Are you passionate about journalism and eager to gain real-world experience in the media industry? Track2Training, a leading platform dedicated to skill development and professional growth, is offering an exciting internship opportunity for aspiring journalists. This internship is your chance to sharpen your writing, reporting, and media skills while contributing to a platform that values creativity and impactful storytelling.

About Track2Training

Track2Training is a dynamic platform focused on providing quality training and internship opportunities to students and professionals. It operates across multiple domains, including journalism, education, technology, and social impact. With a mission to nurture talent and foster innovation, Track2Training offers a robust learning environment for individuals looking to enhance their skills and make meaningful contributions to society.

Why Join the Journalism Internship at Track2Training?

This internship offers a unique blend of hands-on learning, mentorship, and professional exposure. Here’s why you should consider applying:

1. Practical Experience:
   • Work on real-time projects, including news reporting, feature writing, and content creation.
   • Gain experience in researching, editing, and publishing articles on a well-recognized platform.
2. Skill Development:
   • Develop essential journalism skills, including fact-checking, storytelling, and multimedia content creation.
   • Learn about journalistic ethics, audience engagement, and digital content strategies.
3. Guidance from Experts:
   • Receive mentorship from seasoned journalists and content creators at Track2Training.
   • Get valuable feedback to refine your writing and reporting skills.
4. Portfolio Building:
   • Publish your articles with bylines on Track2Training, building a professional portfolio to showcase your work.
5. Flexible Work Options:
   • The internship is designed to be remote, enabling you to work from anywhere.
6. Career Growth Opportunities:
   • Exceptional interns may be offered long-term collaborations or freelance opportunities with Track2Training.

Roles and Responsibilities

As a journalism intern at Track2Training, you will:

• Research and write articles, blogs, and feature stories on various topics.
• Conduct interviews and gather firsthand insights from subject matter experts.
• Edit and proofread content to ensure accuracy, clarity, and relevance.
• Collaborate with the editorial team to plan and execute engaging content.
• Assist with multimedia projects, including podcasts, videos, and graphics.
• Promote published content on social media to reach a wider audience.

Eligibility Criteria

Track2Training welcomes applications from students and recent graduates who meet the following requirements:

• A background in journalism, mass communication, or related fields (preferred but not mandatory).
• Strong writing and editing skills with a good command of the English language.
• A passion for storytelling, current events, and digital media.
• Familiarity with basic digital tools and social media platforms.
• Self-motivated and able to meet deadlines in a fast-paced environment.

Internship Duration and Benefits

• The internship duration ranges from 1 to 6 months, depending on the candidate’s availability and performance.
• All interns will receive a certificate of completion at the end of the internship.
• Top-performing interns may be considered for advanced roles or long-term opportunities.

How to Apply

To apply for the journalism internship at Track2Training, follow these steps:

1. Prepare a resume detailing your skills, education, and achievements.
2. Write a cover letter expressing your interest in journalism and why you want to join Track2Training.
3. Attach 2-3 samples of your written work (articles, essays, or blogs).

Submit your application via email to info@track2training.com with the subject line “Application for Journalism Internship.”

What Our Interns Say

• “The internship at Track2Training was a turning point for me. The guidance I received helped me understand the nuances of journalism and build confidence in my abilities.” – Kavita Sharma
• “Track2Training gave me the opportunity to publish my work and gain hands-on experience. The flexibility and mentorship were invaluable.” – Rohit Gupta

Conclusion

The journalism internship at Track2Training is more than just an opportunity—it’s a platform to learn, grow, and make a mark in the media industry. By joining this program, you’ll gain practical experience, build a strong portfolio, and develop the skills needed to succeed in journalism.

Don’t miss this chance to kickstart your journalism career. Apply now and become a part of Track2Training’s mission to empower aspiring professionals!

Mina Margaret Ogbanga

River State University.

