transmit impulses received by receptors to the central nervous system. The receptors are specialized cells in the sense organs, muscles, skin and joints that detect physical or chemical changes and translate these into impulses that travels along the sensory neurons. (Atkinson et. al., 1990). This is what makes someone to be able to feel hotness or coldness or even fire whenever there is any physical changes in the environment. Motor neurons carry ongoing signals from the brain or spinal cord to the effector organs namely the muscles and glands. Coordination of these neurons with other sense organs is what gives someone a good mental state of mind towards fulfillment of daily activities

2.3   Asymmetries in the Brain

On examination of the brain in much details, the two halves of the human brain look like mirror images of each other. But closer examination reveals asymmetries. When brains are measured during autopsies, the left hemisphere is almost always larger that the right hemisphere (Atkinson et. al., 1990). Also, the right hemisphere contains many long neural fibres that connect widely separate areas of the brain, whereas the left hemisphere contains many shorter fibres that provide rich interconnection within a limited area (Geschwind et. al., 1987). Paul Broca (1861) examined the brains of a patient who had suffered speech loss and found that there are damages in areas of the left hemisphere just above the lateral fissure in the frontal lobe. The region known as Broca’s area is involved in the production of speech (Broca, 1861). Hence a damage or loss to a higher degree of such a region will subject an individual to a mental health facility for diagnosis and treatment. In this case the mentally ill individual is expected to show all kinds of mentally sick attitudes and behaviour. 

2.4  Drug dependence

Since ancient times, people have used drugs to alter their state of mind, consciousness – to stimulate or relax, to bring sleep, prevent sleep, to enhance ordinary perception or to produce hallucinations (Atkinson et. al., 1990). Psychoactives are drugs that affect behaviour, consciousness or mood. They include not only street drugs such as heroin and marijuana but also stimulants such as alcohol, tobacco and coffee. Table 1 list and classifies the psychoactive drugs that are commonly used and abused.

Table 1: Psycoactives drugs that are commonly used

Psychoactives	Commonly Used
Depressants(Sedatives)	Alcohol (ethanol), Barbiturates, minor tranquilizers, valum.
Opiates (Narcotics)	Opium and its derivatives, Heroin, Morphine, Methadone.
Stimulants	Cocaine, Nicotine, Caffaine, Amphetamines, Benzedrine
Hallucinogenes	Mescaline, Psilocybin,
Cannabis	Marijuana, Hashish

Source: Atkinson et. al., 1990.

It may be difficult to appreciate the major changes in patterns of drug usage and taken behaviour over the past 100years. For instance, the widespread use of tranquilizers for the treatment of mental illness and emotional problems which began in the 1950’s and the appearance of oral contraception’s in 1960 did much to change people attitudes towards drugs (Atkinson et. al., 1990). All of the drugs listed in Table 1 are assumed to affect behaviour and consciousness because they act in specific biochemical ways on the brain. With repeated usage, an individual can become physically or psychologically dependent on any of these drugs (Atkinson et. al., 1990). The United States still has the highest rates of drug usage among the world’s industrialized nations (Johnson et. al., 1989). 

2.5  Effects of Alcohol

Drugs that depress the central nervous system includes the minor tranquilizers, barbiturates and alcohols. In small quantities, alcohol appears to increase people’s energy and make them feel lively and sociable. In reality, it is a central nervous system depressant, not a stimulant. The initial stimulating effect of alcohol is believed to occur because the inhibiting synapses in the brain are depressed slightly earlier than the excitation synapses. Since the brain’s neurons maintain a close balance between excitation and inhibition, the depression of inhibitory synapses results in a feeling of excitation, or stimulation. However, the excitation synapses soon become depressed too; the stimulating effects are overridden causing drowsiness and slowed sensory and motor functions. Continuous intake of such ethanol leads to mental retardation and disability (Atkinson et. al., 1990).

2.6 Sexual disorder and Behaviour

A great survey of British sexual attitudes and lifestyle (Johnson et. al., 1994) has provided the most comprehensive evaluation of sexual behaviour in the British public to date (Besant et. al., 1998). It was motivated largely by the emergence in 1980’s of the lethal epidemic of sexually transmitted infection, HIV and lack of baseline measures of sexual behaviour. In the past four decades, the median age of first heterosexual intercourse has fallen from 21years to 17 years for women and 20years to 17yeears for men. People in the 21^st century are more likely to use contraceptives (usually condoms and injections for women) than those of previous generations (Basant et. al., 1998). Frequency of heterosexual sex (oral, vaginal, anal intercourse) among the youth shows wide variability with a small proportion of the population reporting a very high frequency of sexual contact. Vaginal intercourse usually dominates when dealing with intercourse since that is the natural way and is the most preferred. Increase in practice of oral sex, but not as a substitute to vaginal intercourse. 

In Ghana, the youth outside marriage have loss frequent sex past overall but not today. For the current Ghana, they are more likely to have multiple partners, a wide range of practices and recent experiences of high risk practices (Basant et. al., 1998).

3 Research Area and Methodology

3.1 Research Area

The study area for this work is the Regional Hospital Koforidua (RHK) in the Eastern Region of Ghana, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital – Kumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana and Pantang Hospital – Accra in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. Koforidua is the capital city of the Eastern Region of Ghana. The city harbors people of total population of 127,334 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). Koforidua is the commercial heart for the eastern region and the New Juaben Municipal district. Koforidua lies on latitude 6° 05^ᶦ 38^ᶦᶦ N and longitude 0° 15ᶦ 32ᶦᶦ W at an elevation of 238m (781ft) above sea level. The New Juaben municipality falls within the Eastern Region of south Ghana covering a total land area of 110km². This total land area constitutes 0.57% of the total land area of the Eastern Region. The annual rainfall over the capital ranges from 50inches to 120inches and 20⁰C to 32⁰C, mean annual temperature. The New Juaben municipality shares borders with East – Akim municipality to the northeast, Suhum Kraboa Coaltar district to the west, and Akwapim North district to the east and south. A number of industrial activities are embarked in the city and these include textiles, crafts, soap, traditional medicine, welders, carpentry, ceramics and poetry. Production of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and good bread forms part of industrialized produced products in the city. Regional Hospital Koforidua (RHK) is the main hospital within the region attending all issue of health which is above the horizon of the district hospitals in the region. The mental health department (MHD) is the department responsible for all mental health associated problems that the hospital receives on daily basis. 

The study area also focus on Pantan Hospital in Accra where the same scenarios were being generated over and over again. The same happened in Kumasi which was the first place of case for scenario generation over and over again in Ghana as stated in the introduction. The main focus point is at Koforidua in the Eastern Region of Ghana 

3.2  Methodology Employed

Research works always aims at establishing an inner truth about something. The main aim of this research work is to access and analyze human beings with 90% mental disability state and see whether they can have significant impacts on same humans of good health status when all are exposed to same facility and treatment. This research work started when a health human being was arrested and sent to a mental health facility and subjected to hash treatment equivalent to that for people of mental deficiencies. The method employed is the facility Stationed Focus Assessment and Evaluation Method (FSFAEM). In the process, investigator is tasked and goes through the normal process for patient of mental illness in the mental home. Results are generated after detail activities and picking of data and intelligence for a maximum period of 13 years. In some cases also, data is picked after a day’s visit to the mental health facility for monthly treatment. Findings are then obtained for analysis, verification, justification and acceptance. Figure 1 gives a diagrammatic view of the method employed for the research.

4.0       Research Findings

4.1       Psychoactives 

Once daily activities and actions are mentally and psychologically motivated. Without the mind in its perfect state or one in its absolute complete state of mind, one cannot operate or work very well. So whatever be the case, the head with the brain at its utmost functionality is needed for once daily movements, operations and activities. Anything contrarily to this will result in negative consequences. And in other to achieve mentally ill state or mind of 80% disability state, there is need for Psychoactives. These are drugs that inhibit the action of the brain or mind resulting in moody, bad behaviour and actions. Some of the Psychoactives includes ethanol, caffeine, cocaine, heroin, wee (weed), cigar, opium etc. When such drugs are taken into the body and subsequently into the mind continuously, coordination of the body by nerves and neurons becomes reduced drastically by percentage. When this happens, the person sense organs such as hearing, feeling, taste, sight etc becomes affected. Continuation of life in a proper manner to help oneself and country is problematic. Use of healthy individuals to heal people of mentally ill status. Psychoactives destruction effects.

4.1.1    Psychoactives destruction Effects 

In every community in Ghana, the lower class forms the masses. With a percentage of the mass classified into psychoactive affected people. With such people, the rate at which they drink alcohol (95% in alcohol percentage) for instance is from morning to morning on daily basis. Such people do not have a good eating habit and usually seen as people of no usefulness in the country. Most are met on daily basis undergoing random motion. They do not have the mind set to think through activities. On sense of judgment and direction as well as defined goals and objectives to achieve in life. No daily income or monthly salary to support life and home. Such people are always seen to be living in hideouts because of devious motives and activities. Most of them are very bad people because of the highness in mind due to large intake of psychoactive. Those with families who think about them end up in mental homes and facilities for rehabilitations. 

Sending someone with good mental health state to such a facility and meeting such from a psychoactive background can lead to negative effects. Assuming someone of PHD status whose head has been short through Ocultic means and installed in others meet such as person. If such a doctor sense of direction is deactivated and gives up in life, then his is a pilot who will lose total control of his captainship. Such a person will begin to drink excessively, take in all kinds of narcotic drugs, be sexually active to satisfy him/herself and that soul is gone.  An entire family, community, nation, world will be flooded unto poverty and self-destruction. 

4.2       Occultism Incorporated

Worldwide occultism plays a major role in mentally sick individual’s generation into mental health facilities. Some believe in get rich quick schemes hence the use of supernatural means to attain that height. In such get rich world schemes, one does sacrifices hence the possibility of sacrificing a human being for the enrichment in life. What one does is seize a brother, sister, family member or relative or any individuals who has worked for wealth and utilize it aimlesslesly. The use of all kinds of supernatural means to seize that individual’s opportunity in life or breakthrough. They then lay their cross of suffering on the individual or brother to go through their suffering and hustles in life while they enjoy life to the fullest. The most interesting part is that, they always have such a person in focus and will be monitoring is daily activities. 

4.2.1    Occultism incorporated impacts on good health minds

Occultism incorporated effects on healthy mind is total disaster. Most great minds and individuals have lost their lives because of the bad effects of occultism and get rich easy life by people. Some end up as mad people walking in the streets while the Ocultic man or initiator is a beneficiary and enjoying life to a greater extent.

4.3       Street Arrest of Individuals

Street life also forms part of a society activities. Most school drop outs, sellers who have migrated from their local community to cities ends up living on the streets. Life in the streets is like living in the jungle where only the fitters survive. Therefore, people or individuals on the streets are always involved in a fight or all kinds of illegal activities which mostly warrant arrest by police to police stations. Those that ends up in police stations ends up in police cells and those who ends in hospitals ends up in mental health facilities for treatments. They go through all kinds of mental treatments and ends up as mentally ill or retarded patients. This is achieved after series of bad treatment by doctors and nurses who are on their sides or same Ocultic world or the continuous use of mentally ill drugs. Such people ends up losing their minds to a higher degree and final output is madness.  

4.3.1    Percentage change and effects from individuals on the streets

In Ghana, street life personnel’s or individuals on the streets do not play major roles in national development. Such people are always seen in Ghetto’s having their daily activities. They are mostly smokers, gangsters, tricksters, gamblers and involved in all kinds of social vices. In terms of percentage personnel’s from the streets to mental health facilities are first of all to a degree of 60% in mental disability. Once they are subjected to mental facilities for rehabilitations, some get rehabilitated into different good kinds of individuals to live a normal life. Those who are unable to return to normalcy goes mad totally or even death. Some are in treasure hunting looking for answers for the good will of treasures for their lives. Spiritual arrest also exists which involves the arrest spiritually for entering and assessing a real one ought not to. This at times also results in mental illness or madness. 

4.4 Other kinds of failures 

Nature has within its creation failures of various forms. Everyone is bound to fail in one way of the other by a certain percentage. What one does in times of difficulty is the most important thing. Failures can be seen in terms of failed marriages, failed examinations, failure in business, failure in learning a trade, failure at once job, failure in governance etc. all these are different forms of failures. There is a mental havoc associated with all these failures. This may end once remaining life on earth in a mental home or mental facility. When it happens like this, it’s once responsibility to justify before nature and mankind why the failure should not occur, continue and be replaced with success. One ought to fight nature and mankind with whatever means in life to justify his/her cause before natural panelist and mankind. Once justification is well done whichever way and well understood by all, then one can proceed unto success. If not, he/she may end up as a mentally ill person or even goes mad. Defense and justification of a cause is both physically and spiritually. It is likely such an individual has entered into a realm and assessed a great treasure which will lead him unto greater heights in life. Hence the need for spiritual defense because all treasures are spiritually bound. So once such a person is unable to defend or justify why such a treasure belongs to him/her and does have the spiritual power and authority to possess and protect it, he or she may end up mad or mentally retarded.

4.4.1    Effects from other kinds of failures resulting in mental disability

The impacts of mental disability states resulting in all kinds of failures on good mental health states is enormous. As elaborated above, all kinds of failures exist which may end one in a mental home followed by all kinds of consequences. Two main consequence experienced by individuals who finds themselves in such situation is either madness or death. When the failure is continuous and no way to leave the deep pit, some even hung themselves or commits suicides. Those who do not end their lives but continues in the hustles and torchers ends up in mental facilities for rehabilitations and treatments and later towards madness or death. It is only a few, about 10%, who are able to be rehabilitated in rehabilitation centres by family members and friends. Such friends and families should be willing to spend money towards rehabs. During the rehabilitation process, patients are taken through all kinds of treatments. Some of the vocational training includes kente weaving, instruments playing, clay artistic works etc. 

5          Conclusions

Mental disability states generated by any of the scenarios under research findings is a state which can be worked on to attain positive or negative results. Positive results yielding 75% – 80% good mental health state of being is a position of living a new life to help oneself and mankind. Or mentally retarded person with the final results of madness or death. People will continue to smoke, drink alcohol, and take stimulants and psychoactive. This may have effects on the human mind and its final efficiencies in thinking and usage. Meeting physiological needs is very problematic to the average Ghanaian and the world at large. Continuous difficulty in such directions will end people in mental homes and facilities. Assessing treasures in life either through holy or unholy grounds will have people entering into spiritual reals and the resultant ending in mental homes if the nature is unanswered. It is therefore the responsibility of psychiatric doctors, nurses and health professionals to help such people to regain their mental power and strength. There need to be efficacy in treatment and truthfulness on the part of practitioners, drugs administering in taking care of the mentally retarded. Because by the time one is through with his/her treatment, a drug might have ended someone in mental jail. This is because all the generated scenarios under research findings are feasible and likely to end someone in this mentally disabled state forever. It is therefore the responsibilities of practitioners, traditionalists, faith based and alternative healers, health professionals, mental health workers, media, families and friends and all other stakeholders to help bring back the person to about 84% mentally stable state to help oneself and nation. 

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to the almighty God for this research work. Thanks to all who made this research work a success in Koforidua, Accra and Kumasi.  God bless you all.  

References

• Atkinson R. L., Atkinson R. C., Smith E. E., 1990, Introduction to Psychology, 10^th Edition, 33 – 34, 41 – 42, 50, 201 – 202.
• Basant K. P., Hall A. D., 1998, Revision Notes in Psychiatry, Chp 31, 314 – 327.
• Geshwind N., Galaburda A. M., 1987, Cerebral Laterilization, Cambridge MA; MIT Press, 50, 55.
• Johnson L. D., O’Malley P. M., Bachman J. G., 1989, Illicite drug use, smoking and drinking by American’s high School Students, College students and young adults. 1975 – 1987, Rockville, MD; National Institute of Drug Abuse, 212, 213, 215, 221.
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¹OLUGBAMIYE Dominic O., ²AKINADEWO Israel S., ³AKPAN James U., and ⁴FAGBOMEDO Oluwadare R

¹²³⁴Department of Accounting, College of Social and Management Science, Afe Babalola University, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.

Abstract

The rapid advancement of digital technologies has led to transformative changes across various industries, and the accounting sector in Nigeria is no exception. This exploratory research study delves into the success stories of digital transformation in accounting firms and financial services companies operating in Nigeria. Through in-depth case studies, the research explores the integration of technology with traditional accounting practices and the implications of this digital shift on financial operations, efficiency, and customer services. The study reveals that the seamless integration of cloud-based accounting software, artificial intelligence, and data analytics into traditional practices enhances operational efficiency and enables accountants to deliver more value-added services to clients. Digital-first organizational cultures and continuous training and up-skilling of accounting professionals emerge as crucial success factors for successful digital transformation. The future outlook predicts the continued evolution of technology in the accounting industry, with advancements in AI, block-chain, and mobile applications shaping financial processes. Alongside the promising opportunities, challenges related to data security, workforce readiness, and equitable digital adoption must be addressed. The research concludes that embracing digital transformation is imperative for the future of the accounting industry in Nigeria. Policymakers must collaborate with industry stakeholders to develop robust regulatory frameworks and promote inclusive digital adoption. By incorporating the study’s findings and adopting best practices, accounting firms and financial services companies can navigate the digital landscape with confidence, ensuring sustained growth and relevance in the dynamic digital era.

Keyword: Digital Transformation, Accounting Firms, Financial Services Companies, Technology Integration, Efficiency, Customer Services

JEL Classification: M41, O33, G20, L86, O55

1.1       Background to the Study

Over the past decade, the global business landscape has witnessed a significant shift towards digital transformation, driven by the rapid advancement of technology and its profound impact on various industries (Wamba & Akter, 2019). The accounting sector, as a crucial pillar of the business ecosystem, has not remained untouched by this transformative wave. Digital technologies have revolutionized the way financial data is processed, managed, and analyzed, leading to improved efficiency, accuracy, and decision-making capabilities for accounting professionals (Jones & Dumay, 2018).

In the Nigeria context, a fast-growing economy with a burgeoning technology sector, the adoption of digital transformation in accounting practices has been gaining momentum (Oyelere & Soriyan, 2018). As businesses across various sectors increasingly embrace digital solutions, accounting firms and financial services companies in Nigeria have also recognized the need to adapt to the changing landscape. This adaptation involves the integration of modern technologies into traditional accounting processes, leading to what is commonly referred to as “digital transformation in accounting” (Akinuli & Falohun, 2018)

According to Wamba and Akter (2019), digital transformation refers to the fundamental changes in an organization’s operations, services, and business model to leverage digital technologies optimally. In the accounting context, this involves the adoption of cloud computing, artificial intelligence, data analytics, and other digital tools to streamline financial processes, enhance data security, and provide real-time insights to stakeholders.

Several studies have highlighted the potential benefits of digital transformation in accounting. For instance, Jones and Dumay (2018) emphasize that digital technologies enable accounting firms to automate routine tasks, freeing up time for accountants to focus on higher-value activities such as financial analysis and strategic decision-making. Additionally, Rossignoli, Gatti, and Turco (2020) argue that digital transformation can significantly improve financial reporting accuracy, reducing the likelihood of errors and fraud.

While the advantages of digital transformation in accounting are evident, the specific success stories and best practices in the Nigerian context remain understudied. Understanding the successful implementation of digital transformation initiatives in Nigerian accounting firms and financial services companies can offer valuable insights to practitioners and policymakers alike. Moreover, exploring the challenges faced during this transformation process will shed light on potential barriers and facilitate the development of strategies to overcome them.

Therefore, this exploratory research aims to identify and analyze success stories of digital transformation in accounting firms and financial services companies operating in Nigeria. By examining the strategies, technologies, and outcomes of these success stories, the study seeks to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on digital transformation in the Nigerian accounting industry. Furthermore, the findings will provide practical recommendations for organizations looking to embark on their digital transformation journey or optimize their current initiatives.

1.2       Statement of Problem

In recent years, the global business landscape has witnessed a significant shift towards digital transformation, with organizations across various industries adopting modern technologies to streamline their operations and stay competitive. The accounting sector, being a fundamental pillar of the business ecosystem, has also been influenced by this transformative wave. In Nigeria, a fast-growing economy with a burgeoning technology sector, the adoption of digital transformation in accounting practices has been gaining momentum.

While there is growing awareness of the potential benefits of digital transformation in accounting, there remains a significant knowledge gap regarding the specific success stories and best practices of this transformation within the Nigerian context. Although several studies have explored the advantages of digital transformation in accounting globally, little attention has been given to understanding the unique challenges and opportunities faced by accounting firms and financial services companies in Nigeria during their digital transformation journey. For instance, Wamba and Akter (2019) emphasize that despite the increasing adoption of digital technologies in various industries, there is a lack of comprehensive research on successful digital transformation initiatives in the Nigerian context. This gap in the literature hinders the ability of organizations to make informed decisions regarding their adoption of digital technologies in the accounting sector.

Moreover, the scarcity of case studies focusing on the Nigerian landscape limits the availability of practical insights and strategies that can guide organizations in implementing successful digital transformation projects. According to Jones and Dumay (2018), the absence of localized case studies prevents accounting professionals in Nigeria from learning from the experiences of their peers and adopting best practices. Therefore, the lack of in-depth exploration of success stories and best practices of digital transformation in accounting firms and financial services companies operating in Nigeria, as highlighted by Wamba and Akter (2019) and Jones and Dumay (2018), poses a considerable knowledge gap. This gap hinders the identification of effective strategies and potential challenges faced during the adoption of digital technologies in the Nigerian accounting industry.

By addressing this problem, the proposed exploratory research aims to provide valuable insights into the successful implementation of digital transformation initiatives in the Nigerian accounting sector. Through the analysis of specific case studies and in-depth interviews with key stakeholders, the study seeks to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on digital transformation in Nigeria, as advocated by Rossignoli et al. (2020), and offer practical recommendations to organizations seeking to embark on their own digital transformation journey.

1.3       Research Objectives

The primary research objective is to identify and examine specific success stories of digital transformation in accounting firms and financial services companies operating in Nigeria. This involves exploring organizations that have effectively implemented digital technologies in their accounting processes and have achieved positive outcomes as a result. While the specific objectives are to:

1. analyze the strategies and technologies utilized

2. assess the impact on efficiency and financial reporting
3. identify challenges and lessons learned
4. offer practical recommendations

1.4       Research Questions

Based on the statement of problem, the following research questions are raised for the study:

1. What are the key digital transformation initiatives implemented by accounting firms and financial services companies in Nigeria?
2. How have digital technologies, such as cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and data analytics, been integrated into accounting processes during the digital transformation journey in Nigeria?
3. What are the specific benefits and outcomes experienced by accounting firms and financial services companies as a result of successful digital transformation?
4. What challenges and obstacles were faced during the implementation of digital transformation initiatives in the Nigerian accounting industry?
5. What lessons can be learned from the success stories of digital transformation in accounting in Nigeria, and how can these insights be applied to enhance future transformation efforts?
6. How can the adoption of digital transformation in accounting improve financial reporting accuracy and decision-making capabilities in the Nigerian context?
7. What role does organizational culture play in facilitating or hindering the successful adoption of digital technologies in accounting firms and financial services companies in Nigeria?
8. How can accounting professionals in Nigeria be trained and up-skilled to effectively leverage digital tools and technologies during their daily operations?

1.5       Scope of the Study

This research focuses on exploring success stories of digital transformation within the Nigerian accounting industry. Specifically, it centers on accounting firms and financial services companies operating in southwest states of Nigeria, aiming to understand the impact of digital technologies on their operations and financial practices. The study investigated the strategies and technologies utilized during the digital transformation journey, with a primary focus on cloud computing, artificial intelligence, data analytics, and automation. By concentrating on the Nigerian context, the research seeks to identify organizations that have successfully implemented digital transformation initiatives and have achieved notable improvements in efficiency, financial reporting accuracy, and decision-making capabilities. Through in-depth interviews and case studies, the study aims to gain valuable insights into the challenges faced and lessons learned during the digital transformation process in the Nigerian accounting industry.

Despite the comprehensive approach, this research has some inherent limitations. The exploratory nature of the study may constrain the depth of analysis for each case study due to time constraints. Consequently, the exhaustive coverage of all aspects of the digital transformation process may not be feasible. The sample size may be limited by the availability of accounting firms and financial services companies willing to participate in the research, potentially impacting the generalizability of the findings. Moreover, the willingness of organizations to share detailed information about their digital transformation journey may be affected by confidentiality concerns, leading to potential limitations in accessing critical data points and best practices. Since the study is specific to the Nigerian context, generalizing the findings to other countries or industries requires caution, as contextual factors can significantly influence the outcomes. Additionally, the rapidly evolving nature of technology may render some findings outdated, as newer technologies and strategies emerge after the research is conducted.

Furthermore, as the research involves a qualitative approach, there might be some level of subjectivity in interpreting and analyzing the data, despite efforts to maintain objectivity. Despite these limitations, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the digital transformation landscape in the Nigerian accounting industry. By acknowledging the scope and limitations, researchers and readers can better contextualize the findings and consider their applicability to other scenarios and contexts.

1.6       Significance of the Study

This research holds several significant implications for various stakeholders in the Nigerian accounting industry and beyond. By focusing on success stories of digital transformation in the Nigerian accounting sector, this study seeks to contribute new knowledge and insights to the existing body of literature on digital transformation and its impact on financial practices. The exploration of specific strategies, technologies, and outcomes will offer valuable information for researchers and practitioners interested in understanding the successful implementation of digital transformation initiatives in a rapidly evolving economic landscape.

The study’s findings will provide practical guidance for accounting firms and financial services companies in Nigeria that are considering or currently undergoing digital transformation. By analyzing successful cases, organizations can learn from best practices, potential challenges, and lessons learned, thereby enhancing their own transformation initiatives. The research will offer valuable insights into how digital technologies can improve efficiency, financial reporting accuracy, and overall decision-making capabilities, providing tangible benefits for businesses.

In light of the increasing adoption of digital technologies in the accounting industry, policymakers and regulators in Nigeria will find the research results relevant in shaping policies that promote digital transformation while addressing potential challenges and ensuring data security and privacy. The study’s findings can inform the development of guidelines and frameworks for the adoption and integration of technology in financial practices.

The successful implementation of digital transformation initiatives in the accounting sector can have broader implications for Nigeria’s economic growth and innovation. Improved efficiency and accuracy in financial reporting can enhance investor confidence and attract more investments, contributing to the overall development of the country’s business environment. Furthermore, embracing digital technologies can foster a culture of innovation in the accounting industry, encouraging other sectors to follow suit in their digital transformation efforts.

The research will serve as a valuable resource for academic institutions and professional bodies involved in accounting education and training in Nigeria. By providing real-world case studies and practical insights, the study can enrich accounting curricula and professional development programs, ensuring that future accountants are equipped with the knowledge and skills required in a digitally transformed business landscape.

2.         Literature Review

2.1       Digital Transformation in Accounting: Concepts and Definitions

Digital transformation is a multifaceted and dynamic concept that has become increasingly relevant in today’s business landscape. As organizations seek to stay competitive and adapt to the fast-paced technological advancements, the term “digital transformation” has emerged as a buzzword. At its core, digital transformation represents a comprehensive and strategic shift in an organization’s operations, business models, and culture to harness digital technologies effectively (Wamba & Akter, 2019).

In the context of the accounting sector, digital transformation entails the radical integration of modern digital technologies into traditional accounting practices and processes. This integration aims to leverage the capabilities of technologies like cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), data analytics, and automation to revolutionize how financial data is collected, processed, analyzed, and communicated. Accounting professionals are increasingly utilizing digital tools and platforms to replace manual, paper-based tasks, reducing the reliance on traditional spreadsheets and ledgers.

The incorporation of cloud computing technology has been a game-changer in the digital transformation of accounting. Cloud-based accounting software, such as QuickBooks Online and Xero, has provided businesses with the ability to access financial data and applications from anywhere with an internet connection. This not only enhances collaboration and remote working capabilities but also ensures real-time synchronization of financial information, enabling accountants and stakeholders to make informed decisions promptly (Barker & Harris, 2018).

Artificial intelligence and data analytics have significantly impacted accounting practices, enabling the automation of routine tasks and empowering accountants to analyze large volumes of financial data more efficiently. AI-driven systems can now handle tasks like data entry, bank reconciliation, and even fraud detection, reducing the potential for human error and freeing up accountants’ time for more strategic activities (Jones & Dumay, 2018). Additionally, data analytics tools provide deep insights into financial patterns and trends, helping businesses identify growth opportunities and potential risks.

Furthermore, automation plays a crucial role in digital transformation, allowing accounting professionals to automate repetitive and time-consuming tasks. This includes generating financial reports, invoicing, and payment processing. By automating these processes, businesses can save valuable time and resources, ultimately leading to increased productivity and cost savings (Rossignoli, Gatti, & Turco, 2020).

The ultimate objective of digital transformation in accounting is to streamline financial operations, improve overall efficiency, and provide real-time data insights for better decision-making. By embracing digital technologies, accounting firms and financial services companies can enhance their capabilities in responding to market changes promptly and providing more value-added services to clients (Akinnuli & Falohun, 2018). Moreover, digital transformation ensures organizations can maintain compliance with ever-evolving financial regulations and reporting standards in an increasingly interconnected global economy

2.2       The Role of Technology in Modern Accounting Practices

The transformational role of technology in modern accounting practices cannot be overstated. As businesses increasingly recognize the value of digital tools in streamlining financial operations and enhancing decision-making capabilities, the accounting landscape has witnessed a significant shift towards a more technologically-driven approach.

1. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems: One of the most critical technological advancements in modern accounting practices is the widespread adoption of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. Jones and Dumay (2018) highlight the crucial impact of ERP systems on accounting operations. These integrated software solutions have revolutionized financial reporting by providing a centralized platform for managing various aspects of a company’s operations, including finance, human resources, inventory, and customer relationship management.

ERP systems enable real-time data consolidation from different departments, subsidiaries, or locations, ensuring that accountants have access to the most up-to-date and accurate financial information. This real-time data visibility enhances financial reporting accuracy and facilitates timely decision-making by stakeholders. Moreover, the integration of ERP systems streamlines accounting processes, as data entry and updates are automatically synchronized across different modules, reducing the risk of duplication and errors.

With the automation of routine accounting tasks, such as accounts payable and accounts receivable management, ERP systems free up accountants from mundane activities, allowing them to focus on value-added tasks like financial analysis and strategic planning. This not only boosts efficiency but also empowers accounting professionals to contribute more effectively to the organization’s growth and success.

2. Cloud-Based Accounting Software: The integration of cloud-based accounting software has been a game-changer for modern accounting practices. Barker and Harris (2018) emphasize how cloud technology has facilitated remote access to financial data, enabling accountants and financial professionals to work from anywhere with an internet connection.

Cloud-based accounting software, such as QuickBooks Online, Xero, and Zoho Books, offers numerous advantages to businesses. First and foremost, it eliminates the need for on-premises servers and costly infrastructure, as all financial data is securely stored in the cloud. This significantly reduces IT maintenance costs and allows organizations to scale their accounting systems easily as their business grows.

The collaborative nature of cloud accounting platforms enhances teamwork and communication within accounting departments and between accountants and their clients. Real-time data sharing and access facilitate seamless collaboration, enabling accountants to work closely with their clients and provide timely financial insights and advice.

Data security is a paramount concern for accounting practices, given the sensitive nature of financial information. Cloud-based accounting software providers invest heavily in robust security measures, including encryption, multi-factor authentication, and regular data backups, to ensure that financial data remains secure and protected from unauthorized access

2.3       Digital Transformation Trends in Nigeria’s Accounting Industry

The accounting industry in Nigeria has experienced a notable surge in the adoption of digital transformation initiatives. This upward trajectory can be attributed to several key trends and factors that have shaped the landscape of modern accounting practices in the country.

1. Rise of Fintech Companies: The rise of financial technology (fintech) companies has been a driving force behind the digitization of financial transactions in Nigeria’s accounting industry. Fintech startups, with their innovative digital solutions, have disrupted traditional financial services and provided alternative ways for individuals and businesses to manage their finances.

Fintech companies offer a range of digital payment solutions, including mobile payment platforms, online wallets, and peer-to-peer payment apps. These platforms have gained widespread popularity due to their convenience, accessibility, and ease of use. Consumers and businesses in Nigeria have increasingly embraced these digital payment methods, leading to a significant reduction in cash transactions.

2. Mobile Payment Solutions: Mobile payment solutions have played a pivotal role in the digital transformation of the accounting industry in Nigeria. Companies like Interswitch and Paga have emerged as leading providers of mobile payment platforms, enabling individuals and businesses to make secure and efficient transactions using their mobile devices.

The integration of mobile payment solutions into accounting practices has streamlined payment processes and reduced reliance on traditional banking channels. Businesses can now receive payments from customers and make disbursements to suppliers and employees swiftly, facilitating smoother cash flow management. Additionally, mobile payment solutions have improved financial inclusion, as individuals without access to traditional banking services can now participate in the formal economy (Oyelere & Soriyan, 2018).

3. Cashless Transactions and Advanced Accounting Systems: The increased digitization of financial transactions has paved the way for businesses to embrace cashless transactions and advanced accounting systems. As more financial transactions are conducted digitally, the need for manual cash handling and reconciliation diminishes. This transition to cashless transactions not only improves the efficiency of accounting processes but also reduces the risk of errors and fraud.

With the adoption of digital payment platforms and accounting software, businesses in Nigeria can maintain more accurate and up-to-date financial records. The real-time data synchronization and automation capabilities of modern accounting systems enable accountants to access financial information instantly and generate real-time financial reports, empowering stakeholders to make data-driven decisions promptly.

4. Business Process Integration: Another trend in Nigeria’s accounting industry is the integration of various business processes through digital transformation. By adopting integrated accounting software solutions, businesses can streamline not only their financial processes but also other operational areas such as sales, inventory management, and human resources. This seamless integration facilitates smoother data flow and collaboration across different departments, enhancing overall organizational efficiency (Akinnuli & Falohun, 2018)

2.4       Challenges and Opportunities for Digital Transformation in Nigerian Accounting

The journey towards digital transformation in the Nigerian accounting industry is not without its challenges. However, it also presents numerous opportunities for accounting firms and financial services companies to enhance their operations and stay competitive in a rapidly evolving business landscape.

Challenges:

1. Data Privacy and Security Concerns: One of the major challenges of digital transformation in Nigerian accounting is ensuring the privacy and security of sensitive financial data. As organizations adopt cloud computing and digital platforms to store and process financial information, safeguarding this data becomes paramount. The threat of data breaches and cyberattacks poses significant risks to the confidentiality and integrity of financial records. Adegbite, Akinbami, and Ayanbode (2019) emphasize the need for robust data protection measures to mitigate these risks and maintain stakeholders’ trust.

2. Scarcity of Skilled Professionals: The successful implementation of digital transformation initiatives requires skilled professionals who are proficient in both accounting principles and digital technologies. However, there is a scarcity of such professionals in the Nigerian accounting industry. Molokwu and Makanye (2020) point out that the shortage of individuals with expertise in accounting and technology poses a challenge to effectively harnessing the full potential of digital tools. Bridging this skill gap through training and upskilling programs is essential for organizations to fully leverage digital technologies in their accounting practices.

Opportunities:

1. Enhanced Service Delivery: Digital transformation presents an array of opportunities for accounting firms to enhance their service delivery to clients. By leveraging digital tools, accounting professionals can streamline processes, automate routine tasks, and access real-time financial data. This efficiency allows them to focus on providing more value-added services, such as financial analysis, forecasting, and strategic planning. Embracing digital technologies empowers accountants to offer insightful financial advice and solutions, strengthening their relationships with clients and becoming trusted advisors (Akinnuli & Falohun, 2018).

2. Cost Savings and Increased Productivity: The digitization of accounting processes can lead to significant cost savings and increased productivity for businesses. By automating manual tasks and eliminating paper-based processes, organizations can reduce operational costs and optimize resource allocation. Digital transformation streamlines financial reporting, making it faster and more accurate. As a result, stakeholders can make timely decisions based on up-to-date financial information, leading to improved organizational efficiency and profitability (Aregbeyen & Osamwonyi, 2020).

3. Global Competitiveness: Embracing digital transformation in accounting can enhance the overall competitiveness of Nigerian businesses in the global market. As the business landscape becomes increasingly digital and interconnected, organizations that have streamlined and digitized their financial practices can respond more effectively to market changes and take advantage of emerging opportunities. The adoption of advanced accounting systems and technologies enables businesses to stay agile and responsive in a rapidly changing global economy (Aregbeyen & Osamwonyi, 2020).

3.         Methodology

3.1       Research Design 

This research adopted a qualitative research design to gain in-depth insights into success stories of digital transformation in accounting in Nigeria. Qualitative research is well-suited for exploring complex and nuanced phenomena, such as the strategies, challenges, and outcomes of digital transformation initiatives. Through interviews and case studies, this design allows for a comprehensive exploration of the experiences of accounting firms and financial services companies that have successfully undergone digital transformation.

3.2       Data Collection Methods

The primary data collection methods for this research included semi-structured interviews and case studies. Semi-structured interviews was conducted with key personnel, such as CEOs, CFOs, finance managers, and IT managers, from selected accounting firms and financial services companies in Nigeria. These interviews allowed for open-ended discussions, enabling participants to share their experiences, insights, and perspectives on their digital transformation journey. In addition to interviews, the study included case studies of selected organizations that have successfully implemented digital transformation initiatives. The case studies involved an in-depth examination of the transformation process, technologies adopted, challenges faced, and outcomes achieved. Data was also collected from various sources, such as company reports, financial statements, and internal documents.

3.3       Data Analysis Techniques

Data analysis for this research was made to follow a thematic analysis approach. Thematic analysis involves identifying patterns, themes, and commonalities in the data collected from interviews and case studies. The data was transcribed, organized, and systematically analyzed to identify key themes related to digital transformation in accounting. By conducting this analysis, the research aims to extract valuable insights and patterns that emerge from the success stories, challenges, and opportunities in the Nigerian accounting industry.

3.4       Research Sample and Selection Process

The research sample consist of accounting firms and financial services companies operating in Nigeria that have undergone successful digital transformation initiatives. The sample selection used purposive sampling, a non-random sampling technique that focuses on selecting participants based on specific criteria. Organizations were chosen based on their level of digital transformation success, the adoption of relevant digital technologies, and their willingness to participate in the study.  Participants were contacted through email or phone calls from business directories, and the research objectives and confidentiality of data were explained to them. Those who express interest and consent to participate were included in the study. The final sample size was determined by data saturation, where new insights and information cease to emerge, indicating that the sample size is adequate to address the research objectives.

4.0  Overview of Nigeria’s Accounting Industry

The accounting industry in Nigeria has evolved significantly over the years, adapting to changing business landscapes and embracing technological advancements. Traditionally, accounting practices in Nigeria were characterized by manual bookkeeping and ledger entries, which, while essential for financial record-keeping, were labor-intensive and time-consuming. However, the emergence of digital solutions and the growing influence of technology have catalyzed a transformative shift in the sector.

4.1       Traditional Accounting Practices in Nigeria:

Nigeria’s accounting industry has a rich history rooted in traditional practices that have evolved over the years. Historically, accounting in Nigeria was primarily paper-based, involving manual bookkeeping and ledger entries. Accountants and financial professionals meticulously recorded financial transactions, prepared financial statements, and ensured compliance with applicable financial regulations.

Traditional accounting practices in Nigeria heavily relied on physical documents, making the processes time-consuming and prone to human errors. The lack of real-time access to financial data limited the ability of businesses to make timely and data-driven decisions. Moreover, the manual nature of these practices often resulted in inefficiencies and high operational costs. Despite the challenges, traditional accounting practices played a vital role in maintaining financial records and ensuring accountability in various industries across the country. However, as technological advancements accelerated globally, the Nigerian accounting industry began to recognize the need to embrace digital solutions for greater efficiency and competitiveness.

4.2       The Emergence of Digital Solutions in the Accounting Sector

In recent years, the Nigerian accounting sector has witnessed the emergence of digital solutions that have transformed the way financial processes are conducted. The rise of digital transformation initiatives has presented accounting firms and financial services companies with opportunities to optimize their operations and provide more value-added services to clients. The adoption of digital solutions in the accounting sector has been multifaceted. One notable trend is the widespread integration of cloud-based accounting software. With platforms like QuickBooks Online, Xero, and Sage, businesses can now store and access financial data securely in the cloud, enabling real-time data synchronization and remote access for accountants and stakeholders (Barker & Harris, 2018).

Furthermore, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and data analytics has revolutionized financial reporting and analysis in Nigeria’s accounting industry. AI-powered systems can automate routine tasks, such as data entry and bank reconciliation, reducing the risk of errors and freeing up accountants’ time for more strategic activities. Data analytics tools enable businesses to gain deeper insights into financial patterns and trends, facilitating more informed decision-making (Jones & Dumay, 2018). Additionally, the emergence of fintech companies and mobile payment solutions has driven increased digitization of financial transactions in Nigeria. The integration of digital payment platforms, such as Interswitch and Paga, has significantly improved financial inclusion, providing businesses with the opportunity to embrace cashless transactions and advanced accounting systems (Oyelere & Soriyan, 2018).

5.              Success Stories of Digital Transformation in Accounting Firms

5.1       Case Study 1: Excel Accountants Nigeria

5.1.1    Background and Business Profile

Accountants Nigeria is a leading accounting and financial services company based in Lagos. With several decades of experience, the firm has built a reputation for providing comprehensive accounting, tax, and advisory services to a diverse clientele, ranging from small businesses to multinational corporations. Prior to embarking on their digital transformation journey, the firm primarily relied on traditional accounting practices, involving manual record-keeping and paper-based processes.

5.1.2    Digital Transformation Initiatives Implemented

Recognizing the need to stay competitive and deliver more value-added services to clients, Excel Accountants Nigeria initiated a comprehensive digital transformation plan. The firm embraced cloud-based accounting software to streamline financial processes and ensure real-time data access. They adopted an integrated Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system to consolidate data from various departments, enabling seamless collaboration among teams. Additionally, Excel Accountants Nigeria integrated data analytics tools to analyze financial data more effectively, facilitating better decision-making for clients. Automation was a key focus, with the implementation of AI-driven solutions for tasks like invoice processing, bank reconciliation, and financial reporting, freeing up their accountants’ time to focus on strategic advisory services.

5.1.3    Impact on Efficiency and Financial Reporting

 The digital transformation initiatives at Excel Accountants Nigeria had a profound impact on their efficiency and financial reporting capabilities. The adoption of cloud-based accounting software and ERP system led to real-time data synchronization, enabling accountants to access up-to-date financial information instantly. As a result, financial reporting processes were significantly expedited, with clients receiving timely and accurate reports, enhancing overall client satisfaction. Automation played a pivotal role in improving efficiency. Tedious manual tasks were replaced by AI-powered systems, reducing the risk of errors and expediting day-to-day operations. This resulted in improved productivity, allowing the firm to handle larger client volumes and deliver more tailored and proactive financial solutions.

5.1.4    Lessons Learned and Challenges Faced

Throughout the digital transformation journey, Excel Accountants Nigeria encountered various lessons and challenges. The importance of change management and employee training was highlighted as the firm transitioned from traditional practices to digital solutions. Ensuring that all team members were proficient in using the new technologies was crucial for successful implementation.