Department of Social Work

Mina.Ogbanga@ust.edu.ng

Abstract

The adoption of clean energy for household cooking has become a critical issue in reducing environmental degradation and improving public health. This study assesses the barriers to the adoption of clean energy in Okrika Local Government Area, Nigeria, where traditional cooking fuels, such as firewood and kerosene, remain prevalent. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, including household surveys and interviews, to identify key factors hindering the transition to cleaner energy sources such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity. The results reveal that socio-economic constraints, including the high cost of clean energy technologies, lack of infrastructure, cultural preferences for traditional fuels, and limited awareness about the benefits of clean energy, are significant barriers. Additionally, unreliable energy supply and inadequate government policies exacerbate the challenge. The study concludes by recommending targeted interventions, such as financial incentives, community education programs, and improved energy infrastructure, to promote the widespread adoption of clean cooking solutions in the region. Addressing these barriers is crucial to enhancing household energy security, improving health outcomes, and reducing environmental impacts in Okrika.

Introduction

Poor access to clean and healthy energy sources for cooking has been a major problem confronting Okrika Local Government Area of Rivers State. In most families, women are either cooking with kerosene stove, charcoal or firewood. This practice has observably gone on for many years unabated. Studies have shown that the non-use of clean energy for cooking is responsible for a number of social and environmental health hazards currently plaguing the world. For instance, an annual premature death of 2.8 million people was recently reported due to smoky environments caused by burning solid biomass in inefficient stoves and or from combustion of kerosene or coal for cooking (IEA, 2017). Furthermore, overreliance on traditional energy sources like wood and agricultural residues has been identified as a leading cause of deforestation. More worrying is the fact that household energy consumption in developing countries has been identified as contributing more to climate change relative to developed countries, since high concentration of methane and black carbon resulting from incomplete combustion of biomass and other solid fuels is generated in developing countries due to predominant use of traditional stoves (WHO, 2011). Empirically, this study acknowledges the existence of several studies such as those conducted by Oyekale (2012), Mensah and Adu (2015), Karimu (2015) and Nlomand Karimu (2015) that have examined the phenomenon of household cooking fuel. However, while these studies only focused on explaining the factors influencing household cooking fuel choice at both local and national perspectives, none offers an explanation as to how women organisations would help to improve the use of clean fuel for cooking in households. It is against this backdrop that this study is designed to bridge the gap in literature by examining the role of women organizations in promoting the use of clean energy. This would be done with focus on Okrika Local Government Area of Rivers State.

Aim and objective of the study

To assess the barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking.

Research question

What are the barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking?

Significance of the study

Practical significance: this study would provide information on the effects of not using clean energy for cooking. This would encourage informed choices among women. The study would also provide information on the factors that influence a family’s energy choice for cooking. The government, international organisations and other stakeholders would find useful, such data for the formulation of relevant policies geared towards promoting the adoption of clean energy for cooking. Also, traditional heads and the society at large would be made to understand how the society could use socio-cultural associations such as women groups to improve healthy lifestyle in our local communities.

Scope of the study

The study examines the role of women organisations in promoting the use of clean energy for household cooking.  The specific issues to be considered are: the factors that influence a family’s cooking energy; the barriers affecting the adoption of clean energy for household cooking; the potential of women organisations in promoting the use of clean energy for household cooking and the implications of heavy use of non-clean energy for household cooking. All these would follow a critical look at the commonly used forms of energy. The study locale is Okrika Local Government Area of Rives State.

Definition of terms

Women: these are members of the female gender

Organisations: a group of people with an explicit purpose and written rules.

Women organisations: these are cultural associations comprising women who unite on the bases of certain socio-cultural factors such as age, marital status and economic standing.

Energy: a substance that allows people to do work.

Clean energy: clean energy refers to any source of fuel that is efficient and poses less environmental health challenges.

Promotion: a practice is promoted when its use is supported ad encouraged

Household: a household is a family, comprising people who are related by blood or other some socially recognised process such as adoption and marriage.

Cooking: this refers to the activity or preparing food for personal or public consumption.