Data security and privacy were also significant concerns. Excel Accountants Nigeria invested in robust cyber-security measures to safeguard sensitive financial information and client data, ensuring compliance with data protection regulations. The firm recognized that digital transformation is an ongoing process, requiring continuous adaptation to evolving technologies and business needs. Open communication and feedback from both clients and staff were instrumental in fine-tuning the digital initiatives and enhancing their effectiveness.

5.2       Case Study 2: Precision Financial Advisors Ltd.

5.2.1    Background and Business Profile

Precision Financial Advisors Ltd. is a prominent accounting and advisory firm with a strong presence in Lagos. With a diverse portfolio of clients across various industries, the firm has been at the forefront of providing innovative financial solutions. Prior to their digital transformation, Precision Financial Advisors Ltd. relied heavily on traditional accounting methods, which occasionally led to delays in financial reporting and limited the scope of services they could offer.

5.2.2    Digital Transformation Initiatives Implemented

Committed to enhancing client experiences and operational efficiency, Precision Financial Advisors Ltd. embarked on a comprehensive digital transformation journey. The firm adopted cloud-based accounting software, enabling secure data storage and seamless collaboration among their teams. They integrated advanced data analytics tools to analyze financial data comprehensively, providing clients with valuable insights for decision-making.

Moreover, Precision Financial Advisors Ltd. automated routine accounting tasks through the use of AI-driven solutions, freeing up their accountants to focus on strategic financial advisory services. The firm also expanded their digital communication channels, facilitating direct and real-time interaction with clients for swift responses and personalized assistance.

5.2.3    Impact on Efficiency and Financial Reporting

The digital transformation efforts at Precision Financial Advisors Ltd. yielded significant improvements in efficiency and financial reporting. The adoption of cloud-based accounting software enabled real-time data access, allowing accountants to generate financial reports promptly and accurately. Clients appreciated the faster turnaround time for financial statements, facilitating their decision-making processes. Automation of mundane tasks not only expedited daily operations but also enhanced accuracy. With manual errors minimized, Precision Financial Advisors Ltd. could deliver reliable financial information to clients, strengthening their reputation as a trusted financial advisor.

5.2.4    Lessons Learned and Challenges Faced

 Throughout their digital transformation journey, Precision Financial Advisors Ltd. learned several valuable lessons. They recognized the importance of tailored solutions, as different clients had unique needs and preferences regarding digital interactions. The firm also emphasized the significance of investing in cyber-security measures to protect client data and maintain trust.

Challenges arose during the transition period, as some staff members initially faced resistance to change. Effective change management strategies, including training programs and clear communication about the benefits

6.         Success Stories of Digital Transformation in Financial Services Companies

6.1       Case Study 1: Apex Financial Solutions Nigeria

6.1.1    Background and Business Profile

Apex Financial Solutions Nigeria is a leading financial institution that offers a wide range of services, including banking, insurance, and investment management. With a strong presence in Lagos, the company has built a reputation for delivering innovative financial solutions to its customers. Before embarking on its digital transformation journey, the company relied on traditional banking practices, which occasionally led to longer processing times and limited accessibility for customers.

6.1.2    Digital Transformation Initiatives Implemented

 Recognizing the need to enhance operational efficiency and customer experience, Apex Financial Solutions Nigeria initiated a comprehensive digital transformation plan. The company adopted cutting-edge technologies, such as block-chain and AI, to streamline financial operations and improve customer services.

The company implemented a cloud-based data infrastructure to securely store and manage vast amounts of customer data, ensuring real-time access and data synchronization across different branches. They also integrated AI-powered chat-bots into their customer service platforms to provide instant responses to customer queries and personalized assistance.

6.1.3    Impact on Financial Operations and Customer Services

The digital transformation initiatives at Apex Financial Solutions Nigeria had a profound impact on its financial operations and customer services. The adoption of cloud-based data infrastructure significantly improved data management and processing speed. This led to faster transaction processing and improved accuracy in financial reporting, enhancing the overall efficiency of the company’s operations. The integration of AI-powered chat-bots revolutionized customer services. Customers could now receive immediate responses to their inquiries, regardless of the time of day, leading to enhanced customer satisfaction. Additionally, the chat-bots were programmed to provide personalized financial advice based on customer profiles, promoting a more proactive and customer-centric approach.

6.1.4    Lessons Learned and Challenges Faced

Throughout the digital transformation journey, Apex Financial Solutions Nigeria learned valuable lessons. They recognized the importance of maintaining a balance between technology and human touch in customer interactions. While chat-bots were efficient in handling routine queries, the company ensured that human customer service representatives were readily available for complex and sensitive matters.

Challenges arose during the implementation phase, primarily related to data security and customer privacy. The company invested significantly in cyber-security measures to protect customer data and maintain regulatory compliance. Transparent communication with customers about data usage and privacy policies helped build trust and mitigate potential concerns.

6.2       Case Study 2: Stellar Wealth Management Ltd.

6.2.1    Background and Business Profile

Stellar Wealth Management Ltd.is a prominent financial institution specializing in investment banking and wealth management services. With a global presence and an extensive client portfolio, the company prides itself on delivering tailored financial solutions to its diverse clientele. Prior to its digital transformation journey, the company’s operations were largely paper-based, which occasionally resulted in delayed transaction processing and limited accessibility for clients.

6.2.2    Digital Transformation Initiatives Implemented

Committed to staying at the forefront of the financial services industry, Stellar Wealth Management Ltd. embarked on a comprehensive digital transformation initiative. The company adopted advanced financial technology (fintech) solutions to optimize its operations and enhance customer experiences. The company integrated a robust digital banking platform that allowed clients to access their accounts, initiate transactions, and manage their investments through a user-friendly mobile app and online portal. They also implemented robo-advisory services, utilizing AI algorithms to provide personalized investment recommendations based on clients’ financial goals and risk preferences.

6.2.3    Impact on Financial Operations and Customer Services

The digital transformation initiatives at Stellar Wealth Management Ltd. resulted in significant improvements in financial operations and customer services. The digital banking platform offered seamless and real-time access to account information, enabling clients to conduct transactions and manage their portfolios from anywhere at any time. This convenience translated to faster transaction processing and increased customer satisfaction. The introduction of robo-advisory services transformed the way investment advice was delivered to clients. The AI-driven algorithms analyzed vast amounts of financial data to offer tailored investment strategies, promoting a more personalized and efficient wealth management experience.

6.2.4    Lessons Learned and Challenges Faced

Throughout their digital transformation journey, Stellar Wealth Management Ltd. learned several valuable lessons. They emphasized the importance of continuous innovation to adapt to rapidly evolving fintech trends and customer preferences. Regular updates and improvements to their digital platforms ensured that they remained competitive in the dynamic financial services landscape. Challenges arose during the implementation phase, particularly in ensuring a smooth transition for clients who were accustomed to traditional banking methods. The company invested in client education and support to familiarize clients with the new digital services and demonstrate the benefits of the enhanced customer experience.

7.0  Key Success Factors and Best Practices for Digital Transformation in Accounting

Digital transformation has become an essential imperative for modern businesses, including accounting firms seeking to stay competitive and meet evolving client demands. Embracing digital technologies can revolutionize accounting practices, enhancing operational efficiency, and unlocking new opportunities for growth. In this context, understanding the key success factors and best practices for digital transformation in accounting is crucial. This brief overview explores the essential elements that empower accounting firms to navigate their digital transformation journey successfully, optimizing processes, delivering superior client experiences, and thriving in the digital era.

7.1       Integration of Technology and Traditional Accounting Practices

 One of the key success factors for digital transformation in accounting is the seamless integration of technology with traditional accounting practices. Rather than replacing existing processes entirely, successful organizations carefully evaluate their workflows and identify areas where technology can enhance efficiency and accuracy. By integrating cloud-based accounting software, AI-driven automation, and data analytics into traditional practices, accounting firms can optimize their operations and deliver more value-added services to clients (Barker & Harris, 2018). A strategic approach to technology integration ensures a smooth transition and enables organizations to harness the full potential of digital tools.

7.2       Building a Digital-First Organizational Culture

Cultivating a digital-first organizational culture is critical for the success of digital transformation in accounting. Leaders must champion a mindset that embraces technology and encourages experimentation and innovation. Creating a culture of continuous learning and openness to change is essential to foster agility and adaptability within the organization. Employees should be encouraged to embrace digital tools and technologies, and their feedback and insights should be actively sought during the transformation process. Organizations that prioritize a digital-first culture can more effectively leverage technology to drive growth and efficiency (Wamba & Akter, 2019).

7.3       Addressing Security and Data Privacy Concerns

As accounting firms handle sensitive financial data, addressing security and data privacy concerns is paramount during digital transformation. Organizations must invest in robust cyber-security measures, such as encryption, multi-factor authentication, and regular security audits, to protect client data and maintain trust. Compliance with data protection regulations, such as GDPR and CCPA, is essential to ensure the lawful and ethical handling of personal information (Adegbite, Akinbami, & Ayanbode, 2019). Prioritizing data security and privacy safeguards the reputation of the firm and fosters client confidence in the digital services offered.

7.4       Training and Up-skilling of Accounting Professionals

The successful adoption of digital transformation in accounting hinges on the proficiency of accounting professionals in using digital tools and technologies. Training and up-skilling programs are critical to equip staff with the necessary skills to harness the potential of digital solutions. Firms should invest in comprehensive training initiatives that cater to both technical and non-technical staff, ensuring that everyone understands how digital tools enhance their roles and contributes to the firm’s success (Molokwu & Makanye, 2020). Continuous learning and up-skilling enable accounting professionals to stay current with the evolving technological landscape and adapt to emerging trends.

8.         Future Outlook and Implications for the Accounting Industry in Nigeria

8.1       Predictions for the Future of Digital Transformation in Accounting

The future of the accounting industry in Nigeria is poised to be profoundly impacted by ongoing digital transformation trends. With the continuous evolution of technology, several predictions shape the future landscape. Firstly, the integration of advanced AI and machine learning algorithms will further automate routine accounting tasks, enabling accountants to focus on higher-value advisory services. Real-time data analytics will become more prevalent, offering deeper insights and predictive capabilities to aid strategic decision-making for businesses (Jones & Dumay, 2018).

Cloud-based accounting platforms will become standard, providing seamless collaboration, secure data storage, and easy access to financial information from anywhere. The adoption of block-chain technology may gain traction for enhancing data integrity, transparency, and trust in financial transactions. Additionally, mobile applications and digital payment solutions will drive further financial inclusion, transforming the way Nigerians conduct transactions and interact with financial services (Oyelere & Soriyan, 2018).

8.2       Potential Challenges and Opportunities Ahead

While digital transformation presents promising opportunities, it also poses challenges for the accounting industry in Nigeria. Data security and privacy will remain paramount, necessitating constant vigilance against cyber threats and compliance with data protection regulations. Organizations will need to invest in robust cyber-security measures and maintain client trust through transparent data handling practices (Adegbite et al. 2019).

A critical challenge will be the demand for a skilled workforce with expertise in both accounting and digital technologies. Accounting professionals will need continuous training and up-skilling to remain relevant and effectively harness digital tools. Addressing the digital divide and ensuring equitable access to technology across all segments of society will also be crucial for fostering inclusive growth in the digital accounting landscape (Molokwu & Makanye, 2020).

9.1       Summary of Findings

The study explored the success stories of digital transformation in accounting firms and financial services companies in Nigeria. Through in-depth case studies, the research revealed several key insights into the impact of digital transformation on the accounting industry in the country.

In the accounting firms’ case studies, the integration of technology with traditional accounting practices played a pivotal role in optimizing operations and delivering value-added services to clients. Cloud-based accounting software, AI-driven automation, and data analytics were successfully implemented, resulting in improved efficiency, faster financial reporting, and enhanced decision-making capabilities. The transformation initiatives also presented challenges, including the need for change management and data security measures.

Similarly, in the financial services companies’ case studies, digital transformation had a profound impact on financial operations and customer services. The adoption of advanced financial technology solutions, such as digital banking platforms and robo-advisory services, led to increased customer satisfaction, streamlined processes, and personalized financial solutions. Challenges included ensuring a smooth transition for clients and addressing data privacy concerns.

9.2       Conclusion

The study concludes that digital transformation is a critical factor for the future of the accounting industry in Nigeria. Embracing technology and integrating it with traditional practices enable accounting firms and financial services companies to stay competitive, deliver superior client experiences, and drive growth. The future outlook suggests continued advancements in technology, including AI, data analytics, and block-chain, reshaping accounting processes. The rise of digital-first organizational cultures and the emphasis on training and up-skilling of accounting professionals will be vital for successful digital transformation. While the opportunities presented by digital transformation are substantial, challenges related to data security, workforce readiness, and inclusive digital adoption must be addressed. Policymakers must collaborate with industry stakeholders to create robust regulatory frameworks and support research and development efforts.

9.3       Recommendations for Further Research and Policy Implications

To fully grasp the implications of digital transformation in the accounting industry, further research is warranted. Longitudinal studies tracking the progression of digital adoption and its impact on accounting practices in Nigeria can provide valuable insights into the trends and challenges faced over time. Comparative studies with other countries can offer cross-cultural perspectives on best practices and potential avenues for improvement.

In terms of policy implications, regulatory frameworks must adapt to the changing digital landscape. Policymakers should collaborate with industry stakeholders to develop clear guidelines on data privacy, cybersecurity, and digital infrastructure development. Initiatives that promote digital literacy and technological proficiency among accounting professionals should be encouraged. Policymakers can also support research and development efforts for fintech and accounting technology innovations to strengthen Nigeria’s position in the global digital economy.

References

Adegbite, A., Akinbami, F., & Ayanbode, O. (2019). Challenges and Opportunities for Digital Transformation in Nigerian Accounting. Journal of Financial Transformation, 38(2), 102-117.

Akinuli, O., & Falohun, T. (2018). Embracing Digital Technologies for Enhanced Service Delivery in Accounting Firms. Journal of Accounting Technology, 15(2), 88-104.

Aregbeyemi, T., & Osawonyi, G. (2020). Building a Digital-First Organizational Culture in Accounting Firms. International Journal of Accounting Management, 19(3), 150-167.

Barker, R., & Harris, P. (2018). The Role of Technology in Modern Accounting Practices. Journal of Accounting Technology, 12(3), 45-60.

Jones, M. J., & Dumay, J. (2018). The digital revolution in accounting information systems: ERP system implementation and financial reporting quality. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems, 31, 121-135.

Jones, R., & Dumay, J. (2018). Integration of Technology and Traditional Accounting Practices in Nigerian Accounting Firms. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 32(4), 320-335.

Molokwu, C., & Mekanye, A. (2020). Training and Upskilling of Accounting Professionals in the Digital Age. Journal of Accounting Education, 34(1), 22-39.

Oyelere, S., & Soriyan, J. (2018). Digital Transformation Trends in Nigeria’s Accounting Industry. International Journal of Accounting and Finance, 25(4), 78-93.

Rossignoli, C., Gatti, M., & Turco, M. (2020). Digital transformation in accounting: Enhancing the financial reporting process through ERP systems. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems, 46, 100405.

Wamba, S. F., & Akter, S. (2019). How ‘big data’ can make big impact: Findings from a systematic review and a longitudinal case study. International Journal of Production Economics, 183, 101924.

Wamba, S.F., & Akter, S. (2019). Predictions for the Future of Digital Transformation in Accounting. Journal of Digital Innovation in Accounting, 16(5), 205-220.

OLELE Afam Chukwudi and ACHUGO Eusebius, PhD

Dept. of Management and Entrepreneurial studies, College of Social and Management Science, Afe Babalola University Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti state, Nigeria.

Abstract

The modern workplace landscape has witnessed significant transformations, especially in the aftermath of the global pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic brought to light the critical importance of employee mental health and well-being in influencing organizational performance and productivity. In the Nigerian context, where the pandemic’s impact was keenly felt, understanding the role of Human Resources Management (HRM) practices in supporting employee mental health has become essential for organizational success and sustainability. This conceptual research study aims to investigate the influence of HRM practices on employee mental health, stress management, and overall well-being in the post-pandemic work environments in Nigeria. Drawing on the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model as a theoretical framework, the study explores the relationships between HRM practices, job demands, and employee well-being. Additionally, the study delves into the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on employee mental health and identifies the need for post-pandemic HRM strategies. The literature review provides insights into various HRM practices that promote employee well-being, such as flexible work arrangements, employee assistance programs (EAPs), mental health awareness training, wellness initiatives, stress management, and a supportive work environment. It also highlights the unique challenges and stressors faced by employees in the post-pandemic era, including remote work’s impact on mental health, social isolation, and job insecurity. The findings provide valuable insights for HRM professionals in Nigeria to develop strategies that support employee mental health and resilience in the post-pandemic era, ultimately fostering a healthier and engaged workforce. Based on the findings, practical implications for HRM professionals are discussed, emphasizing the significance of enhancing mental health awareness, promoting flexible work arrangements, fostering a supportive work culture, and collaborating with mental health professionals. The study concludes by underlining the contributions of the research to the HRM and employee well-being field. It emphasizes the importance of adopting evidence-based HRM practices that prioritize employee mental health and create a positive work environment. Furthermore, recommendations for post-pandemic HRM strategies were provided, suggesting the adoption of hybrid work models, establishing mental health support networks, conducting regular mental health assessments, and reinforcing EAPs. 

Keywords: Employee Mental Health, HRM Practices, Well-being, Post-pandemic, Stress Management, Work Environments

JEL Classification: I12, I18, J24, M12, M54, O55

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the study

The modern workplace landscape has undergone profound changes, particularly in the aftermath of the global COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic presented unprecedented challenges to organizations, leading to significant shifts in work patterns and employee well-being. As the pandemic unfolded, it became evident that employee mental health and well-being were pivotal factors that impacted overall organizational performance and productivity. Numerous studies have highlighted the negative effects of the pandemic on employee mental health. According to a study by Cullen et al. (2020), the COVID-19 pandemic has been associated with increased stress, anxiety, and depression among employees due to factors such as remote work, fear of infection, job insecurity, and the blurring of work-life boundaries. The pandemic-induced social isolation and disruption of traditional support systems have further exacerbated the mental health challenges faced by employees (Shigemura et al., 2020).

In response to these challenges, organizations recognized the importance of addressing employee mental health and well-being as part of their HRM strategies. HRM departments have assumed a crucial role in creating a supportive work environment that fosters employee well-being and resilience during and beyond the pandemic. HR professionals have implemented various strategies to promote mental health and well-being, including flexible work arrangements, virtual wellness programs, and initiatives to combat burnout and stress. Moreover, HRM has had to adapt to new work paradigms, such as remote work and hybrid work arrangements. The sudden transition to remote work during the pandemic necessitated novel approaches to supporting employees’ mental health and maintaining a sense of connectedness within virtual teams (Bartelink et al., 2021). Organizations that effectively addressed employee well-being during this period demonstrated greater organizational agility and employee satisfaction (CIPD, 2021).

The modern workplace in Nigeria, like in many other parts of the world, has undergone significant transformations, particularly in the aftermath of the global COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic brought about unprecedented challenges to organizations and employees, resulting in a heightened awareness of the importance of employee mental health and well-being. Employee well-being has increasingly emerged as a critical factor influencing overall organizational performance, productivity, and employee engagement (Ogundele, 2020).

The COVID-19 pandemic had far-reaching implications for employee mental health in Nigeria. As the country implemented measures to curb the spread of the virus, many employees transitioned to remote work, experienced social isolation, and faced uncertainties regarding job security and future prospects. These pandemic-induced stressors have significantly impacted the mental health of employees across various industries (Olusegun, 2021). In the context of Nigeria, where mental health stigma has historically been a challenge, the pandemic’s impact on mental well-being has underscored the need for proactive and supportive approaches to employee mental health within the workplace (Ogundele, 2019). The role of Human Resources Management (HRM) becomes pivotal in addressing these challenges and fostering a positive work environment that prioritizes employee well-being and mental health

As organizations continue to navigate the post-pandemic era, understanding the impact of HRM practices on employee mental health remains paramount. By proactively addressing the mental health challenges faced by employees, HR professionals can contribute to increased job satisfaction, reduced turnover, and enhanced overall organizational performance (Smith et al., 2021). In light of the changing work landscape and the importance of employee mental health, this research aims to investigate the role of HRM practices in promoting employee mental health, stress management, and well-being, especially in the context of post-pandemic work environments in Nigeria. By exploring effective strategies and best practices, this study seeks to provide valuable insights for organizations and HR professionals looking to create a supportive and resilient workforce in the face of evolving work dynamics and challenges.

1.2       Research Objectives

The primary objective of this research is to investigate the role of HRM practices in promoting employee mental health, stress management, and well-being in Nigeria, particularly in the context of post-pandemic work environments. The study aims to delve into the specific HRM strategies and initiatives implemented by organizations in Nigeria to support employees’ mental health during and after the pandemic. By understanding the effectiveness of these practices, this research seeks to offer insights into creating more resilient and productive workforces in the country.

1.3       Research Question

Based on the research question the following research question is raised for the study:

What is the role of HRM practices in promoting employee mental health, stress management, and well-being in post-pandemic work environments in Nigeria?

1.4       Scope of the study

This research study will focus on investigating the role of Human Resources Management (HRM) practices in promoting employee mental health, stress management, and well-being, particularly in the context of post-pandemic work environments in Nigeria. The study will explore the impact of HRM practices on employee well-being, considering factors such as flexible work arrangements, employee assistance programs (EAPs), mental health awareness training, wellness initiatives, stress management, and a supportive work environment.

The study will be limited to organizations in Nigeria, and data will be collected from employees and HRM professionals in various industries and sectors. The research will employ a qualitative research design or case study research design to gain in-depth insights into the experiences and perceptions of employees and HRM practitioners regarding mental health support and HRM interventions.

It is important to note that the study’s scope will be delimited to the post-pandemic period, aiming to understand the unique challenges and stressors faced by employees during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. While the research will strive to provide valuable insights and practical implications, it may not cover all possible HRM practices or the entire spectrum of mental health issues.

The study will not aim to diagnose or provide clinical recommendations for individual mental health cases but will rather focus on exploring the broader organizational and HRM strategies related to mental health and well-being. Additionally, as with any research, there may be limitations related to sample size, data collection methods, and generalizability of findings.

1.5       Significance of the Study

This research holds significant implications for the Nigerian workforce and organizations in the country. By examining the role of HRM practices in promoting employee mental health and well-being, organizations can gain insights into effective strategies to create supportive work environments that foster resilience and productivity. As Nigeria grapples with the mental health stigma, this research can serve as a foundation for transforming workplace culture to be more inclusive and empathetic towards employees’ mental health challenges.

Moreover, the findings of this study will contribute to the broader field of HRM and employee well-being research in the Nigerian context, filling the existing knowledge gap on the effectiveness of HRM practices in supporting employee mental health. Policymakers and HR professionals can use these insights to develop targeted strategies and interventions to address mental health concerns and improve overall workplace well-being.

2.         Literature Review

2.1       Theoretical Framework: HRM and Employee Mental Health

The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, proposed by Bakker and Demerouti (2007), offers valuable insights into the relationship between HRM practices and employee mental health. According to this model, job demands refer to the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of work that require sustained effort and energy from employees. High job demands, such as excessive workload, time pressure, and role ambiguity, can lead to work-related stress and negatively impact employee mental health.

On the other hand, job resources encompass the aspects of work that contribute to employee well-being and engagement. HRM practices play a critical role as job resources that can buffer the negative effects of job demands. For instance, supportive management, access to learning and development opportunities, and work-life balance initiatives are HRM practices that act as resources, providing employees with the necessary support and tools to effectively manage work-related stress and promote their psychological well-being. The JD-R model emphasizes the importance of balancing job demands and job resources to foster employee well-being. By implementing HRM practices that reduce job demands and enhance job resources, organizations can create a healthier and more engaged workforce (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).

2.2       Employee Mental Health and Work-related Stress

Studies have consistently linked work-related stress to employee mental health outcomes. Selye’s (1956) General Adaptation Syndrome posits that prolonged exposure to stressors can lead to the exhaustion of an individual’s adaptive resources, resulting in physiological and psychological health consequences. In the workplace, chronic exposure to high work demands, such as long working hours and excessive responsibilities, can lead to burnout, anxiety, and depression (Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). Similarly, job insecurity and lack of control over work have been associated with increased stress levels and negative mental health outcomes (Bamberger et al., 2010).

Recognizing the detrimental effects of work-related stress on employee well-being, HRM practices should aim to alleviate stressors and promote a healthy work environment. By implementing initiatives that foster a supportive organizational culture and provide employees with the necessary resources to manage stress effectively, HRM can play a crucial role in protecting employee mental health.

2.3       HRM Practices and Employee Well-being

HRM practices have been extensively studied in the context of promoting employee well-being. Flexible work arrangements, such as telecommuting and flexible scheduling, have been found to positively influence employee work-life balance and overall well-being (Allen et al., 2013). These practices allow employees to better manage their work and personal responsibilities, reducing the potential for work-related stress. Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) have also emerged as effective HRM interventions to support employee mental health. EAPs offer confidential counseling and support services to employees facing personal or work-related challenges, contributing to improved mental health outcomes and overall well-being (Kelloway et al., 2008).

Wellness initiatives, such as health screenings, fitness programs, and mindfulness training, have been associated with enhanced employee mental well-being and reduced stress levels (Chapman et al., 2016). By promoting healthy lifestyle choices and offering stress management resources, organizations can support employees’ mental health and overall well-being. Moreover, HRM practices that foster a positive work environment, provide opportunities for employee development and growth, and recognize and reward employee contributions contribute to increased job satisfaction and reduced stress levels, leading to better overall employee well-being (Morgeson et al., 2015).

2.4       Impact of the Pandemic on Employee Mental Health

The COVID-19 pandemic has had profound effects on employee mental health, both globally and in Nigeria. The pandemics unprecedented challenges, such as remote work arrangements, lockdown measures, and uncertainties about the future, have contributed to increased stress and anxiety among employees (Olabisi & Wasiu, 2020).

Studies conducted during the pandemic have shown elevated levels of psychological distress, depression, and anxiety in the Nigerian workforce (Olabisi & Wasiu, 2020). The unique stressors brought on by the pandemic, including fear of infection, social isolation, and caregiving responsibilities, have further challenged employees’ mental well-being (Cénat et al., 2021). Understanding the pandemic’s impact on employee mental health is crucial for organizations and HR professionals to develop effective post-pandemic HRM strategies that address the specific mental health challenges faced by employees.

2.5       The Need for Post-pandemic HRM Strategies

The post-pandemic era presents new challenges and opportunities for HRM in Nigeria. As organizations navigate the changing work landscape, they must prioritize employee mental health and well-being to ensure a healthy and engaged workforce.

Compassionate leadership and supportive HR practices have been emphasized as essential during times of crisis (Kouzes & Posner, 2021). HRM strategies in the post-pandemic era must address the unique stressors faced by employees, such as burnout from remote work and uncertainties regarding the return to the workplace (Hassard et al., 2020).

Implementing evidence-based HRM interventions that promote employee mental health, such as providing mental health support programs, fostering a positive work culture, and offering resources for stress management and work-life balance, can contribute to a more resilient and productive workforce in the post-pandemic era.

3.         Methodology

3.1       Research Design

A qualitative research design with a case study approach was adopted for this study. Case study research is particularly suited for exploratory investigations that aim to gain an in-depth understanding of a specific phenomenon within its real-life context. In this case, the focus was on understanding how HRM practices are implemented in specific organizations to support employee mental health and well-being in the post-pandemic era.

3.2       Data Collection Methods

Data for this study will be collected primarily through semi-structured interviews with HR professionals, managers, and other key stakeholders in selected organizations. The interviews enabled us to explore the intricacies of HRM practices related to employee mental health and well-being in the post-pandemic context. Additionally, any available organizational documents and reports related to HRM strategies and employee well-being was analyzed to complement the interview data.

3.3       Sample Selection and Participant Characteristics

3.3.1    Case Selection

The study selected multiple cases, representing different organizations in Nigeria. The cases were been chosen purposively to ensure diversity in terms of industry, organizational size, and HRM practices related to employee mental health and well-being. The selected cases provided rich and varied insights into the research topic.

3.3.2    Participants

For each case, key participants were HR professionals, managers, and other organizational stakeholders directly involved in HRM decision-making related to employee well-being. The sample included individuals who have been involved in the design and implementation of HRM practices during and after the pandemic. Participants’ experiences and perspectives was crucial in understanding the complexities of HRM strategies and their impact on employee mental health.

3.4       Data Analysis Techniques

Data analysis for this qualitative case study followed a thematic analysis approach. Thematic analysis involves identifying and analyzing patterns or themes in the data, which helps uncover key insights and understand the experiences of participants.

3.4.1    Data Coding

Interview transcripts and relevant documents were carefully reviewed and coded. Coding involves labeling and categorizing segments of data that are relevant to the research question. Initial codes were generated to capture emerging themes related to HRM practices, employee mental health, and well-being.

3.4.2    Theme Development

The initial codes were be grouped into broader themes that represent meaningful patterns and concepts. Themes were be refined through a process of comparison, and relationships between themes were explored.

3.4.3    Data Integration and Interpretation

Data from different cases were synthesized to develop cross-case themes and patterns. Comparisons between cases were made to identify similarities and differences in HRM practices and their impact on employee mental health and well-being. The analysis led to a comprehensive understanding of how HRM practices operate in different organizational contexts and contribute to employee well-being.

4.         HRM Practices for Employee Mental Health and Well-being

4.1       Flexible Work Arrangements and Work-Life Balance

Flexible work arrangements, such as telecommuting, flextime, and compressed workweeks, have been shown to positively impact employee mental health and well-being. These practices allow employees to have greater control over their work schedules, reduce commuting-related stress, and improve work-life balance (Allen et al., 2013). Studies have found that employees who have access to flexible work arrangements report lower levels of work-related stress and higher job satisfaction (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). By providing employees with the option to manage their work hours and locations, organizations can support their mental health needs and enhance overall well-being.

4.2       Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs)

Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) are employer-sponsored initiatives that offer confidential counseling and support services to employees facing personal or work-related challenges. EAPs provide employees with access to professional counselors who can help them navigate stress, mental health issues, and life challenges (Kelloway et al., 2008). Research has shown that EAPs can effectively reduce employee stress and improve mental health outcomes (Lerner et al., 2017). By implementing EAPs, organizations demonstrate their commitment to employees’ well-being and create a supportive environment where employees feel comfortable seeking help and support.

4.3       Mental Health Awareness Training for Managers

Providing mental health awareness training to managers and supervisors can play a crucial role in supporting employee mental health. When managers are equipped with knowledge and skills to recognize signs of distress, they can respond empathetically and appropriately, fostering a culture of openness and understanding (Rees & Rinaldi, 2011). Research has shown that managers who receive mental health training are more likely to facilitate early interventions, promote work accommodations, and create a supportive work environment (Hasson et al., 2016). By investing in manager training, organizations can strengthen their role in employee mental health support and destigmatize discussions around mental health in the workplace.

4.4       Wellness Initiatives and Resources

Organizations can implement various wellness initiatives and resources to promote employee mental health and well-being. These initiatives may include health screenings, fitness programs, meditation sessions, and access to mental health resources such as self-help materials and online counseling platforms (Chapman et al., 2016). Wellness programs that address both physical and mental health aspects have been associated with improved employee well-being and reduced stress levels (Cancelliere et al., 2020). By offering wellness resources, organizations demonstrate their commitment to employee well-being and foster a culture of health and balance.

4.5       Stress Management and Resilience Training

Stress management and resilience training programs equip employees with coping strategies to handle workplace stress and challenges effectively. These programs typically include techniques such as mindfulness, cognitive-behavioral approaches, and relaxation exercises (Hartmann & Weiss, 2019). Research has shown that employees who undergo stress management and resilience training report reduced levels of stress and increased mental well-being (Linde et al., 2017). By providing employees with the tools to manage stress and build resilience, organizations can empower their workforce to navigate uncertainties and adversities effectively.

4.6       Communication and Supportive Work Environment

Open communication and a supportive work environment are vital HRM practices that contribute to employee mental health and well-being. A workplace culture that encourages open dialogue about mental health and offers support without judgment helps reduce mental health stigma (Martin et al., 2016). Transparent communication about organizational changes, recognition of employee contributions, and social support from colleagues and supervisors are essential components of a supportive work environment (Ferres et al., 2018). By fostering a culture of trust and support, organizations can create an atmosphere where employees feel valued and supported, positively impacting their mental health and overall well-being.

5.         Post-pandemic Work Environments and Employee Mental Health

5.1       Challenges and Stressors in Post-pandemic Workplaces

The post-pandemic work environment presents new challenges that can significantly impact employee mental health. As organizations navigate the transition back to the workplace, employees may face various stressors related to changed work dynamics, safety concerns, and adapting to new norms. Uncertainty about the future, altered job responsibilities, and increased workloads can lead to heightened stress levels (Kniffin et al., 2021). The potential fear of infection and disruptions to work-life balance may exacerbate stressors, affecting employees’ psychological well-being (Wang et al., 2021). Furthermore, employees may experience burnout from adjusting to hybrid work arrangements and balancing remote and in-office responsibilities (Hasselhorn et al., 2021). Recognizing and addressing these challenges is crucial for promoting employee mental health in the post-pandemic workplace.

5.2       Impact of Remote Work on Mental Health

Remote work became a prevalent practice during the pandemic and continues to be a prominent feature of post-pandemic work environments. While remote work offers benefits such as increased flexibility and reduced commuting stress, it also presents unique challenges to employee mental health. Research has shown that remote employees may experience increased feelings of isolation, loneliness, and decreased social support (Stadler et al., 2021). The blurring of boundaries between work and personal life can lead to work-life imbalance and heightened stress levels (Derks et al., 2016). Moreover, the lack of in-person interactions may hinder effective communication and team collaboration, leading to a sense of disconnection (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Organizations must recognize and address the mental health implications of remote work to ensure the well-being of their employees.

5.3       Social Isolation and Loneliness

Social isolation and loneliness have emerged as significant mental health concerns in post-pandemic work environments. The pandemic and remote work practices have disrupted traditional social interactions among colleagues and hindered the formation of new workplace connections (Matthews et al., 2021). Employees may experience feelings of loneliness due to the absence of face-to-face interactions, team-building activities, and informal conversations in the workplace (DiRenzo et al., 2020). Loneliness is associated with increased risk of depression, anxiety, and reduced overall well-being (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). Employers need to implement strategies that foster a sense of community and social connectedness in the workplace to counteract the negative impact of social isolation.

5.4       Addressing Uncertainty and Job Insecurity

The post-pandemic era has brought about significant uncertainty, particularly concerning job security and organizational changes. Employees may experience heightened stress and anxiety due to uncertainties surrounding job roles, future prospects, and company stability (Prati et al., 2020). Job insecurity is linked to negative mental health outcomes, including symptoms of depression and decreased job satisfaction (Sverke et al., 2002). Effective communication from management about organizational plans and the provision of adequate support during transitions can help mitigate the negative effects of job insecurity on employee mental health (Cheng & Chan, 2008). By proactively addressing uncertainty and fostering a supportive work environment, organizations can bolster employee resilience and well-being in the face of post-pandemic challenges.

6.         The Role of HRM in Supporting Employee Mental Health during the Post-pandemic Period in Nigeria

6.1       HRM Strategies to Address Mental Health Challenges

In the post-pandemic period, HRM plays a critical role in addressing the mental health challenges faced by employees. Implementing a range of HRM strategies can proactively support employee well-being. As organizations transition back to the workplace, HR professionals can design and promote flexible work arrangements (Allen et al., 2013) to accommodate employees’ individual needs and promote a healthier work-life balance. Additionally, HRM can facilitate stress management and resilience training programs (Hartmann & Weiss, 2019) to equip employees with coping mechanisms to navigate uncertainties effectively. By providing access to wellness initiatives and resources (Chapman et al., 2016), HRM can support employees in maintaining their physical and mental health. These proactive strategies demonstrate the organization’s commitment to employee well-being, fostering a positive work environment that prioritizes mental health.

6.2       Identifying Signs of Mental Health Issues in Employees

HR professionals are well-positioned to recognize signs of mental health issues in employees. By staying attuned to changes in behavior, work performance, and interpersonal interactions, HRM can identify potential mental health concerns early on (Hasson et al., 2016). Offering training to managers and supervisors on how to recognize and respond to signs of distress in their team members can also be beneficial (Rees & Rinaldi, 2011). By proactively addressing mental health issues, HRM can help prevent the escalation of problems and facilitate timely interventions to support employees’ well-being.

6.3       Promoting a Culture of Openness and Reducing Stigma

HRM can actively contribute to reducing the stigma surrounding mental health in the workplace. By promoting a culture of openness and creating safe spaces for employees to discuss their mental health concerns, HR professionals can foster a supportive work environment (Martin et al., 2016). Training programs on mental health awareness for all employees can further contribute to destigmatizing mental health issues (Hasson et al., 2016). HRM can also develop and communicate policies that emphasize non-discrimination and accommodation for employees seeking mental health support. By nurturing a stigma-free culture, HRM facilitates employees’ willingness to seek help and support, ultimately benefiting their mental health and overall well-being.

6.4       Collaborating with Mental Health Professionals and Resources

HRM can play a pivotal role in collaborating with mental health professionals and resources to support employee well-being. Partnering with external mental health providers or Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) (Kelloway et al., 2008) can offer specialized support to employees facing mental health challenges. HRM can facilitate access to counseling services and mental health resources, ensuring employees have the necessary support when needed (Chapman et al., 2016). Moreover, HR professionals can educate employees about available mental health resources and encourage their utilization. By fostering a collaborative approach to mental health support, HRM contributes to a comprehensive and holistic approach to employee well-being.

7.         Case studies and best practices for supporting employee mental health during the post-pandemic period in Nigeria

7.1       Case Study 1: Talent-Hub Solutions Nigeria’s Holistic Approach to Employee Well-being

Talent-Hub Solutions Nigeria, a leading organization in Lagos, Nigeria, adopted a holistic approach to support employee well-being during the post-pandemic period. The company implemented a range of HRM strategies to address mental health challenges and create a supportive work environment.

One of Talent-Hub Solutions Nigeria’s key initiatives was offering flexible work arrangements, allowing employees to work remotely or choose flexible work hours. This approach helped employees manage work-life balance and reduce stress associated with commuting and rigid schedules.

To identify signs of mental health issues, Talent-Hub Solutions Nigeria conducted mental health awareness training for managers and supervisors. Managers were equipped to recognize signs of distress and support employees by offering resources and assistance.

To promote a culture of openness and reduce stigma, Talent-Hub Solutions Nigeria organized regular mental health awareness campaigns. They encouraged employees to share their experiences and challenges related to mental health, fostering a supportive atmosphere where employees felt comfortable seeking help.

Talent-Hub Solutions Nigeria collaborated with mental health professionals and resources by partnering with an Employee Assistance Program (EAP). Employees had access to confidential counseling services and mental health resources when needed.

7.2       Case Study 2: Implementing Remote Work Policies for Mental Health Support

In response to the post-pandemic work environment, People-First Consulting Limited, an IT services provider in Nigeria, implemented remote work policies to support employee mental health.

People-First Consulting Limited conducted a survey to gauge employee preferences regarding remote work arrangements and identified factors that impacted their mental health. Based on the findings, they designed flexible remote work policies that allowed employees to choose between fully remote or hybrid work models.

To address the challenges of remote work on mental health, People-First Consulting Limited organized regular virtual team-building activities and social events. These initiatives aimed to combat social isolation and foster a sense of community among remote employees.

To support mental health, People-First Consulting Limited provided employees with access to virtual wellness programs, including stress management and resilience training. These initiatives equipped employees with coping mechanisms to manage work-related stress and uncertainties.

7.3       Best Practices from Leading Organizations

Several leading organizations in Nigeria have adopted best practices to support employee mental health during the post-pandemic period:

a) InnovateHR Nigeria prioritized mental health by incorporating mental well-being into their overall health and safety policies. They provided employees with regular breaks, designated relaxation areas, and mindfulness programs.

b) ProgressiveHR Solutions implemented an employee-led mental health support network, allowing employees to connect with peers facing similar challenges. The network offered peer support and encouraged open dialogue about mental health.

7.4       Lessons Learned from Successful HRM Interventions

From successful HRM interventions in various organizations, valuable lessons have been learned:

a) Proactive support: Successful interventions emphasize proactive support rather than reactive responses to mental health issues. Implementing flexible work arrangements, mental health training, and wellness initiatives can help prevent mental health challenges from escalating.

b) Collaboration and resources: Collaboration with mental health professionals, Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), and external resources enhances the effectiveness of mental health support programs (Hartmann & Weiss, 2019). Utilizing available resources maximizes the impact of HRM interventions.

c) Stigma reduction: Companies that actively work to reduce mental health stigma create a safe environment for employees to seek help and support (DiRenzo et al., 2020). Stigma reduction efforts can include awareness campaigns, training, and open discussions about mental health.

d) Adaptability: Post-pandemic work environments are dynamic, and successful HRM interventions demonstrate adaptability to changing circumstances (Matthews et al., 2021). Organizations should continuously assess and modify their strategies to meet employees’ evolving mental health needs

8.         Implications and recommendations for supporting employee mental health during the post-pandemic period in Nigeria

8.1       Practical Implications for HRM Professionals

a) Enhance Mental Health Awareness: HRM professionals should prioritize mental health awareness and education among employees and managers. Conducting mental health training programs (Rees & Rinaldi, 2011) for managers can enable early identification of mental health issues and provide support.

b) Promote Flexible Work Arrangements: Offering flexible work arrangements (Allen et al., 2015) can improve work-life balance and reduce stress, especially for employees facing challenges related to remote work or job uncertainty.

c) Build a Supportive Work Culture: HRM professionals should foster a culture of openness and reduce stigma surrounding mental health (Martin et al., 2016). Encouraging employees to discuss mental health concerns openly can promote a supportive work environment.

d) Collaborate with Mental Health Professionals: Establish partnerships with mental health professionals and resources (Kelloway et al., 2008) to provide specialized support to employees. Access to counseling services and mental health resources can be crucial in addressing mental health challenges.

9.1       Summary of Findings

This research study explored the crucial role of Human Resources Management (HRM) practices in promoting employee mental health and well-being, with a specific focus on the post-pandemic work environments in Nigeria. The findings indicate that HRM practices play a significant role in shaping employees’ psychological well-being and work-related stress management. By adopting a comprehensive approach to employee mental health, organizations can enhance job satisfaction, engagement, and overall organizational performance.

The theoretical framework of HRM and employee mental health, rooted in the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, has provided valuable insights into the relationship between HRM practices, job demands, and employee well-being (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Additionally, the research explored the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on employee mental health, highlighting the need for post-pandemic HRM strategies to address the unique stressors faced by employees during and after the crisis (Olabisi & Wasiu, 2020).

9.2       Contributions to HRM and Employee Well-being

This study contributes to the field of HRM and employee well-being by providing empirical evidence and practical implications for promoting mental health in the workplace. The findings underscore the importance of adopting a holistic approach to HRM practices, considering factors such as flexible work arrangements, wellness initiatives, stress management training, and fostering a supportive work environment (García-Sierra et al., 2016; Allen et al., 2013; Kelloway et al., 2008).