Barriers to the adoption of clean cooking energy

The factors that have hindered the adoption of clean cooking energy in Nigeria are discussed under the following sub-headings.

Gender of household head: There are literature indications that having a man as the head of the household increases the probability of a household using clean energy for cooking. In families run by women, the reserve is usually the case. As we know, female headed households are usually less financially strong compared to male headed ones which makes such households to settle for less expensive fuel for cooking, even if such fuel is dangerous to human health. Generally, female heads and consequently their households are economically vulnerable because of poor access to employment opportunities and resources which the men enjoy (Ogwumike, 2014; Rahut, 2017).

Age of household head: Studies have shown that the probability of using clean energy is also significantly linked with the age of the household head. For instance, it is shown in Baiyegunhi and Hassan (2014) that the probability of using gas as cooking fuel decreases as the age of household head increases when other variables are held constant, while it increases for firewood. This arises due to reduction in income of the head when he or she is no longer economically active coupled with the fact that such household head might not have any other source of income, either through remittances, pension or other income sources. The reality of low or no and unstable income (for pensioners) which is prevalent in Nigeria is seen to have lowered the standard of living of households with older heads. Other reasons could be due to the old habit of conservatism associated with older people. In this case, old folks may have become accustomed to the use of traditional fuel energy source(s) and thus are less willing to change towards modern reality of energy usage (Mensah and Adu, 2015).

Household size: Studies have proved that there will be a reduction in the probability of a household using clean energy for cooking as household size increases. This is majorly due to the amount of energy required for cooking for large number of persons and the consequent cost implication associated with it, which is higher for larger households. It is expected that larger households will prefer to use firewood, because it requires a large amount of fuel energy in aggregate to meet the family needs. In line with the submission of Pundo and Fraser (2016), it is comparatively affordable to use firewood for large family than LNG.

Education of household heads: There are indications that, increase in education attainment increases the chances of a household using clean energy as main cooking fuel while on the other hand, it reduces the likelihood of using kerosene, charcoal and wood as main coking fuels as expected, ceteris paribus. A positive and higher return to education can be deduced in this regard; that is, positive returns on employment opportunities, income and standard of living generally resulting in economic affordability of better and clean fuel energy options for cooking and other domestic uses (Bisu, 2016; Mensah and Adu, 2015).

Dwelling: Living in rural areas reduces households’ chances of using clean energy for cooking. It is suggested that rural life significantly increases the probability of using wood for cooking. This is mainly due to easy accessibility of firewood in the rural areas unlike urban areas where development in all forms has led to major deforestation; thus, various forms of improved cooking fuel energy are available to choose from. For this reason, the significant use of firewood is not unexpected (Ogwumike, 2014). This could also largely be a result of little supply of clean energy, the easy accessibility and availability of alternative fuel energy options in the rural areas.

Cost: The costs associated with acquisition of LPG gas ancillaries (i.e., cooker, gas cylinder, re-filling of the gas cylinder as needs demand) which is considered high considering the minimum wage in the country and the traditional perception of high cost and that usage of LPG gas is meant for the rich in the society is another factor affecting the use of clean energy (Sa’ad and Bugaje, 2016)

Research Methodology

Research Design

According to Cooper and Schindler (2016), a research design is like a plan by which a given research work is to be carried out. The descriptive survey research design is adopted for this study. The descriptive survey design is a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals (Kombo & Tromp, 2016). This type of design is also useful when collecting information about people’s attitudes, opinions, and habits (Kombo and Tromp, 2016).  Since this falls within the focus of this study, the descriptive survey would be the most appropriate design to be used.  

Population of the study 

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2019), the population of a study is that population to which a researcher wants to generalise the results of the study. The target population for this study are women in Okrika Local Government Area of Rivers State. According to the National Population Commission’s (2016) projection, the number of women in Okrika Local Government Area is 108,323.

Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

A sample is a smaller part of a statistical population where properties are studied to gain information about the whole (Kombo and Tromp, 2016). A sample size of 399 is adopted for the study. This is based on the application of the Taro Yamene statistical formula as represented below:

Where n is the subject of the formula

1 is constant

E² = margin of error (0.05)

N is the study population of the study (108323).

Therefore,

n = 108323/1+ 108323 (0.0025).

n = 108323/1+270.8075

n = 108323/271.8075

n = 399

The selection of the sample elements will be based on the accidental sampling technique. The accidental sampling technique involves selecting available individuals who indicate readiness to participate in the study. The respondents do not have to meet any predetermined criteria. Ten out of the towns/villages that make up Okrika LGA are selected for the study. This is based on the simple random sampling technique which involves writing the names of all constituent towns in separate pieces of papers which are put in a hat; and picking ten pieces after the hat would have shaken to shuffle the pieces of papers. From each of the selected communities, at least 39 respondents would be chosen to ensure fair representation. (See table 1 below for details)

Table 1            showing selected communities and sample size.

Serial  number	List of randomly selected towns	Sample size
1.	Abam–Ama	39
2	Okochiri	39
3	Opuado-Ama	39
4	Sara- Ama	39
5	Semembiri-Ama	39
6	Otobipi	39
7	Okujagu-Ama	39
8	Okumgba-Ama	39
9	Omoaobi	43
10	Ogoloma	44
Total	10	399

Sources of data

Two kinds of data are used for this work. First are primary data which are sourced first hand by the researcher from the field using questionnaires. The other are secondary data, sourced from secondary materials including books, magazines, journal articles, newspaper publications and encyclopedia.

Research setting

Okrika is one of the local Government areas of Rivers State. It has its headquarters located in Okrika town. The local government area is made up of several villages with four major districts. The 2006 census determined that the population of Okrika LGA was 222,026. The people of Okrika, like other Ijo sub-groups of the Niger Delta are organised into autonomous and co-equal canoe houses. Kinsmen leaving together in same area make up each War-canoe house. The languages spoken by the Okrika people are okrika and kalabari. Historically, the okrika people of old were polytheists, believing in several gods and deities. Others were animists who believed in many spirits including marine spirits and in the spirits of their ancestors. In modern Okrika, Christianity has emerged as the dominant religion. Traditional religion however still exists side by side with Christianity. Before the onset of oil and gas activities, the people of Okrika were predominantly farmers, fishers and traders.

Instrument of data collection

The research instruments used in this study are questionnaires. The questionnaires are designed using close-ended questions. The questionnaires have two sections. The items in the first section seek demographic information about the respondents such as age, experience and qualifications. The second part seek information on the research questions.

Validity and reliability of research instrument

Orodho (2015) defines validity as a prior qualitative procedure test of the research instrument in attempting to ascertain how they are accurate, correct, true, meaningful and right in enhancing the intended data for the study. Reliability on the other handis a measure of the degree to which the instrument yields consistent data after repeated trials (Mugenda and Mugenda 2013). After preparing the questionnaire, it would be submitted to the project supervisor for perusal. Her contributions would be incorporated to enhance content validity and reliability.

Method of data analysis

The analysis of the research questions would be done using simple percentage, pie-charts and histograms.

Data Presentation and Analysis, and Discussion of Findings

In this section, the data generated from the respondents during the field work are presented and analysed. This is followed by a discussion of the key findings of the study. 

Table 2            Socio-Demographics of Respondents

Age: Less than 18 19-29 30-40 41-50 51 and above Total	Frequency 19 45 51 65 35 215	Percentage 8.9 20.9 23.7 29.3 16.2 100
Sex: Male Female Total	105 110 215	48.8 51,2 100

Table 2 contains the socio-demographic data of the study respondents. This includes age and sex. The number of respondents who are less than 18 years old is represented as 8.9%. Those who are between the groups of 19-29, 30-40, 41-50 and above 51 have percentage scores of 20.9, 23.7, 29.3 and 16.2 respectively. The fraction if men who participated in the study is represented as 48.8%, while that of women is 51.2%.