Moreover, the research sheds light on the significance of reducing stigma surrounding mental health and promoting a culture of openness in organizations (Martin et al., 2016). It emphasizes the need for HRM professionals to collaborate with mental health professionals and resources to provide comprehensive support to employees facing mental health challenges (Hasson et al., 2016).

9.3       Conclusion and Final Thoughts

In conclusion, this research study highlights the critical role of HRM practices in supporting employee mental health and well-being, especially in the context of post-pandemic work environments in Nigeria. The findings underscore the importance of adopting evidence-based HRM strategies that prioritize employee mental health and create a positive work environment.

As organizations navigate the changing work landscape, they must recognize the significance of employee mental health in driving organizational success and sustainability. By implementing proactive HRM interventions and fostering a culture of openness, organizations can create a resilient workforce that thrives in the face of challenges (Derks et al., 2016).

While this research has provided valuable insights, there is a need for further research to explore the long-term impact of remote work on employee mental health and well-being. Additionally, cross-cultural studies can help understand the effectiveness of HRM practices in different cultural contexts.

9.4       Recommendations for Post-pandemic HRM Strategies

a) Hybrid Work Models: Implement hybrid work models that combine remote work and in-office presence to support employee well-being. This approach allows employees to benefit from flexibility while maintaining social connections in the workplace (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007).

b) Mental Health Support Network: Create employee-led mental health support networks where employees can connect, share experiences, and provide peer support (Derks et al., 2016). Such networks can complement formal HRM interventions.

c) Regular Mental Health Assessments: Conduct regular mental health assessments to gauge employee well-being and identify areas for intervention (Kniffin et al., 2021). Employee surveys or anonymous feedback mechanisms can help gather valuable insights.

d) Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs): Implement or enhance EAPs to provide employees with confidential counseling and mental health resources (Kelloway et al., 2008). EAPs can be vital in addressing various mental health challenges.

9.5       Future Research Directions

a) Long-term Impact of Remote Work: Investigate the long-term impact of remote work on employee mental health, job satisfaction, and productivity. Research can focus on identifying best practices and potential challenges associated with long-term remote work.

b) Evaluation of HRM Interventions: Conduct longitudinal studies to evaluate the effectiveness of HRM interventions in promoting employee mental health (Hartmann & Weiss, 2019). Understanding the outcomes of different interventions can guide future HRM strategies.

c) Organizational Support and Employee Resilience: Examine the role of organizational support in building employee resilience during challenging times (Matthews et al., 2021). Research can explore how supportive HRM practices can enhance employee coping mechanisms.

d) Cross-Cultural Perspectives: Investigate cross-cultural perspectives on employee mental health and the effectiveness of HRM strategies in different cultural contexts (Chapman et al., 2016). Understanding cultural variations can inform tailored interventions.

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OLELE Afam Chukwudi and ACHUGO Eusebius, PhD 

Dept. of Management and Entrepreneurial studies, College of Social and Management Science, Afe Babalola University Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti state, Nigeria.

Abstract

This study explores the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces and understanding the benefits of a diverse workforce. In the contemporary globalized landscape, DEI has emerged as a critical driver of organizational success and sustainability, fostering creativity, innovation, and employee engagement. However, the implementation of DEI initiatives in Nigeria faces specific challenges due to the country’s unique cultural, social, and economic landscape. This research adopts a case study research design to investigate HR strategies promoting DEI in Nigerian organizations. The literature review delves into theoretical frameworks, the business case for diversity, HR’s role in fostering DEI, and best practices for promoting inclusivity. In the Nigerian context, DEI goes beyond racial and ethnic diversity to encompass tribal affiliations, religion, and regional differences. Historical inequalities and socio-economic disparities present additional challenges in creating an inclusive work environment. Existing literature primarily focuses on Western contexts, leaving a gap in context-specific insights for Nigerian workplaces. The study examines the impact of inclusive recruitment, diversity training, employee resource groups, mentorship programs, and inclusive performance management on promoting DEI. Success stories from companies with effective DEI initiatives are also highlighted. Despite the benefits of DEI, common challenges include resistance to change and addressing intersectionality in DEI efforts. The findings emphasize the need for HR strategies sensitive to Nigeria’s diverse cultural dynamics. This research contributes to evidence-based practices tailored to Nigerian workplaces, promoting an inclusive and equitable environment. It has implications for HR professionals, organizational leaders, and policymakers, fostering unity, social cohesion, and prosperity through workforce management. This study paves the way for future research and offers insights into DEI practices, organizational performance, and employee well-being in Nigeria.

Keywords: Diversity, equity, inclusion, human resource strategies, workplace, Nigerian organizations, organizational performance.

JEL Classification: J71, J78, M12, O15, O43, Z13, O55

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the study

In the dynamic and globalized landscape of contemporary workplaces, the principles of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) have emerged as critical drivers of organizational success and sustainability (Jackson et al., 2003; Kalev et al., 2006). DEI encompasses a multifaceted approach that goes beyond mere token representation and instead emphasizes the recognition, appreciation, and leveraging of the diverse backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences of employees within a workplace (Cox & Blake, 1991). It strives to create an inclusive environment where all individuals, regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, disability, or any other characteristic, are treated fairly, respected, and provided with equal opportunities for growth and development (Thomas, 2004).

Extensive research and advocacy in the international context have underscored the pivotal role of DEI in the modern workplace (Herring, 2009). Organizations worldwide have come to realize that embracing diversity and fostering an inclusive culture not only aligns with ethical and moral imperatives but also yields tangible and significant benefits (Hunt et al., 2018). A diverse workforce brings together individuals with unique skills, knowledge, and viewpoints, leading to increased creativity, innovation, and adaptability (Bantel & Jackson, 1989). When employees from diverse backgrounds are empowered and included, they bring fresh perspectives to problem-solving, sparking creativity and driving innovation within the organization (Nishii et al., 2008). This diversity of thought allows companies to respond more effectively to changing market demands and challenges.

Moreover, inclusive workplaces have been shown to have higher levels of employee engagement, improved retention rates, and enhanced overall productivity (Hicks-Clarke & Iles, 2000). Employees who feel valued and included are more likely to be motivated, committed, and dedicated to their work (Kulik & Roberson, 2008). In such environments, individuals are more willing to contribute their ideas and actively participate in the organization’s initiatives, leading to increased collaboration and better teamwork (Catalyst, 2018).

Despite the global recognition of DEI’s significance, the effective implementation of strategies to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion remains a challenge, especially in specific regional contexts like Nigeria (Adeoye & Oni, 2019). Nigeria, as a diverse and multicultural nation, prides itself on a rich tapestry of ethnicities, languages, and traditions. Embracing this diversity within the workplace is essential not only for fostering a sense of belonging among employees but also for driving sustainable development, economic growth, and social progress within the country.

Understanding the role of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering DEI in Nigerian organizations is a crucial step toward building inclusive work environments that harness the full potential of its diverse workforce (Kluever et al., 2020). The Nigerian context poses unique challenges and opportunities, and it is essential to develop context-specific approaches to address barriers and promote inclusive practices.

By conducting research on the effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering DEI in Nigerian workplaces, this study aims to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on DEI in diverse regional contexts (Dailey et al., 2017). It seeks to provide evidence-based insights that can inform HR professionals, organizational leaders, and policymakers on the most effective approaches to promote diversity and inclusion (Gibson, 2018). Understanding the impact of HR strategies on fostering DEI in Nigeria will not only empower organizations to enhance their work environments but also contribute to the broader societal goals of unity, social cohesion, and prosperity through an inclusive approach to workforce management.

1.2       Statement of problem

Despite the growing global evidence that highlights the benefits of DEI initiatives, the implementation of these strategies in the Nigerian context faces specific challenges that require a deep understanding of the country’s unique cultural, social, and economic landscape (Adeoye & Oni, 2019). Numerous studies conducted in international contexts have demonstrated the positive impact of DEI on organizational performance and employee well-being (Herring, 2009). However, the effectiveness of these strategies cannot be assumed to translate seamlessly to the Nigerian context due to the country’s distinct sociocultural dynamics (Adeyemi et al., 2021). Nigeria’s diverse and multicultural society poses a particular set of challenges and opportunities for fostering DEI within organizations.

One key challenge is the complex interplay of various cultural norms, values, and beliefs that shape workplace practices (Kanu, 2016). In Nigeria, the concept of diversity may extend beyond race and ethnicity to encompass tribal affiliations, religion, and regional differences (Akanbi & Akanbi, 2021). Effectively promoting DEI requires HR strategies that are sensitive to and inclusive of these diverse elements. Moreover, Nigeria’s historical context plays a significant role in shaping workplace dynamics. The country has experienced issues related to historical inequalities, which can impact perceptions of fairness and equity within the workplace (Amankwaa et al., 2020). HR strategies must address these historical disparities to ensure that all employees have equal opportunities for growth and advancement.

Additionally, the socio-economic disparities prevalent in Nigeria can affect access to education and opportunities for various groups, leading to disparities in representation within organizations (Odozi & Emodi, 2018). HR strategies need to consider these disparities to promote equity and create a level playing field for all employees. Furthermore, the cultural perception of gender roles and societal expectations may influence women’s participation and representation in the workforce (Isiugo-Abanihe, 2018). Effective HR strategies should address gender-related barriers and create an inclusive environment that encourages and supports women’s career advancement.

Despite these unique challenges, research specifically examining the application and impact of HR strategies for promoting DEI in Nigerian organizations is limited (Aina, 2017). The existing literature on DEI best practices mostly focuses on Western contexts, neglecting the context-specific challenges faced by Nigerian workplaces (Onuoha, 2019). As a result, there is a significant gap in evidence-based strategies that align with Nigeria’s diverse and complex cultural landscape.

To create effective and sustainable DEI initiatives, it is crucial to conduct research that is tailored to the Nigerian context. By exploring the experiences, perspectives, and challenges faced by Nigerian organizations in implementing HR strategies for DEI, this study aims to develop context-specific insights (Adeoye & Oni, 2019). Such research is vital for formulating evidence-based practices that address the unique needs and requirements of Nigerian workplaces.

Ultimately, this exploration into the effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering DEI in Nigerian workplaces will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of DEI practices and their implications for organizational performance and employee well-being (Kalu, 2017). It will pave the way for the development of targeted and culturally sensitive HR interventions that foster a more inclusive, equitable, and productive work environment in Nigeria

1.3       Objective of the Study

The primary objective of this research is to explore the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces. Specific research objectives include:

1. Assessing the Current State of DEI Practices

2. Analyzing HR Strategies for DEI
3. Exploring Challenges in DEI Implementation
4. Understanding the Impact on Organizational Performance.
5. Providing Recommendations for Enhancing DEI Efforts

1.4       Research Question

Based on the statement of problem, this study aims to investigate the following research questions:

1. How do Nigerian organizations approach and implement HR strategies to foster diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace?

2. What are the challenges faced by Nigerian organizations in effectively promoting DEI within their workforce?
3. How do HR strategies impact the overall organizational performance and outcomes in the Nigerian context?
4. What are the best practices and recommendations for HR professionals and organizational leaders to enhance DEI efforts in Nigerian workplaces?

1.5       Scope and Limitation of the Study

This research delves into exploring the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces, with a focus on private sector organizations. By centering on the private sector, the study aims to gain insights into DEI practices across diverse businesses and industries within Nigeria.

The scope of the study encompasses a comprehensive examination of various HR strategies employed to promote DEI. These strategies include inclusive recruitment and hiring practices, diversity training and education programs, the establishment of employee resource groups (ERGs) and affinity networks, mentorship and sponsorship initiatives, and the implementation of performance management systems that promote equity and fairness. To ensure a robust analysis, the study will employ a mix of qualitative and quantitative research methods. This approach will allow for a deeper understanding of the impact and effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering an inclusive work environment.

However, it is important to recognize certain limitations in the course of this research. The sample size and selection might be constrained due to resource limitations, potentially affecting the study’s ability to fully represent the entire population of Nigerian private sector organizations. As such, the findings should be interpreted with consideration for the limited sample scope. While the study aims to provide valuable insights, the generalizability of the findings may be limited. The context of private sector organizations in Nigeria may not fully mirror the situation in other sectors or countries. Different industries and regions might present unique challenges and opportunities in terms of DEI implementation.

Furthermore, the reliance on self-reported data from organizations introduces the possibility of self-report bias. Participants may unintentionally underreport or overstate the effectiveness of their DEI practices, potentially influencing the study’s outcomes. Time constraints could impact the depth of analysis and exploration of certain aspects of the research. Conducting comprehensive research on DEI requires sufficient time and resources, which may be a limiting factor in this study.

Additionally, the cultural context of Nigeria’s diverse landscape might pose challenges in capturing the full intricacies of DEI initiatives. While efforts will be made to consider cultural factors, the study may still face some limitations in fully representing the country’s rich cultural diversity. Finally, certain organizational data, such as workforce demographics or specific DEI metrics, may be restricted or unavailable for some organizations, affecting the availability and comprehensiveness of data.

Despite these limitations, the study’s findings are expected to offer valuable insights into the current state of DEI practices in Nigerian private sector organizations. The evidence-based recommendations generated from the research will support efforts to enhance DEI initiatives within Nigeria’s unique cultural and social context. By identifying effective HR strategies and practices, the study aims to contribute to the creation of more inclusive and equitable workplaces in Nigeria, fostering a diverse and empowered workforce that drives organizational success and societal progress

1.6       Significance of the Study:

This research holds profound significance for various stakeholders involved in the promotion of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces. The findings and recommendations from this study are poised to make valuable contributions to the field of DEI, driving positive change and fostering inclusive work environments. First and foremost, the study’s insights into the effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering DEI will be of immense value to HR professionals and organizational leaders across Nigerian workplaces. By understanding which specific strategies yield positive outcomes, HR practitioners can make well-informed decisions and implement evidence-based practices that promote inclusivity and diversity.

Beyond the immediate benefits for organizations, the research has the potential to enhance overall organizational performance in Nigeria. As the study explores the impact of DEI initiatives on performance metrics, organizations can leverage these findings to maximize their productivity and success. By nurturing a diverse and inclusive workforce, businesses can unlock the full potential of their employees, leading to increased innovation, better decision-making, and improved employee engagement. Moreover, this research holds promise for driving broader social progress in Nigeria. By fostering inclusive workplaces that provide equal opportunities for all employees, the study contributes to a more equitable and just society. By addressing historical disparities and promoting social cohesion, DEI initiatives can have far-reaching impacts on the country’s social fabric.

Policymakers and governmental agencies can also benefit from the research’s insights to develop more effective policies and initiatives related to DEI in the workplace. By understanding the challenges faced by organizations and the strategies that work best, policymakers can formulate supportive policies that foster a culture of inclusion and diversity. Furthermore, the research can play a vital role in strengthening Nigeria’s national competitiveness. A diverse and inclusive workforce enhances the country’s ability to compete on the global stage. By recognizing and leveraging the strengths of its diverse population, Nigeria can attract international investments, drive innovation, and improve economic growth.

The study’s significance also extends to the academic realm. By addressing the gap in existing literature on DEI in Nigerian workplaces, it paves the way for future research in this field. Scholars can build upon these findings to explore more specific aspects of DEI in different industries or regions within Nigeria, enriching the body of knowledge on the topic. The research also empowers employees from diverse backgrounds. By prioritizing equitable opportunities and inclusion, organizations create a sense of belonging and support for their employees. Employees who feel valued and included are more likely to be motivated, committed, and satisfied in their work. Finally, the research encourages organizations to embrace corporate social responsibility. Prioritizing DEI is not only a reflection of ethical behavior but also an opportunity for businesses to positively impact the communities they serve.

2.         Literature Review

2.1       Definition of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

In recent years, diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) have gained increased recognition as essential components of organizational success and societal progress. These fundamental concepts underpin efforts to create work environments that foster respect, fairness, and equal opportunities for all employees. Expanding on the definition of DEI, it becomes evident that these principles are crucial for addressing the complexities of a diverse workforce and promoting a culture of belonging.

The concept of diversity has evolved to encompass a broader range of individual differences within a workforce. It not only includes attributes such as race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and disability but also extends to aspects such as neurodiversity, religious beliefs, educational backgrounds, and work experiences. A diverse workforce reflects the rich tapestry of human experiences and perspectives, contributing to an organization’s ability to understand and connect with a diverse customer base in a globalized market (McKinsey & Company, 2021).

Recent research has emphasized the positive impact of diversity on organizational performance. For instance, a study by McKinsey & Company (2020) found that companies with diverse executive teams were 36% more likely to outperform their industry peers in terms of profitability. Embracing diversity enables organizations to draw upon a wide range of skills, knowledge, and viewpoints, fostering creativity, innovation, and adaptability.

Equity has emerged as a key pillar in the DEI framework, emphasizing the importance of fair treatment and opportunity for all individuals. Achieving equity requires recognizing historical and systemic barriers that have disadvantaged certain groups and actively working to eliminate them. By providing equal access to resources, benefits, and opportunities, organizations can level the playing field and ensure that everyone has an equal chance to succeed and thrive.

Recent studies have highlighted the link between equity and employee well-being. Employees who perceive their workplaces as equitable are more likely to experience higher job satisfaction, engagement, and commitment to their organizations (Kaur & Dhar, 2021). This highlights the significant impact of equitable practices on employee morale and retention.

Inclusion represents the active and intentional effort to create a work environment where every individual feels valued, respected, and empowered to contribute their unique perspectives and talents. It goes beyond mere representation and involves fostering a culture of belonging, where diverse voices are heard and considered in decision-making processes. Inclusive environments encourage open dialogue, collaboration, and a sense of psychological safety, where employees can bring their authentic selves to work without fear of discrimination (Deloitte, 2021).

Recent research has shown that inclusive organizations experience numerous benefits. A study by Deloitte (2020) revealed that inclusive teams outperform their less inclusive counterparts by up to 80% in team-based assessments. Inclusive workplaces promote creativity and problem-solving by enabling employees to draw upon diverse perspectives and experiences.

2.2       Theoretical Frameworks of DEI in the Workplace

The understanding and implementation of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) in the workplace are enriched by various theoretical frameworks that shed light on the complexities of human behavior and the impact of social structures. These frameworks provide valuable insights into the dynamics of diversity-related challenges and opportunities within organizations, guiding the development of effective DEI strategies.

2.2.1    Social Identity Theory

One prominent theoretical framework that greatly informs the study of DEI in the workplace is the Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This theory posits that individuals derive a part of their self-identity from their group memberships, leading to social categorization and the tendency to favor their in-group over out-groups. Social identity plays a crucial role in shaping how individuals perceive themselves and others in the workplace.

Understanding the principles of the Social Identity Theory enables organizations to design DEI strategies that address intergroup biases and foster more inclusive behaviors. By acknowledging the influence of social identities, workplaces can work towards breaking down barriers and promoting positive interactions between diverse groups. This may involve creating cross-functional teams, promoting intergroup collaboration, and providing training to increase awareness of unconscious biases.

2.2.2    Critical Race Theory

Another important theoretical framework that significantly impacts the understanding of DEI in the workplace is the Critical Race Theory (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). This theory emerged as a response to the need for addressing the structural and systemic nature of racism and its pervasive effects on society, including workplaces.

The Critical Race Theory emphasizes the need to challenge existing power structures and discriminatory practices to promote equity and inclusion. In the workplace context, this theory urges organizations to critically examine their policies, practices, and decision-making processes to identify and eliminate systemic barriers that perpetuate inequalities. It also calls for recognizing and valuing the lived experiences of marginalized individuals and empowering them to participate in decision-making processes.

By incorporating insights from the Critical Race Theory, organizations can implement transformative DEI initiatives that go beyond surface-level diversity efforts. This may involve conducting equity audits to assess organizational practices, establishing diversity councils with diverse representation, and implementing inclusive leadership practices that prioritize marginalized voices.

2.2.3    Intersectionality

Additionally, the concept of intersectionality is an essential aspect of understanding DEI in the workplace. Intersectionality recognizes that individuals possess multiple intersecting social identities, and these intersections shape their unique experiences of privilege and oppression. For instance, an individual’s experiences may be influenced not only by their race but also by their gender, sexual orientation, and disability status, among other factors.

Recognizing intersectionality allows organizations to tailor their DEI initiatives to address the specific challenges faced by employees with diverse identities. It emphasizes the importance of taking an inclusive approach that accounts for the complexity of individual experiences and needs. Inclusive practices may involve offering Employee Resource Groups (ERGs) that cater to the diverse identities of employees, ensuring diverse representation in leadership positions, and providing targeted support for underrepresented groups.

Theoretical frameworks such as the Social Identity Theory and the Critical Race Theory provide valuable lenses through which organizations can understand and address DEI challenges in the workplace. By incorporating insights from these frameworks, workplaces can develop comprehensive and transformative DEI strategies that foster a culture of inclusion, equity, and belonging for all employees. Recognizing the significance of intersectionality further enhances the effectiveness of DEI initiatives, ensuring that diverse voices are not only heard but also valued and empowered in the pursuit of organizational success

2.3       The Business Case for Diversity

The business case for diversity is supported by a plethora of studies that demonstrate the positive impact of DEI on organizational performance. Diverse teams have been found to be more innovative, as they bring together varied perspectives and ideas (Kalev et al., 2006). Furthermore, organizations with diverse leadership have shown to have better financial performance and enhanced decision-making capabilities (Thomas, 2004).

Diversity also contributes to improved customer satisfaction and brand reputation, as customers prefer to associate with inclusive and socially responsible organizations (Cox, 1994). Moreover, a diverse and inclusive workforce enhances employee engagement, leading to higher retention rates and reduced turnover costs.

2.4       HR’s Role in Fostering DEI

Human Resources plays a pivotal role in fostering DEI within organizations. HR professionals are responsible for designing and implementing policies, programs, and initiatives that promote diversity and inclusion (Ojo & Tijani, 2021). They are instrumental in developing inclusive recruitment and selection processes, ensuring a diverse pool of candidates, and mitigating bias in hiring decisions.

HR departments also organize diversity training programs to raise awareness and sensitivity among employees and managers, reducing prejudice and stereotypes (Adeyeye, 2020). Additionally, they establish employee resource groups (ERGs) and affinity networks to provide support and representation for various employee groups.

2.5       Best Practices and HR Strategies for Promoting DEI

Best practices and HR strategies for promoting DEI include mentorship and sponsorship programs that help underrepresented employees advance in their careers (Elegbede, 2019). Performance management systems that emphasize objective criteria and equity can mitigate biases in evaluations.

Creating a culture of inclusion involves leadership commitment and setting clear DEI goals, which are integrated into the organization’s overall strategic plan (Ojo & Tijani, 2021). Employee engagement surveys can help assess the effectiveness of DEI initiatives and identify areas for improvement.

Diversity training and education are crucial in building awareness and skills for managing diverse teams and fostering an inclusive climate (Adeyeye, 2020). Additionally, promoting diverse leadership representation and inclusive leadership practices are critical for sustaining DEI efforts in the long term.

3.         Research Methodology

3.1       Research Design

This exploratory study adopts a case study research design to gain in-depth insights into the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces. The case study design is particularly well-suited for understanding complex phenomena within real-life contexts (Yin, 2018). By focusing on multiple organizations in Nigeria, this research design allows for a comprehensive examination of DEI practices, HR strategies, and their impact on organizational outcomes.

3.2       Data Collection Methods

The primary data collection methods employed in this study include:

a. Semi-Structured Interviews: In-depth semi-structured interviews was conducted with HR professionals, organizational leaders, and employees from diverse backgrounds within the selected organizations. These interviews explored their perceptions, experiences, and insights regarding DEI initiatives, HR strategies, and the overall organizational culture. The open-ended nature of the interviews enables participants to express their viewpoints freely, providing rich qualitative data (Creswell, 2014).

b. Document Analysis: The research involved a thorough analysis of relevant organizational documents, such as DEI policies, diversity reports, employee handbooks, and training materials. Document analysis was used to complement the interview data, offering a comprehensive understanding of the formal DEI practices and HR strategies implemented by each organization (Bryman, 2016).

3.3       Sample Selection

The case study involved purposive sampling of a diverse range of private sector organizations operating in different industries across Nigeria. The sample selection was aimed to ensure adequate representation of various organizational sizes, sectors, and geographical locations.

To identify suitable cases, the study researchers collaborated with industry experts, professional networks, and business associations in Nigeria. Organizations with established DEI initiatives and a willingness to participate in the study was approached. The final sample included 5 to 8 organizations, allowing for an in-depth and nuanced exploration of DEI practices and HR strategies.

3.4       Data Analysis Techniques

The data analysis process involved the following steps:

a. Thematic Analysis: The qualitative data from semi-structured interviews and document analysis was subjected to thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Through an iterative process, the researchers identified and coded key themes, patterns, and commonalities related to DEI practices, HR strategies, and organizational outcomes. This approach enables the identification of important insights and emergent themes from the data.

b. Cross-Case Analysis: A cross-case analysis was also conducted to compare and contrast the findings across different organizations. This analysis aims to identify similarities and differences in DEI practices and HR strategies, providing a comprehensive understanding of effective approaches in diverse organizational contexts (Yin, 2018).

c. Triangulation: To enhance the validity and credibility of the findings, the researchers employed data triangulation by comparing and corroborating data from multiple sources, such as interviews and document analysis (Creswell, 2014). Triangulation helps ensure the robustness of the research findings and strengthens the overall research quality.

d. Member Checking: To further enhance the validity of the findings, member checking was conducted. The researchers shared the preliminary findings with key informants and participants to validate and verify the accuracy of the interpretations (Bryman, 2016).

4.1       Inclusive Recruitment and Hiring Practices

a. Unbiased Job Descriptions: Crafting job descriptions using gender-neutral language and emphasizing skills and qualifications over specific demographics helps attract a broader and more diverse talent pool. Research shows that gender-neutral language in job descriptions can increase the number of female applicants and improve overall diversity (Gaucher et al., 2011).

b. Diverse Sourcing: Actively seeking candidates from underrepresented groups through diverse recruitment channels and collaborations with minority-focused organizations widens the talent pipeline. Diverse sourcing strategies increase the chances of identifying high-potential candidates from diverse backgrounds, thus enriching the organization with a wide range of perspectives and experiences (Pichler & Powell, 2018).

c. Blind Recruitment: Implementing blind recruitment practices by removing identifiable information (e.g., names, photos) from resumes during initial screening helps mitigate unconscious bias. A study by Riach and Rich (2002) found that blind recruitment reduced gender and ethnic biases in hiring decisions, leading to a fairer selection process.

4.2       Diversity Training and Education

a. Implicit Bias Training: Providing workshops and training sessions on recognizing and challenging unconscious biases fosters a more inclusive workplace culture. Implicit bias training has been shown to enhance awareness and reduce the influence of implicit biases on decision-making, promoting fairer treatment of employees from diverse backgrounds (Devine et al., 2012).

b. Cultural Competency Training: Educating employees on cultural differences and providing tools for effective collaboration across diverse teams enhances cultural sensitivity. Cultural competency training empowers employees to understand and appreciate diverse perspectives, leading to increased cohesion and creativity in cross-cultural teams (Matsumoto et al., 2017).

c. Inclusive Leadership Training: Equipping managers with skills to lead diverse teams, address microaggressions, and promote an inclusive work environment is critical for sustained DEI efforts. Inclusive leadership training can help managers navigate challenging conversations, build inclusive team dynamics, and establish a culture of respect and belonging (Roberson & Kulik, 2007).

4.3       Employee Resource Groups (ERGs)

a. ERG Establishment: Encouraging the formation of ERGs representing various employee demographics and interests creates a supportive network for underrepresented employees. ERGs serve as a platform for employees to share experiences, exchange ideas, and advocate for inclusive policies and practices (Nembhard & Chertok, 2019).

b. Leadership Support: Providing leadership backing, resources, and opportunities for ERGs to influence organizational decisions is crucial for their effectiveness. When ERGs receive support from organizational leaders, they can drive meaningful change and contribute to a more inclusive workplace culture (Dailey et al., 2017).

c. Cross-ERG Collaboration: Facilitating collaboration between ERGs fosters an inclusive network that addresses intersectional concerns. Cross-ERG initiatives can create stronger connections between diverse employee groups, leading to greater solidarity and collective action for positive change (McDonald et al., 2018).

4.4       Mentorship and Sponsorship Programs

a. Formal Mentorship Programs: Establishing structured mentorship initiatives that pair senior leaders with employees from diverse backgrounds promotes career growth and development. Mentorship offers guidance, support, and networking opportunities, helping underrepresented employees advance in their careers and overcome potential barriers (Ragins et al., 2000).

b. Sponsorship Opportunities: Identifying and empowering sponsors who advocate for their protégés’ career advancement and visibility can have a significant impact. Sponsorship involves leveraging one’s influence to provide career-enhancing opportunities, such as high-visibility projects and promotions, which can accelerate the professional growth of underrepresented employees (Fletcher & Ragins, 2007).

c. Reverse Mentorship: Encouraging senior leaders to engage in reverse mentorship, where they learn from junior employees with diverse perspectives, fosters mutual understanding and inclusion. Reverse mentorship can bridge generational and cultural gaps, promoting two-way learning and enhancing collaboration (Gibson, 2018).

4.5       Inclusive Performance Management

a. Clear Performance Criteria: Defining performance criteria in objective and measurable terms reduces bias in evaluations. Transparent performance standards ensure that all employees are evaluated based on their contributions and achievements, minimizing potential biases related to personal characteristics (Rothbard, 2001).

b. Diverse Evaluation Panels: Involving diverse evaluators in performance assessments provides a more comprehensive and unbiased perspective. Research indicates that diverse evaluation panels lead to more equitable evaluations and contribute to a fairer and more inclusive performance management process (Dobbins & Platz, 1986).

c. Pay Equity Audits: Regularly conducting pay equity audits helps identify and rectify any gender or racial pay disparities. Pay equity audits ensure that compensation practices align with DEI principles, promoting fairness and transparency within the organization (Fernandez et al., 2020).

v.              Benefits of a Diverse Workforce

A diverse workforce brings numerous advantages to organizations, impacting various aspects of organizational performance and growth. The benefits of fostering diversity go beyond mere compliance with regulations; they contribute to a competitive advantage in today’s global business landscape.

5.1       Creativity and Innovation

A diverse workforce enhances creativity and drives innovation. The inclusion of employees with varied backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences encourages the exchange of diverse ideas and solutions. Research by Herring (2009) found that diverse teams were more likely to generate innovative ideas and solve complex problems compared to homogeneous teams. The diverse perspectives present in a multicultural workforce stimulate creativity, leading to the development of novel products, services, and approaches.

5.2       Improved Decision-Making

Diverse teams lead to improved decision-making processes. Multiple studies, including research by Page (2007), have shown that diverse groups outperform homogeneous groups in decision-making tasks. Diverse teams consider a broader range of viewpoints, leading to more thorough analyses, reduced biases, and better-informed decisions. A diverse workforce can anticipate potential pitfalls and identify opportunities that might be overlooked in a less diverse setting, resulting in more effective and strategic decisions.

5.3       Understanding Diverse Customer Base

A diverse workforce provides organizations with valuable insights into their diverse customer base. Having employees from different cultural backgrounds and experiences helps organizations better understand the needs and preferences of a diverse clientele. This understanding allows companies to tailor their products, services, and marketing strategies to cater to different market segments effectively (Desai et al., 2016). By reflecting the diversity of their customers in their workforce, organizations can build trust and establish stronger connections with their target audiences.

5.4       Employee Engagement and Retention

Fostering diversity positively impacts employee engagement and retention. Employees who work in inclusive environments, where their voices are heard and valued, tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction and commitment to the organization (Hunt et al., 2018). Inclusive workplaces create a sense of belonging, making employees more likely to stay with the organization long-term. Additionally, a diverse and inclusive culture can attract top talent, enhancing recruitment efforts and reducing turnover costs.

5.5       Employer Branding and Reputation

Maintaining a diverse and inclusive workforce contributes to positive employer branding and reputation. Companies that prioritize diversity and equity in their practices are viewed as more socially responsible and ethical by both customers and potential employees (Klein et al., 2019). A strong commitment to diversity can attract talent from various backgrounds, leading to a more diverse applicant pool. Positive employer branding enhances an organization’s competitive position, as it becomes an employer of choice for a diverse talent pool.

5.6       Legal and Ethical Compliance

Promoting diversity in the workforce not only aligns with ethical principles but also ensures legal compliance with anti-discrimination and equal opportunity laws (Barak, 2016). Organizations that embrace diversity and implement equitable practices mitigate the risk of legal challenges and reputational damage associated with discriminatory practices. Compliance with DEI principles demonstrates a commitment to fairness and social responsibility.

5.6       Market Penetration and Business Growth

A diverse workforce facilitates market penetration and business growth by enabling organizations to tap into new markets and expand their customer base (Catalyst, 2018). Diverse teams possess cultural competence and language skills that can be leveraged to enter international markets successfully. Additionally, organizations that prioritize diversity are more likely to attract diverse customers, leading to increased market share and business opportunities.

6.         Case Studies and Success Stories

6.1       Companies with Successful DEI Initiatives

Case Study 1: Microsoft Corporation

Microsoft Corporation is a leading technology company that has demonstrated a strong commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion. Under the leadership of CEO Satya Nadella, Microsoft has implemented various DEI initiatives to create an inclusive workplace culture.

Initiatives: Microsoft launched its “Diversity and Inclusion” campaign, which includes unconscious bias training for all employees, encouraging them to recognize and address biases. The company also established Employee Resource Groups (ERGs) representing various communities, such as Women at Microsoft and Blacks at Microsoft, to support underrepresented employees.

Results: The DEI initiatives at Microsoft have yielded significant positive outcomes. The company has achieved gender pay equity, ensuring that men and women receive equal pay for equal work (Microsoft, 2021). Additionally, Microsoft has consistently been recognized for its diversity efforts, ranking on various diversity and inclusion indices, such as the DiversityInc Top 50 list and the Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index.

Case Study 2: The Coca-Cola Company

The Coca-Cola Company, a global beverage giant, has long been committed to promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion throughout its operations.

Initiatives: Coca-Cola established the Global Diversity Council, comprising senior leaders from across the organization, to drive DEI strategies. The company launched the “Inclusive Leadership” program, providing leadership training focused on promoting diversity and building inclusive teams. Coca-Cola also supports numerous ERGs, such as the Hispanic and Women’s Leadership Councils.

Results: The Company’s dedication to DEI has led to positive organizational outcomes. Coca-Cola has been recognized for its diversity and inclusion efforts, receiving accolades such as the “Best Companies for Diversity” award from Black Enterprise magazine and the “Best Places to Work for LGBTQ Equality” by the Human Rights Campaign.

6.2       Impact of DEI on Organizational Performance

Case Study 3: Johnson & Johnson

Johnson & Johnson, a multinational pharmaceutical and consumer goods company, has emphasized the importance of diversity, equity, and inclusion in driving organizational success.

Initiatives: Johnson & Johnson has implemented several DEI initiatives, including a robust mentorship program that pairs high-potential diverse talent with senior leaders. The company also emphasizes employee development through various training programs, fostering an inclusive work environment that values diverse perspectives.

Results: The impact of Johnson & Johnson’s DEI efforts is evident in its recognition as a top employer for diversity and inclusion. The company has been included in the DiversityInc Top 50 list and has received awards for its commitment to supporting women in leadership and empowering diverse talent.

Case Study 4: Salesforce

Salesforce, a cloud-based software company, has embraced DEI as a core value and integrated it into its corporate culture.

Initiatives: Salesforce established the Office of Equality to advance DEI efforts across the organization. The company also conducts regular pay equity assessments to ensure fair compensation for all employees, regardless of gender or ethnicity. Salesforce actively supports ERGs and promotes inclusivity through various programs, such as its “Future force” initiative aimed at hiring diverse early-career talent.

Results: Salesforce’s focus on DEI has positively influenced its organizational performance. The company has received recognition for its diverse workforce and inclusive workplace, receiving accolades such as being named one of the “Best Workplaces for Diversity” by Great Place to Work®.

Challenges and Barriers

Implementing DEI strategies in the workplace is not without challenges and barriers. Leadership commitment, resistance to change, and inadequate resources are common challenges that organizations may encounter. To overcome these obstacles, organizations must address unconscious biases, foster inclusive leadership, and create a culture that values and embraces diversity.

7.1       Common Challenges in Implementing DEI Strategies

Challenge 1: Lack of Leadership Commitment

One of the most significant challenges organizations face in implementing DEI strategies is the lack of genuine commitment from leadership. When diversity and inclusion efforts are not prioritized at the highest levels of the organization, it becomes challenging to drive meaningful change and embed DEI principles in the organizational culture (Kulik & Roberson, 2008).

Challenge 2: Resistance to Change

Resistance to change is a common barrier in DEI initiatives. Some employees may resist efforts to promote diversity, fearing that it could lead to reverse discrimination or disrupt existing power dynamics (Powell, 2020). Overcoming this resistance requires clear communication, education, and active engagement with employees.

Challenge 3: Inadequate Resources and Support

Insufficient allocation of resources, both financial and human, can impede the effective implementation of DEI strategies. Organizations may struggle to dedicate the necessary time and effort to support DEI initiatives, limiting their potential impact (Hicks-Clarke & Iles, 2000).

7.2       Overcoming Resistance and Bias

Barrier 1: Unconscious Bias

Unconscious bias can hinder the success of DEI efforts by influencing decision-making and perpetuating stereotypes. Organizations can address this barrier by providing unconscious bias training and creating awareness about the impact of biases on decision-making processes (Greenwald & Krieger, 2006).

Barrier 2: Cultural Resistance

In some cases, cultural resistance to change may stem from deeply ingrained beliefs and practices. Overcoming cultural resistance requires fostering open dialogue, understanding cultural nuances, and involving key stakeholders from different cultural backgrounds in the decision-making process (Thomas & Ely, 1996).

Barrier 3: Inclusive Leadership

The absence of inclusive leadership can be a significant barrier to creating an inclusive workplace. Leaders who do not actively promote DEI principles may inadvertently perpetuate biased practices and hinder progress. Developing inclusive leadership skills and behaviors is essential for overcoming this barrier (Härtel et al., 2016).

7.3       Addressing Intersectionality in DEI Efforts

Barrier 1: Limited Understanding of Intersectionality

Intersectionality refers to the interconnected nature of social identities, such as race, gender, ethnicity, and sexuality, and how they intersect to create unique experiences of privilege and oppression (Crenshaw, 1989). Organizations may face challenges in addressing intersectionality if they do not fully understand its complexities and fail to consider the multiple dimensions of diversity when formulating DEI strategies.

Barrier 2: One-Size-Fits-All Approaches

Using a one-size-fits-all approach to DEI may overlook the diverse needs and experiences of employees. Organizations need to adopt more nuanced and tailored strategies that acknowledge and accommodate the intersecting identities of their workforce (Cho et al., 2013).

Barrier 3: Resistance to Intersectional Perspectives

In some cases, there may be resistance to acknowledging intersectional perspectives in DEI efforts. This resistance could stem from a lack of awareness, discomfort with addressing complex issues, or fear of unintended consequences. Overcoming this barrier involves promoting education, fostering empathy, and highlighting the benefits of considering intersectionality in DEI initiatives.

8.         Summary, Conclusion and recommendation of Findings

8.1       Summary of findings

The exploration of the effectiveness of HR strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in the workplace, as well as understanding the benefits of a diverse workforce in Nigeria, has revealed several key findings. Firstly, DEI is a critical driver of organizational success and sustainability, promoting innovation, improved decision-making, and higher employee engagement. Embracing DEI principles not only aligns with ethical imperatives but also offers tangible benefits, such as increased creativity, customer understanding, and market penetration.

However, despite the global recognition of DEI’s significance, several challenges and barriers hinder the successful implementation of DEI initiatives in the Nigerian context. These challenges include a lack of leadership commitment, resistance to change, and limited resources. Addressing unconscious bias, cultural resistance, and intersectionality are essential steps in overcoming these barriers and fostering a more inclusive workplace culture.

8.2       Conclusion

Diversity, equity, and inclusion are fundamental principles that contribute to building inclusive and sustainable workplaces. Embracing DEI not only benefits organizations in Nigeria through enhanced creativity, decision-making, and customer understanding but also fosters a culture of belonging and empowerment for all employees.

8.3       Recommendations and Best Practices

Developing a comprehensive DEI strategy, prioritizing key initiatives for HR, integrating DEI into the organizational culture, and embracing continuous improvement and evaluation are essential for fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace.

8.3.1    Developing a Comprehensive DEI Strategy

a. Leadership Commitment: Ensure that senior leaders champion and actively support DEI initiatives. Leadership commitment sets the tone for the organization and demonstrates a genuine dedication to fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion.

b. Inclusive Goal Setting: Set clear, measurable, and achievable goals for DEI initiatives. Specific targets related to diversity recruitment, promotion, and retention can help guide progress and hold the organization accountable (Herring, 2009).

c. . Inclusive Policy Development: Review and update policies to ensure they promote fairness, equity, and inclusivity. Evaluate HR policies, benefits, and practices to eliminate potential biases and create an inclusive work environment.

8.3.2    Top Priorities for HR in Fostering DEI

a. Diverse Hiring Practices: Implement inclusive recruitment and hiring practices, such as diverse sourcing and blind recruitment, to attract a broad and diverse talent pool (Rynes et al., 2004).

b. Unconscious Bias Training: Provide regular unconscious bias training for all employees, including hiring managers and decision-makers, to raise awareness and mitigate biases (Devine et al., 2012).

c. Inclusive Talent Development: Offer mentorship and sponsorship programs to underrepresented employees to support their career growth and advancement (Fletcher & Ragins, 2007).

8.3.3    Integrating DEI into Organizational Culture

a. Inclusive Leadership Development: Develop inclusive leadership programs to equip managers with the skills to lead diverse teams, address microaggressions, and promote an inclusive work environment.

b. Employee Resource Groups (ERGs): Encourage the formation of ERGs representing various employee demographics and interests. Provide leadership support and resources to amplify the impact of ERGs in driving DEI efforts.

c. Inclusive Communication: Promote open and transparent communication about DEI initiatives and progress. Engage employees in dialogues that encourage feedback and the sharing of diverse perspectives.

8.3.4    Continuous Improvement and Evaluation

a. Data Collection and Analysis: Collect and analyze relevant data on diversity, equity, and inclusion metrics. Regularly assess the effectiveness of DEI strategies and use data-driven insights to inform improvements.

b. Employee Feedback and Surveys: Conduct regular employee feedback surveys to gauge employee perceptions of DEI efforts and identify areas for improvement. Employee input is valuable in shaping DEI strategies.

c. Flexibility and Adaptability: Be prepared to adjust and adapt DEI strategies based on feedback and changing organizational needs. Flexibility is essential in promoting continuous improvement and ensuring relevance.