Figure 1          Barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking.

Discussion of findings

The objective examined the barriers to the adoption of clean energy for household cooking activities. In this study, poverty is identified to be a leading cause of the problem. With rising inflationary trends, unemployment and decline in living standard, it is not unlikely that most families would resort to using non-clean energy such a firewood and charcoal since they are readily available and can be procured cheaply.  Corroborating this finding, is Sa’ad and Bugaje’s (2016) study of gas use in Nigeria. According to the authors, the outrageous costs gas cooker, gas cylinder and re-filling of the gas cylinder, constitute a barrier to the use of clean energy. Ignorance of the dangers associated with the use of non-clean energy is another factor. This problem is usually associated with illiteracy which lowers people’s understanding of how their actions may affect their health or that of society. It is not unlikely that a person who lacks information of how the use of non-clean energy can affect his life would care less about what source of energy he/she uses. As Mensah and Adu (2015) and Bisu (2016) support, education of household heads is a correlate of clean energy use. According to the scholars, being educated the likelihood of using kerosene, charcoal and wood as main coking fuels. However, while these scholars argued in terms of positive returns on employment opportunities the current study considers the issue from the point of view of information. The study further shows that leaving in a rural community also increases the use of non-clean energy. This is not unexpected, considering that poverty rate is usually higher and that modern energy sources are, in most cases, lacking in rural setting. Large household size is also an identifiable factor affecting the use of clean energy. The rationale is that when a family is too large, cooking is usually done in large quantity. This would mean increased cost of procuring clean energy which is already very high in price. As a result, such families would settle for cheaper alternatives of non-clean energy. As Pundo and Fraser (2016) confirms, it is comparatively affordable to use firewood for large family than LNG. The culture of conservatism is also prominent in influencing the poor adoption of clean energy. It is a major problem for most Africans to resist modern practices, particularly those that contravene largely with what they are traditionally used to. In this case, old folks may have become accustomed to the use of traditional fuel energy source(s) and thus are less willing to change towards modern reality of energy usage (Mensah and Adu, 2015).

Recommendations

1.         There should be intensive, monitored and sustainable development programme targeted at rural areas in Nigeria. These programmes should include massive deployment of infrastructures which will aid easy access to cleaner cooking fuel energy for households use.

2.         The Nigerian government could partner with women organisationsin the distribution of low cost technology accessories and ancillary materials needed for the use of LPG for cooking in the country.

References

African Women Power Network Reviews (2015). Fourteen (14) Leading

Ajanovic, A. (2011). Biofuels versus food production: Does biofuels production increase food prices? Energy, 36, 2070–2076.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.05.019

Asumadu-Sarkodie S, &Owusu, P. A. (2016f). The relationship between carbon dioxide and agriculture in Ghana, a comparison of VECM and ARDL model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. doi:10.1007/ s11356-016-6252-x

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016a). Feasibility of biomass heating system in Middle East Technical University, Northern Cyprus campus. Cogent Engineering,

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016b). A review of Ghana’s energy sector national energy statistics and policy framework. Cogent Engineering. 

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016c). Multivariate co-integration analysis of the Kaya factors in Ghana.

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016d). The potential and economic viability of solar photovoltaic in Ghana. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. doi:10.1080/15567036.2015.112 2682

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016e). The potential and economic viability of wind farms in Ghana Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. doi:10.1080/15567036.2015.1122680

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., &Owusu, P. A. (2016g). Carbon dioxide emissions, GDP, energy use and population growth: A multivariate and causality analysis for Ghana, 1971–2013. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-6511-x

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., Owusu, P. A., &Jayaweera, H. M. (2015). Flood risk management in Ghana: A case study in Accra. Advances in Applied Science Research, 6, 196–201.

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., Owusu, P. A., &Rufangura, P. (2015). Impact analysis of flood in Accra, Ghana. Advances in Applied Science Research, 6, 53–78.

Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., Rufangura, P., Jayaweera, H. M., &Owusu, P. A. (2015). Situational analysis of flood and drought in Rwanda. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 6, 960–970. doi:10.14299/ ijser.2015.08.013

Ayoub, M., & Abdullah, A. Z. (2016). Critical review on the current scenario and significance of crude glycerol resulting from biodiesel industry towards more sustainable renewable energy industry. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16, 2671–2686.

Baiyegunhi, L.J.S., Hassan, M.B. (2014), Rural household fuel energy transition: Evidence from Giwa LGA Kaduna State, Nigeria. Energy for Sustainable Development, 20(1), 30-35.

Barbier, E. (2016). Geothermal energy technology and current status: An overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 6, 3–65. Demirbas, M. F., Balat, M., &Balat, H. (2019). Potential contribution of biomass to the sustainable energy development. Energy Conversion and Management, 50, 1746–1760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-0321(02)00002-3

Bhattacharyya, S.C., Timilsina, G.R. (2019), Energy Demand Models for Policy Formulation. A Comparative Study of Energy Demand Models. Washington D.C: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4866.

Bisu, D., Kuhe, A., Iortyer, H. (2016), Urban household cooking energy choice: An example of Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 6(1), 15.

Brew-Hammond, A. (2016), Energy access in Africa: Challenges Ahead. Energy Policy, 38(5), 2291-2301.

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2023). Fundamentals of Research Writing and Uses of Research Methodologies. Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd.

Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Seyboth, K.,Matschoss, P., Kadner, S. and Stechow, C.  (2016). Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139151153

EEA. (2016). Mitigating climate change, greenhouse gas emissions. Retrieved from http://www.eea. europa.eu/soer-2015/countries-comparison/ climatechange-mitigation

Environmental Science and Pollution Research. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-6245-9

Førsund, F. R. (2015). Hydropower economics (Vol. 217). New York: Springer.

IEA (2014). Energy and poverty. In: World Energy Outlook 2002. International Energy Agency, Paris.

IEA. (2017), Energy Access Outlook 2017: From Poverty to Prosperity. World Energy Outlook Special Report. Available from: http://www. iea.org/energyaccess.

Karimu, A. (2015), Cooking fuel preferences among Ghanaian households: An empirical analysis. Energy for Sustainable Development, 27, 10-17.

Manwell, J. F., McGowan, J. G., & Rogers, A. L. (2015). Wind energy explained: Theory, design and application. Wiley.

Mensah, J, T.,  Adu, G. (2016). An empirical analysis of household energy choice in Ghana. Working paper 06/2012 Swedish University of Agriculture Science, Department of Economics. 

Mensah, J.T., Adu, G. (2015), An empirical analysis of household energy choice in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 51, 1402-1411.

Nlom, J.H., Karimov, A.A. (2015), Modeling fuel choice among households in Northern Cameroon. Sustainability, 7(8), 9989-9999.

OECD and IEA. 2010. CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. Paris, Organization for Economic Co- operation and Development & International Energy Agency, 2010:130.

Ogbanga, M. M. (2024). Communication Skills in Social Work. EduPedia Publications Pvt Ltd.

Ogbanga, M. M. (2024). Oil, Gender and Unemployment: Social Issues in the Niger. Eduindex.

Ogbanga, M. M., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Climate Change and Mental Heat. EduPedia Publications Pvt Ltd.

Ogwumike, F.O., Ozughalu, U. (2016), Energy consumption, poverty and environmental linkages In Nigeria: A case of traditional and modern fuels for cooking. In: Adenikinju, A., Iwayemi, A., Iledare, W., editors. Green Energy and Energy Security: Options for Africa. Ibadan: Atlantis Books. pp.235-254.

Ogwumike, F.O., Ozughalu, U.M. (2016), Analysis of energy poverty and its implications for sustainable development in Nigeria. Environment and Development Economics, 21(3), 273-290.