9.1       Implications for Practice

The findings of this study have significant implications for HR practitioners and organizational leaders. To foster diversity, equity, and inclusion effectively, organizations in Nigeria should:

a. Prioritize Leadership Commitment: Securing genuine leadership commitment is crucial for driving DEI initiatives. Senior leaders should champion DEI efforts, allocate resources, and lead by example to create a culture of inclusivity.

b. Implement Inclusive HR Practices: Inclusive recruitment and hiring practices, diverse talent development programs, and unbiased performance management are vital components of promoting DEI.

c. Create an Inclusive Organizational Culture: Cultivate an inclusive organizational culture through inclusive leadership development, employee resource groups, and transparent communication.

9.2       Future Research Directions

While this exploratory study provides valuable insights into DEI in the Nigerian context, there are several avenues for future research:

a. Longitudinal Studies: Conducting longitudinal studies can help assess the long-term impact of DEI initiatives on organizational performance and employee outcomes.

b. Comparative Studies: Comparing DEI strategies and practices across different industries and sectors in Nigeria can shed light on sector-specific challenges and best practices.

c. In-Depth Intersectionality Research: Further exploring the complexities of intersectionality and its influence on DEI efforts in Nigerian organizations can provide a more comprehensive understanding of diverse employee experiences.

d. Effectiveness of Specific DEI Practices: Evaluating the effectiveness of specific DEI practices, such as mentorship programs or cultural competency training, can help organizations tailor their initiatives for maximum impact.

By addressing these research gaps, scholars and practitioners can gain a deeper understanding of DEI in the Nigerian workplace and develop evidence-based strategies to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion effectively.

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OLELE Afam Chukwudi and ACHUGO Eusebius, PhD 

Dept. of Management and Entrepreneurial studies, College of Social and Management Science, Afe Babalola University Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti state, Nigeria.

Abstract

This study explores the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces and understanding the benefits of a diverse workforce. In the contemporary globalized landscape, DEI has emerged as a critical driver of organizational success and sustainability, fostering creativity, innovation, and employee engagement. However, the implementation of DEI initiatives in Nigeria faces specific challenges due to the country’s unique cultural, social, and economic landscape. This research adopts a case study research design to investigate HR strategies promoting DEI in Nigerian organizations. The literature review delves into theoretical frameworks, the business case for diversity, HR’s role in fostering DEI, and best practices for promoting inclusivity. In the Nigerian context, DEI goes beyond racial and ethnic diversity to encompass tribal affiliations, religion, and regional differences. Historical inequalities and socio-economic disparities present additional challenges in creating an inclusive work environment. Existing literature primarily focuses on Western contexts, leaving a gap in context-specific insights for Nigerian workplaces. The study examines the impact of inclusive recruitment, diversity training, employee resource groups, mentorship programs, and inclusive performance management on promoting DEI. Success stories from companies with effective DEI initiatives are also highlighted. Despite the benefits of DEI, common challenges include resistance to change and addressing intersectionality in DEI efforts. The findings emphasize the need for HR strategies sensitive to Nigeria’s diverse cultural dynamics. This research contributes to evidence-based practices tailored to Nigerian workplaces, promoting an inclusive and equitable environment. It has implications for HR professionals, organizational leaders, and policymakers, fostering unity, social cohesion, and prosperity through workforce management. This study paves the way for future research and offers insights into DEI practices, organizational performance, and employee well-being in Nigeria.

Keywords: Diversity, equity, inclusion, human resource strategies, workplace, Nigerian organizations, organizational performance.

JEL Classification: J71, J78, M12, O15, O43, Z13, O55

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the study

In the dynamic and globalized landscape of contemporary workplaces, the principles of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) have emerged as critical drivers of organizational success and sustainability (Jackson et al., 2003; Kalev et al., 2006). DEI encompasses a multifaceted approach that goes beyond mere token representation and instead emphasizes the recognition, appreciation, and leveraging of the diverse backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences of employees within a workplace (Cox & Blake, 1991). It strives to create an inclusive environment where all individuals, regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, disability, or any other characteristic, are treated fairly, respected, and provided with equal opportunities for growth and development (Thomas, 2004).

Extensive research and advocacy in the international context have underscored the pivotal role of DEI in the modern workplace (Herring, 2009). Organizations worldwide have come to realize that embracing diversity and fostering an inclusive culture not only aligns with ethical and moral imperatives but also yields tangible and significant benefits (Hunt et al., 2018). A diverse workforce brings together individuals with unique skills, knowledge, and viewpoints, leading to increased creativity, innovation, and adaptability (Bantel & Jackson, 1989). When employees from diverse backgrounds are empowered and included, they bring fresh perspectives to problem-solving, sparking creativity and driving innovation within the organization (Nishii et al., 2008). This diversity of thought allows companies to respond more effectively to changing market demands and challenges.

Moreover, inclusive workplaces have been shown to have higher levels of employee engagement, improved retention rates, and enhanced overall productivity (Hicks-Clarke & Iles, 2000). Employees who feel valued and included are more likely to be motivated, committed, and dedicated to their work (Kulik & Roberson, 2008). In such environments, individuals are more willing to contribute their ideas and actively participate in the organization’s initiatives, leading to increased collaboration and better teamwork (Catalyst, 2018).

Despite the global recognition of DEI’s significance, the effective implementation of strategies to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion remains a challenge, especially in specific regional contexts like Nigeria (Adeoye & Oni, 2019). Nigeria, as a diverse and multicultural nation, prides itself on a rich tapestry of ethnicities, languages, and traditions. Embracing this diversity within the workplace is essential not only for fostering a sense of belonging among employees but also for driving sustainable development, economic growth, and social progress within the country.

Understanding the role of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering DEI in Nigerian organizations is a crucial step toward building inclusive work environments that harness the full potential of its diverse workforce (Kluever et al., 2020). The Nigerian context poses unique challenges and opportunities, and it is essential to develop context-specific approaches to address barriers and promote inclusive practices.

By conducting research on the effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering DEI in Nigerian workplaces, this study aims to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on DEI in diverse regional contexts (Dailey et al., 2017). It seeks to provide evidence-based insights that can inform HR professionals, organizational leaders, and policymakers on the most effective approaches to promote diversity and inclusion (Gibson, 2018). Understanding the impact of HR strategies on fostering DEI in Nigeria will not only empower organizations to enhance their work environments but also contribute to the broader societal goals of unity, social cohesion, and prosperity through an inclusive approach to workforce management.

1.2       Statement of problem

Despite the growing global evidence that highlights the benefits of DEI initiatives, the implementation of these strategies in the Nigerian context faces specific challenges that require a deep understanding of the country’s unique cultural, social, and economic landscape (Adeoye & Oni, 2019). Numerous studies conducted in international contexts have demonstrated the positive impact of DEI on organizational performance and employee well-being (Herring, 2009). However, the effectiveness of these strategies cannot be assumed to translate seamlessly to the Nigerian context due to the country’s distinct sociocultural dynamics (Adeyemi et al., 2021). Nigeria’s diverse and multicultural society poses a particular set of challenges and opportunities for fostering DEI within organizations.

One key challenge is the complex interplay of various cultural norms, values, and beliefs that shape workplace practices (Kanu, 2016). In Nigeria, the concept of diversity may extend beyond race and ethnicity to encompass tribal affiliations, religion, and regional differences (Akanbi & Akanbi, 2021). Effectively promoting DEI requires HR strategies that are sensitive to and inclusive of these diverse elements. Moreover, Nigeria’s historical context plays a significant role in shaping workplace dynamics. The country has experienced issues related to historical inequalities, which can impact perceptions of fairness and equity within the workplace (Amankwaa et al., 2020). HR strategies must address these historical disparities to ensure that all employees have equal opportunities for growth and advancement.

Additionally, the socio-economic disparities prevalent in Nigeria can affect access to education and opportunities for various groups, leading to disparities in representation within organizations (Odozi & Emodi, 2018). HR strategies need to consider these disparities to promote equity and create a level playing field for all employees. Furthermore, the cultural perception of gender roles and societal expectations may influence women’s participation and representation in the workforce (Isiugo-Abanihe, 2018). Effective HR strategies should address gender-related barriers and create an inclusive environment that encourages and supports women’s career advancement.

Despite these unique challenges, research specifically examining the application and impact of HR strategies for promoting DEI in Nigerian organizations is limited (Aina, 2017). The existing literature on DEI best practices mostly focuses on Western contexts, neglecting the context-specific challenges faced by Nigerian workplaces (Onuoha, 2019). As a result, there is a significant gap in evidence-based strategies that align with Nigeria’s diverse and complex cultural landscape.

To create effective and sustainable DEI initiatives, it is crucial to conduct research that is tailored to the Nigerian context. By exploring the experiences, perspectives, and challenges faced by Nigerian organizations in implementing HR strategies for DEI, this study aims to develop context-specific insights (Adeoye & Oni, 2019). Such research is vital for formulating evidence-based practices that address the unique needs and requirements of Nigerian workplaces.

Ultimately, this exploration into the effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering DEI in Nigerian workplaces will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of DEI practices and their implications for organizational performance and employee well-being (Kalu, 2017). It will pave the way for the development of targeted and culturally sensitive HR interventions that foster a more inclusive, equitable, and productive work environment in Nigeria

1.3       Objective of the Study

The primary objective of this research is to explore the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces. Specific research objectives include:

1. Assessing the Current State of DEI Practices

2. Analyzing HR Strategies for DEI
3. Exploring Challenges in DEI Implementation
4. Understanding the Impact on Organizational Performance.
5. Providing Recommendations for Enhancing DEI Efforts

1.4       Research Question

Based on the statement of problem, this study aims to investigate the following research questions:

1. How do Nigerian organizations approach and implement HR strategies to foster diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace?

2. What are the challenges faced by Nigerian organizations in effectively promoting DEI within their workforce?
3. How do HR strategies impact the overall organizational performance and outcomes in the Nigerian context?
4. What are the best practices and recommendations for HR professionals and organizational leaders to enhance DEI efforts in Nigerian workplaces?

1.5       Scope and Limitation of the Study

This research delves into exploring the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces, with a focus on private sector organizations. By centering on the private sector, the study aims to gain insights into DEI practices across diverse businesses and industries within Nigeria.

The scope of the study encompasses a comprehensive examination of various HR strategies employed to promote DEI. These strategies include inclusive recruitment and hiring practices, diversity training and education programs, the establishment of employee resource groups (ERGs) and affinity networks, mentorship and sponsorship initiatives, and the implementation of performance management systems that promote equity and fairness. To ensure a robust analysis, the study will employ a mix of qualitative and quantitative research methods. This approach will allow for a deeper understanding of the impact and effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering an inclusive work environment.

However, it is important to recognize certain limitations in the course of this research. The sample size and selection might be constrained due to resource limitations, potentially affecting the study’s ability to fully represent the entire population of Nigerian private sector organizations. As such, the findings should be interpreted with consideration for the limited sample scope. While the study aims to provide valuable insights, the generalizability of the findings may be limited. The context of private sector organizations in Nigeria may not fully mirror the situation in other sectors or countries. Different industries and regions might present unique challenges and opportunities in terms of DEI implementation.

Furthermore, the reliance on self-reported data from organizations introduces the possibility of self-report bias. Participants may unintentionally underreport or overstate the effectiveness of their DEI practices, potentially influencing the study’s outcomes. Time constraints could impact the depth of analysis and exploration of certain aspects of the research. Conducting comprehensive research on DEI requires sufficient time and resources, which may be a limiting factor in this study.

Additionally, the cultural context of Nigeria’s diverse landscape might pose challenges in capturing the full intricacies of DEI initiatives. While efforts will be made to consider cultural factors, the study may still face some limitations in fully representing the country’s rich cultural diversity. Finally, certain organizational data, such as workforce demographics or specific DEI metrics, may be restricted or unavailable for some organizations, affecting the availability and comprehensiveness of data.

Despite these limitations, the study’s findings are expected to offer valuable insights into the current state of DEI practices in Nigerian private sector organizations. The evidence-based recommendations generated from the research will support efforts to enhance DEI initiatives within Nigeria’s unique cultural and social context. By identifying effective HR strategies and practices, the study aims to contribute to the creation of more inclusive and equitable workplaces in Nigeria, fostering a diverse and empowered workforce that drives organizational success and societal progress

1.6       Significance of the Study:

This research holds profound significance for various stakeholders involved in the promotion of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces. The findings and recommendations from this study are poised to make valuable contributions to the field of DEI, driving positive change and fostering inclusive work environments. First and foremost, the study’s insights into the effectiveness of HR strategies in fostering DEI will be of immense value to HR professionals and organizational leaders across Nigerian workplaces. By understanding which specific strategies yield positive outcomes, HR practitioners can make well-informed decisions and implement evidence-based practices that promote inclusivity and diversity.

Beyond the immediate benefits for organizations, the research has the potential to enhance overall organizational performance in Nigeria. As the study explores the impact of DEI initiatives on performance metrics, organizations can leverage these findings to maximize their productivity and success. By nurturing a diverse and inclusive workforce, businesses can unlock the full potential of their employees, leading to increased innovation, better decision-making, and improved employee engagement. Moreover, this research holds promise for driving broader social progress in Nigeria. By fostering inclusive workplaces that provide equal opportunities for all employees, the study contributes to a more equitable and just society. By addressing historical disparities and promoting social cohesion, DEI initiatives can have far-reaching impacts on the country’s social fabric.

Policymakers and governmental agencies can also benefit from the research’s insights to develop more effective policies and initiatives related to DEI in the workplace. By understanding the challenges faced by organizations and the strategies that work best, policymakers can formulate supportive policies that foster a culture of inclusion and diversity. Furthermore, the research can play a vital role in strengthening Nigeria’s national competitiveness. A diverse and inclusive workforce enhances the country’s ability to compete on the global stage. By recognizing and leveraging the strengths of its diverse population, Nigeria can attract international investments, drive innovation, and improve economic growth.

The study’s significance also extends to the academic realm. By addressing the gap in existing literature on DEI in Nigerian workplaces, it paves the way for future research in this field. Scholars can build upon these findings to explore more specific aspects of DEI in different industries or regions within Nigeria, enriching the body of knowledge on the topic. The research also empowers employees from diverse backgrounds. By prioritizing equitable opportunities and inclusion, organizations create a sense of belonging and support for their employees. Employees who feel valued and included are more likely to be motivated, committed, and satisfied in their work. Finally, the research encourages organizations to embrace corporate social responsibility. Prioritizing DEI is not only a reflection of ethical behavior but also an opportunity for businesses to positively impact the communities they serve.

2.         Literature Review

2.1       Definition of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

In recent years, diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) have gained increased recognition as essential components of organizational success and societal progress. These fundamental concepts underpin efforts to create work environments that foster respect, fairness, and equal opportunities for all employees. Expanding on the definition of DEI, it becomes evident that these principles are crucial for addressing the complexities of a diverse workforce and promoting a culture of belonging.

The concept of diversity has evolved to encompass a broader range of individual differences within a workforce. It not only includes attributes such as race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and disability but also extends to aspects such as neurodiversity, religious beliefs, educational backgrounds, and work experiences. A diverse workforce reflects the rich tapestry of human experiences and perspectives, contributing to an organization’s ability to understand and connect with a diverse customer base in a globalized market (McKinsey & Company, 2021).

Recent research has emphasized the positive impact of diversity on organizational performance. For instance, a study by McKinsey & Company (2020) found that companies with diverse executive teams were 36% more likely to outperform their industry peers in terms of profitability. Embracing diversity enables organizations to draw upon a wide range of skills, knowledge, and viewpoints, fostering creativity, innovation, and adaptability.

Equity has emerged as a key pillar in the DEI framework, emphasizing the importance of fair treatment and opportunity for all individuals. Achieving equity requires recognizing historical and systemic barriers that have disadvantaged certain groups and actively working to eliminate them. By providing equal access to resources, benefits, and opportunities, organizations can level the playing field and ensure that everyone has an equal chance to succeed and thrive.

Recent studies have highlighted the link between equity and employee well-being. Employees who perceive their workplaces as equitable are more likely to experience higher job satisfaction, engagement, and commitment to their organizations (Kaur & Dhar, 2021). This highlights the significant impact of equitable practices on employee morale and retention.

Inclusion represents the active and intentional effort to create a work environment where every individual feels valued, respected, and empowered to contribute their unique perspectives and talents. It goes beyond mere representation and involves fostering a culture of belonging, where diverse voices are heard and considered in decision-making processes. Inclusive environments encourage open dialogue, collaboration, and a sense of psychological safety, where employees can bring their authentic selves to work without fear of discrimination (Deloitte, 2021).

Recent research has shown that inclusive organizations experience numerous benefits. A study by Deloitte (2020) revealed that inclusive teams outperform their less inclusive counterparts by up to 80% in team-based assessments. Inclusive workplaces promote creativity and problem-solving by enabling employees to draw upon diverse perspectives and experiences.

2.2       Theoretical Frameworks of DEI in the Workplace

The understanding and implementation of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) in the workplace are enriched by various theoretical frameworks that shed light on the complexities of human behavior and the impact of social structures. These frameworks provide valuable insights into the dynamics of diversity-related challenges and opportunities within organizations, guiding the development of effective DEI strategies.

2.2.1    Social Identity Theory

One prominent theoretical framework that greatly informs the study of DEI in the workplace is the Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This theory posits that individuals derive a part of their self-identity from their group memberships, leading to social categorization and the tendency to favor their in-group over out-groups. Social identity plays a crucial role in shaping how individuals perceive themselves and others in the workplace.

Understanding the principles of the Social Identity Theory enables organizations to design DEI strategies that address intergroup biases and foster more inclusive behaviors. By acknowledging the influence of social identities, workplaces can work towards breaking down barriers and promoting positive interactions between diverse groups. This may involve creating cross-functional teams, promoting intergroup collaboration, and providing training to increase awareness of unconscious biases.

2.2.2    Critical Race Theory

Another important theoretical framework that significantly impacts the understanding of DEI in the workplace is the Critical Race Theory (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). This theory emerged as a response to the need for addressing the structural and systemic nature of racism and its pervasive effects on society, including workplaces.

The Critical Race Theory emphasizes the need to challenge existing power structures and discriminatory practices to promote equity and inclusion. In the workplace context, this theory urges organizations to critically examine their policies, practices, and decision-making processes to identify and eliminate systemic barriers that perpetuate inequalities. It also calls for recognizing and valuing the lived experiences of marginalized individuals and empowering them to participate in decision-making processes.

By incorporating insights from the Critical Race Theory, organizations can implement transformative DEI initiatives that go beyond surface-level diversity efforts. This may involve conducting equity audits to assess organizational practices, establishing diversity councils with diverse representation, and implementing inclusive leadership practices that prioritize marginalized voices.

2.2.3    Intersectionality

Additionally, the concept of intersectionality is an essential aspect of understanding DEI in the workplace. Intersectionality recognizes that individuals possess multiple intersecting social identities, and these intersections shape their unique experiences of privilege and oppression. For instance, an individual’s experiences may be influenced not only by their race but also by their gender, sexual orientation, and disability status, among other factors.

Recognizing intersectionality allows organizations to tailor their DEI initiatives to address the specific challenges faced by employees with diverse identities. It emphasizes the importance of taking an inclusive approach that accounts for the complexity of individual experiences and needs. Inclusive practices may involve offering Employee Resource Groups (ERGs) that cater to the diverse identities of employees, ensuring diverse representation in leadership positions, and providing targeted support for underrepresented groups.

Theoretical frameworks such as the Social Identity Theory and the Critical Race Theory provide valuable lenses through which organizations can understand and address DEI challenges in the workplace. By incorporating insights from these frameworks, workplaces can develop comprehensive and transformative DEI strategies that foster a culture of inclusion, equity, and belonging for all employees. Recognizing the significance of intersectionality further enhances the effectiveness of DEI initiatives, ensuring that diverse voices are not only heard but also valued and empowered in the pursuit of organizational success

2.3       The Business Case for Diversity

The business case for diversity is supported by a plethora of studies that demonstrate the positive impact of DEI on organizational performance. Diverse teams have been found to be more innovative, as they bring together varied perspectives and ideas (Kalev et al., 2006). Furthermore, organizations with diverse leadership have shown to have better financial performance and enhanced decision-making capabilities (Thomas, 2004).

Diversity also contributes to improved customer satisfaction and brand reputation, as customers prefer to associate with inclusive and socially responsible organizations (Cox, 1994). Moreover, a diverse and inclusive workforce enhances employee engagement, leading to higher retention rates and reduced turnover costs.

2.4       HR’s Role in Fostering DEI

Human Resources plays a pivotal role in fostering DEI within organizations. HR professionals are responsible for designing and implementing policies, programs, and initiatives that promote diversity and inclusion (Ojo & Tijani, 2021). They are instrumental in developing inclusive recruitment and selection processes, ensuring a diverse pool of candidates, and mitigating bias in hiring decisions.

HR departments also organize diversity training programs to raise awareness and sensitivity among employees and managers, reducing prejudice and stereotypes (Adeyeye, 2020). Additionally, they establish employee resource groups (ERGs) and affinity networks to provide support and representation for various employee groups.

2.5       Best Practices and HR Strategies for Promoting DEI

Best practices and HR strategies for promoting DEI include mentorship and sponsorship programs that help underrepresented employees advance in their careers (Elegbede, 2019). Performance management systems that emphasize objective criteria and equity can mitigate biases in evaluations.

Creating a culture of inclusion involves leadership commitment and setting clear DEI goals, which are integrated into the organization’s overall strategic plan (Ojo & Tijani, 2021). Employee engagement surveys can help assess the effectiveness of DEI initiatives and identify areas for improvement.

Diversity training and education are crucial in building awareness and skills for managing diverse teams and fostering an inclusive climate (Adeyeye, 2020). Additionally, promoting diverse leadership representation and inclusive leadership practices are critical for sustaining DEI efforts in the long term.

3.         Research Methodology

3.1       Research Design

This exploratory study adopts a case study research design to gain in-depth insights into the effectiveness of Human Resources (HR) strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in Nigerian workplaces. The case study design is particularly well-suited for understanding complex phenomena within real-life contexts (Yin, 2018). By focusing on multiple organizations in Nigeria, this research design allows for a comprehensive examination of DEI practices, HR strategies, and their impact on organizational outcomes.

3.2       Data Collection Methods

The primary data collection methods employed in this study include:

a. Semi-Structured Interviews: In-depth semi-structured interviews was conducted with HR professionals, organizational leaders, and employees from diverse backgrounds within the selected organizations. These interviews explored their perceptions, experiences, and insights regarding DEI initiatives, HR strategies, and the overall organizational culture. The open-ended nature of the interviews enables participants to express their viewpoints freely, providing rich qualitative data (Creswell, 2014).

b. Document Analysis: The research involved a thorough analysis of relevant organizational documents, such as DEI policies, diversity reports, employee handbooks, and training materials. Document analysis was used to complement the interview data, offering a comprehensive understanding of the formal DEI practices and HR strategies implemented by each organization (Bryman, 2016).

3.3       Sample Selection

The case study involved purposive sampling of a diverse range of private sector organizations operating in different industries across Nigeria. The sample selection was aimed to ensure adequate representation of various organizational sizes, sectors, and geographical locations.

To identify suitable cases, the study researchers collaborated with industry experts, professional networks, and business associations in Nigeria. Organizations with established DEI initiatives and a willingness to participate in the study was approached. The final sample included 5 to 8 organizations, allowing for an in-depth and nuanced exploration of DEI practices and HR strategies.

3.4       Data Analysis Techniques

The data analysis process involved the following steps:

a. Thematic Analysis: The qualitative data from semi-structured interviews and document analysis was subjected to thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Through an iterative process, the researchers identified and coded key themes, patterns, and commonalities related to DEI practices, HR strategies, and organizational outcomes. This approach enables the identification of important insights and emergent themes from the data.

b. Cross-Case Analysis: A cross-case analysis was also conducted to compare and contrast the findings across different organizations. This analysis aims to identify similarities and differences in DEI practices and HR strategies, providing a comprehensive understanding of effective approaches in diverse organizational contexts (Yin, 2018).

c. Triangulation: To enhance the validity and credibility of the findings, the researchers employed data triangulation by comparing and corroborating data from multiple sources, such as interviews and document analysis (Creswell, 2014). Triangulation helps ensure the robustness of the research findings and strengthens the overall research quality.

d. Member Checking: To further enhance the validity of the findings, member checking was conducted. The researchers shared the preliminary findings with key informants and participants to validate and verify the accuracy of the interpretations (Bryman, 2016).

4.1       Inclusive Recruitment and Hiring Practices

a. Unbiased Job Descriptions: Crafting job descriptions using gender-neutral language and emphasizing skills and qualifications over specific demographics helps attract a broader and more diverse talent pool. Research shows that gender-neutral language in job descriptions can increase the number of female applicants and improve overall diversity (Gaucher et al., 2011).

b. Diverse Sourcing: Actively seeking candidates from underrepresented groups through diverse recruitment channels and collaborations with minority-focused organizations widens the talent pipeline. Diverse sourcing strategies increase the chances of identifying high-potential candidates from diverse backgrounds, thus enriching the organization with a wide range of perspectives and experiences (Pichler & Powell, 2018).

c. Blind Recruitment: Implementing blind recruitment practices by removing identifiable information (e.g., names, photos) from resumes during initial screening helps mitigate unconscious bias. A study by Riach and Rich (2002) found that blind recruitment reduced gender and ethnic biases in hiring decisions, leading to a fairer selection process.

4.2       Diversity Training and Education

a. Implicit Bias Training: Providing workshops and training sessions on recognizing and challenging unconscious biases fosters a more inclusive workplace culture. Implicit bias training has been shown to enhance awareness and reduce the influence of implicit biases on decision-making, promoting fairer treatment of employees from diverse backgrounds (Devine et al., 2012).

b. Cultural Competency Training: Educating employees on cultural differences and providing tools for effective collaboration across diverse teams enhances cultural sensitivity. Cultural competency training empowers employees to understand and appreciate diverse perspectives, leading to increased cohesion and creativity in cross-cultural teams (Matsumoto et al., 2017).

c. Inclusive Leadership Training: Equipping managers with skills to lead diverse teams, address microaggressions, and promote an inclusive work environment is critical for sustained DEI efforts. Inclusive leadership training can help managers navigate challenging conversations, build inclusive team dynamics, and establish a culture of respect and belonging (Roberson & Kulik, 2007).

4.3       Employee Resource Groups (ERGs)

a. ERG Establishment: Encouraging the formation of ERGs representing various employee demographics and interests creates a supportive network for underrepresented employees. ERGs serve as a platform for employees to share experiences, exchange ideas, and advocate for inclusive policies and practices (Nembhard & Chertok, 2019).

b. Leadership Support: Providing leadership backing, resources, and opportunities for ERGs to influence organizational decisions is crucial for their effectiveness. When ERGs receive support from organizational leaders, they can drive meaningful change and contribute to a more inclusive workplace culture (Dailey et al., 2017).

c. Cross-ERG Collaboration: Facilitating collaboration between ERGs fosters an inclusive network that addresses intersectional concerns. Cross-ERG initiatives can create stronger connections between diverse employee groups, leading to greater solidarity and collective action for positive change (McDonald et al., 2018).

4.4       Mentorship and Sponsorship Programs

a. Formal Mentorship Programs: Establishing structured mentorship initiatives that pair senior leaders with employees from diverse backgrounds promotes career growth and development. Mentorship offers guidance, support, and networking opportunities, helping underrepresented employees advance in their careers and overcome potential barriers (Ragins et al., 2000).

b. Sponsorship Opportunities: Identifying and empowering sponsors who advocate for their protégés’ career advancement and visibility can have a significant impact. Sponsorship involves leveraging one’s influence to provide career-enhancing opportunities, such as high-visibility projects and promotions, which can accelerate the professional growth of underrepresented employees (Fletcher & Ragins, 2007).

c. Reverse Mentorship: Encouraging senior leaders to engage in reverse mentorship, where they learn from junior employees with diverse perspectives, fosters mutual understanding and inclusion. Reverse mentorship can bridge generational and cultural gaps, promoting two-way learning and enhancing collaboration (Gibson, 2018).

4.5       Inclusive Performance Management

a. Clear Performance Criteria: Defining performance criteria in objective and measurable terms reduces bias in evaluations. Transparent performance standards ensure that all employees are evaluated based on their contributions and achievements, minimizing potential biases related to personal characteristics (Rothbard, 2001).

b. Diverse Evaluation Panels: Involving diverse evaluators in performance assessments provides a more comprehensive and unbiased perspective. Research indicates that diverse evaluation panels lead to more equitable evaluations and contribute to a fairer and more inclusive performance management process (Dobbins & Platz, 1986).

c. Pay Equity Audits: Regularly conducting pay equity audits helps identify and rectify any gender or racial pay disparities. Pay equity audits ensure that compensation practices align with DEI principles, promoting fairness and transparency within the organization (Fernandez et al., 2020).

v.              Benefits of a Diverse Workforce

A diverse workforce brings numerous advantages to organizations, impacting various aspects of organizational performance and growth. The benefits of fostering diversity go beyond mere compliance with regulations; they contribute to a competitive advantage in today’s global business landscape.

5.1       Creativity and Innovation

A diverse workforce enhances creativity and drives innovation. The inclusion of employees with varied backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences encourages the exchange of diverse ideas and solutions. Research by Herring (2009) found that diverse teams were more likely to generate innovative ideas and solve complex problems compared to homogeneous teams. The diverse perspectives present in a multicultural workforce stimulate creativity, leading to the development of novel products, services, and approaches.

5.2       Improved Decision-Making

Diverse teams lead to improved decision-making processes. Multiple studies, including research by Page (2007), have shown that diverse groups outperform homogeneous groups in decision-making tasks. Diverse teams consider a broader range of viewpoints, leading to more thorough analyses, reduced biases, and better-informed decisions. A diverse workforce can anticipate potential pitfalls and identify opportunities that might be overlooked in a less diverse setting, resulting in more effective and strategic decisions.

5.3       Understanding Diverse Customer Base

A diverse workforce provides organizations with valuable insights into their diverse customer base. Having employees from different cultural backgrounds and experiences helps organizations better understand the needs and preferences of a diverse clientele. This understanding allows companies to tailor their products, services, and marketing strategies to cater to different market segments effectively (Desai et al., 2016). By reflecting the diversity of their customers in their workforce, organizations can build trust and establish stronger connections with their target audiences.

5.4       Employee Engagement and Retention

Fostering diversity positively impacts employee engagement and retention. Employees who work in inclusive environments, where their voices are heard and valued, tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction and commitment to the organization (Hunt et al., 2018). Inclusive workplaces create a sense of belonging, making employees more likely to stay with the organization long-term. Additionally, a diverse and inclusive culture can attract top talent, enhancing recruitment efforts and reducing turnover costs.

5.5       Employer Branding and Reputation

Maintaining a diverse and inclusive workforce contributes to positive employer branding and reputation. Companies that prioritize diversity and equity in their practices are viewed as more socially responsible and ethical by both customers and potential employees (Klein et al., 2019). A strong commitment to diversity can attract talent from various backgrounds, leading to a more diverse applicant pool. Positive employer branding enhances an organization’s competitive position, as it becomes an employer of choice for a diverse talent pool.

5.6       Legal and Ethical Compliance

Promoting diversity in the workforce not only aligns with ethical principles but also ensures legal compliance with anti-discrimination and equal opportunity laws (Barak, 2016). Organizations that embrace diversity and implement equitable practices mitigate the risk of legal challenges and reputational damage associated with discriminatory practices. Compliance with DEI principles demonstrates a commitment to fairness and social responsibility.

5.6       Market Penetration and Business Growth

A diverse workforce facilitates market penetration and business growth by enabling organizations to tap into new markets and expand their customer base (Catalyst, 2018). Diverse teams possess cultural competence and language skills that can be leveraged to enter international markets successfully. Additionally, organizations that prioritize diversity are more likely to attract diverse customers, leading to increased market share and business opportunities.

6.         Case Studies and Success Stories

6.1       Companies with Successful DEI Initiatives

Case Study 1: Microsoft Corporation

Microsoft Corporation is a leading technology company that has demonstrated a strong commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion. Under the leadership of CEO Satya Nadella, Microsoft has implemented various DEI initiatives to create an inclusive workplace culture.

Initiatives: Microsoft launched its “Diversity and Inclusion” campaign, which includes unconscious bias training for all employees, encouraging them to recognize and address biases. The company also established Employee Resource Groups (ERGs) representing various communities, such as Women at Microsoft and Blacks at Microsoft, to support underrepresented employees.

Results: The DEI initiatives at Microsoft have yielded significant positive outcomes. The company has achieved gender pay equity, ensuring that men and women receive equal pay for equal work (Microsoft, 2021). Additionally, Microsoft has consistently been recognized for its diversity efforts, ranking on various diversity and inclusion indices, such as the DiversityInc Top 50 list and the Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index.

Case Study 2: The Coca-Cola Company

The Coca-Cola Company, a global beverage giant, has long been committed to promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion throughout its operations.

Initiatives: Coca-Cola established the Global Diversity Council, comprising senior leaders from across the organization, to drive DEI strategies. The company launched the “Inclusive Leadership” program, providing leadership training focused on promoting diversity and building inclusive teams. Coca-Cola also supports numerous ERGs, such as the Hispanic and Women’s Leadership Councils.

Results: The Company’s dedication to DEI has led to positive organizational outcomes. Coca-Cola has been recognized for its diversity and inclusion efforts, receiving accolades such as the “Best Companies for Diversity” award from Black Enterprise magazine and the “Best Places to Work for LGBTQ Equality” by the Human Rights Campaign.

6.2       Impact of DEI on Organizational Performance

Case Study 3: Johnson & Johnson

Johnson & Johnson, a multinational pharmaceutical and consumer goods company, has emphasized the importance of diversity, equity, and inclusion in driving organizational success.

Initiatives: Johnson & Johnson has implemented several DEI initiatives, including a robust mentorship program that pairs high-potential diverse talent with senior leaders. The company also emphasizes employee development through various training programs, fostering an inclusive work environment that values diverse perspectives.

Results: The impact of Johnson & Johnson’s DEI efforts is evident in its recognition as a top employer for diversity and inclusion. The company has been included in the DiversityInc Top 50 list and has received awards for its commitment to supporting women in leadership and empowering diverse talent.

Case Study 4: Salesforce

Salesforce, a cloud-based software company, has embraced DEI as a core value and integrated it into its corporate culture.

Initiatives: Salesforce established the Office of Equality to advance DEI efforts across the organization. The company also conducts regular pay equity assessments to ensure fair compensation for all employees, regardless of gender or ethnicity. Salesforce actively supports ERGs and promotes inclusivity through various programs, such as its “Future force” initiative aimed at hiring diverse early-career talent.

Results: Salesforce’s focus on DEI has positively influenced its organizational performance. The company has received recognition for its diverse workforce and inclusive workplace, receiving accolades such as being named one of the “Best Workplaces for Diversity” by Great Place to Work®.

Challenges and Barriers

Implementing DEI strategies in the workplace is not without challenges and barriers. Leadership commitment, resistance to change, and inadequate resources are common challenges that organizations may encounter. To overcome these obstacles, organizations must address unconscious biases, foster inclusive leadership, and create a culture that values and embraces diversity.

7.1       Common Challenges in Implementing DEI Strategies

Challenge 1: Lack of Leadership Commitment

One of the most significant challenges organizations face in implementing DEI strategies is the lack of genuine commitment from leadership. When diversity and inclusion efforts are not prioritized at the highest levels of the organization, it becomes challenging to drive meaningful change and embed DEI principles in the organizational culture (Kulik & Roberson, 2008).

Challenge 2: Resistance to Change

Resistance to change is a common barrier in DEI initiatives. Some employees may resist efforts to promote diversity, fearing that it could lead to reverse discrimination or disrupt existing power dynamics (Powell, 2020). Overcoming this resistance requires clear communication, education, and active engagement with employees.

Challenge 3: Inadequate Resources and Support

Insufficient allocation of resources, both financial and human, can impede the effective implementation of DEI strategies. Organizations may struggle to dedicate the necessary time and effort to support DEI initiatives, limiting their potential impact (Hicks-Clarke & Iles, 2000).

7.2       Overcoming Resistance and Bias

Barrier 1: Unconscious Bias

Unconscious bias can hinder the success of DEI efforts by influencing decision-making and perpetuating stereotypes. Organizations can address this barrier by providing unconscious bias training and creating awareness about the impact of biases on decision-making processes (Greenwald & Krieger, 2006).

Barrier 2: Cultural Resistance

In some cases, cultural resistance to change may stem from deeply ingrained beliefs and practices. Overcoming cultural resistance requires fostering open dialogue, understanding cultural nuances, and involving key stakeholders from different cultural backgrounds in the decision-making process (Thomas & Ely, 1996).

Barrier 3: Inclusive Leadership

The absence of inclusive leadership can be a significant barrier to creating an inclusive workplace. Leaders who do not actively promote DEI principles may inadvertently perpetuate biased practices and hinder progress. Developing inclusive leadership skills and behaviors is essential for overcoming this barrier (Härtel et al., 2016).

7.3       Addressing Intersectionality in DEI Efforts

Barrier 1: Limited Understanding of Intersectionality

Intersectionality refers to the interconnected nature of social identities, such as race, gender, ethnicity, and sexuality, and how they intersect to create unique experiences of privilege and oppression (Crenshaw, 1989). Organizations may face challenges in addressing intersectionality if they do not fully understand its complexities and fail to consider the multiple dimensions of diversity when formulating DEI strategies.

Barrier 2: One-Size-Fits-All Approaches

Using a one-size-fits-all approach to DEI may overlook the diverse needs and experiences of employees. Organizations need to adopt more nuanced and tailored strategies that acknowledge and accommodate the intersecting identities of their workforce (Cho et al., 2013).

Barrier 3: Resistance to Intersectional Perspectives

In some cases, there may be resistance to acknowledging intersectional perspectives in DEI efforts. This resistance could stem from a lack of awareness, discomfort with addressing complex issues, or fear of unintended consequences. Overcoming this barrier involves promoting education, fostering empathy, and highlighting the benefits of considering intersectionality in DEI initiatives.

8.         Summary, Conclusion and recommendation of Findings

8.1       Summary of findings

The exploration of the effectiveness of HR strategies and practices in fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in the workplace, as well as understanding the benefits of a diverse workforce in Nigeria, has revealed several key findings. Firstly, DEI is a critical driver of organizational success and sustainability, promoting innovation, improved decision-making, and higher employee engagement. Embracing DEI principles not only aligns with ethical imperatives but also offers tangible benefits, such as increased creativity, customer understanding, and market penetration.

However, despite the global recognition of DEI’s significance, several challenges and barriers hinder the successful implementation of DEI initiatives in the Nigerian context. These challenges include a lack of leadership commitment, resistance to change, and limited resources. Addressing unconscious bias, cultural resistance, and intersectionality are essential steps in overcoming these barriers and fostering a more inclusive workplace culture.

8.2       Conclusion

Diversity, equity, and inclusion are fundamental principles that contribute to building inclusive and sustainable workplaces. Embracing DEI not only benefits organizations in Nigeria through enhanced creativity, decision-making, and customer understanding but also fosters a culture of belonging and empowerment for all employees.

8.3       Recommendations and Best Practices

Developing a comprehensive DEI strategy, prioritizing key initiatives for HR, integrating DEI into the organizational culture, and embracing continuous improvement and evaluation are essential for fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace.

8.3.1    Developing a Comprehensive DEI Strategy

a. Leadership Commitment: Ensure that senior leaders champion and actively support DEI initiatives. Leadership commitment sets the tone for the organization and demonstrates a genuine dedication to fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion.

b. Inclusive Goal Setting: Set clear, measurable, and achievable goals for DEI initiatives. Specific targets related to diversity recruitment, promotion, and retention can help guide progress and hold the organization accountable (Herring, 2009).

c. . Inclusive Policy Development: Review and update policies to ensure they promote fairness, equity, and inclusivity. Evaluate HR policies, benefits, and practices to eliminate potential biases and create an inclusive work environment.

8.3.2    Top Priorities for HR in Fostering DEI

a. Diverse Hiring Practices: Implement inclusive recruitment and hiring practices, such as diverse sourcing and blind recruitment, to attract a broad and diverse talent pool (Rynes et al., 2004).

b. Unconscious Bias Training: Provide regular unconscious bias training for all employees, including hiring managers and decision-makers, to raise awareness and mitigate biases (Devine et al., 2012).

c. Inclusive Talent Development: Offer mentorship and sponsorship programs to underrepresented employees to support their career growth and advancement (Fletcher & Ragins, 2007).

8.3.3    Integrating DEI into Organizational Culture

a. Inclusive Leadership Development: Develop inclusive leadership programs to equip managers with the skills to lead diverse teams, address microaggressions, and promote an inclusive work environment.

b. Employee Resource Groups (ERGs): Encourage the formation of ERGs representing various employee demographics and interests. Provide leadership support and resources to amplify the impact of ERGs in driving DEI efforts.

c. Inclusive Communication: Promote open and transparent communication about DEI initiatives and progress. Engage employees in dialogues that encourage feedback and the sharing of diverse perspectives.

8.3.4    Continuous Improvement and Evaluation

a. Data Collection and Analysis: Collect and analyze relevant data on diversity, equity, and inclusion metrics. Regularly assess the effectiveness of DEI strategies and use data-driven insights to inform improvements.

b. Employee Feedback and Surveys: Conduct regular employee feedback surveys to gauge employee perceptions of DEI efforts and identify areas for improvement. Employee input is valuable in shaping DEI strategies.

c. Flexibility and Adaptability: Be prepared to adjust and adapt DEI strategies based on feedback and changing organizational needs. Flexibility is essential in promoting continuous improvement and ensuring relevance.

9.1       Implications for Practice

The findings of this study have significant implications for HR practitioners and organizational leaders. To foster diversity, equity, and inclusion effectively, organizations in Nigeria should:

a. Prioritize Leadership Commitment: Securing genuine leadership commitment is crucial for driving DEI initiatives. Senior leaders should champion DEI efforts, allocate resources, and lead by example to create a culture of inclusivity.

b. Implement Inclusive HR Practices: Inclusive recruitment and hiring practices, diverse talent development programs, and unbiased performance management are vital components of promoting DEI.

c. Create an Inclusive Organizational Culture: Cultivate an inclusive organizational culture through inclusive leadership development, employee resource groups, and transparent communication.

9.2       Future Research Directions

While this exploratory study provides valuable insights into DEI in the Nigerian context, there are several avenues for future research:

a. Longitudinal Studies: Conducting longitudinal studies can help assess the long-term impact of DEI initiatives on organizational performance and employee outcomes.

b. Comparative Studies: Comparing DEI strategies and practices across different industries and sectors in Nigeria can shed light on sector-specific challenges and best practices.

c. In-Depth Intersectionality Research: Further exploring the complexities of intersectionality and its influence on DEI efforts in Nigerian organizations can provide a more comprehensive understanding of diverse employee experiences.

d. Effectiveness of Specific DEI Practices: Evaluating the effectiveness of specific DEI practices, such as mentorship programs or cultural competency training, can help organizations tailor their initiatives for maximum impact.

By addressing these research gaps, scholars and practitioners can gain a deeper understanding of DEI in the Nigerian workplace and develop evidence-based strategies to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion effectively.

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