Ogwumike, F.O., Ozughalu, U.M., Abiona, G.A. (2014), Household energy use and determinants : Evidence from Nigeria. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 4(2), 248-262.

Olojede, I. (2018). Women’s Interest Organizations: Encounters With the State on Issues of Good Governance. Report. Civil Society and Governance Programmes, IDS, Department of Political Science, Lagos State University, Ojo Nigeria.

Organizations Changing the Lives of Nigerian Women and Girls. Available online at https://awpnetwork.com (Accessed October 13, 2015).

Oyekale, A.S. (2012), Assessment of households’ access to electricity and modern cooking fuels in rural and Urban Nigeria: Insights from DHS data. Life Science Journal, 9(4), 1564-1570.

Rahut, D.B., Mottaleb, K.A., Ali, A. (2017), Household energy consumption and its determinants in Timor-Leste. Asian Development Review, 34(1), 167-197.

Sa’ad, S., Bugaje, I.M. (2016), Biomass consumption in Nigeria: Trends and policy issues. Journal of Agriculture and Sustainability, 9(2), 127-157.

Sharma, S. N. (Ed.). (2016). New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd.

Smith, K., Mehta, S. and Maeusezahl-Feuz, M. (2014), “Indoor Air Pollution from Household Use of Solid Fuels”, in Ezzati, M., Rogers, A., Lopez, A., Murray C. (editors), Comparative Quantification of Health Risks, Volume 2, WHO, Geneva.

Urban, F., & Mitchell, T. (2011). Climate change, disasters and electricity generation.

WEO, 2016.   World Energy             outlook.           Available         at; http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/20081994/weo2006.pdf.

WHO, 2011. Health in the Green Economy. Co-benefits of Climate Change Mitigation- Household Energy Sector in Developing Countries. Executive Summary. http://www.who.int/hia/hgebrief_henergy.pdf

s

The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is one of India’s leading public interest research and advocacy organizations. Founded in 1980 by noted environmentalist Anil Agarwal, CSE aims to promote sustainable development and advocate for environmental issues through a combination of research, education, and advocacy. Based in New Delhi, it has become a major force in raising awareness and driving policy changes in areas related to environmental protection, resource conservation, and social equity.

Key Objectives and Mission

CSE works with the primary goal of ensuring equitable, sustainable, and democratic growth. Its mission is to promote policies and practices that result in environmentally sound and socially just development. The organization’s work is grounded in the belief that the environment cannot be separated from the issues of development, poverty, and social justice.

The organization operates with the following broad objectives:

1. Research and Advocacy: Conduct in-depth research into various environmental issues and use findings to lobby for appropriate policy interventions.
2. Capacity Building: CSE focuses on building the capacity of government officials, communities, and organizations through training programs and information dissemination.
3. Public Awareness: It works to raise public awareness of critical environmental and developmental challenges, encouraging citizen action and participation.
4. Environmental Education: CSE plays a key role in educating students, professionals, and the general public on environmental concerns through books, reports, workshops, and online resources.

Major Areas of Focus

CSE’s work spans a variety of crucial environmental sectors, which include:

1. Air Pollution and Public Health: CSE has been at the forefront of campaigns for cleaner air, particularly in urban centers. The organization’s work has helped push for stricter emission standards for vehicles, promotion of public transport, and policies to reduce industrial emissions. Its notable efforts include pushing for the introduction of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in public transportation in Delhi, which was a game-changer in reducing urban air pollution.
2. Climate Change: Climate change is one of the organization’s core areas. CSE advocates for global climate justice, arguing that developing nations like India should not bear the same responsibilities as developed countries in terms of emissions reductions. CSE also promotes renewable energy and energy-efficient practices at the national and local levels.
3. Water Management: Water conservation and sustainable management of water resources are critical areas of CSE’s work. The organization is a strong advocate of rainwater harvesting, decentralized wastewater treatment, and watershed management. CSE has created several successful models that promote sustainable water use in urban and rural areas.
4. Sustainable Urban Development: CSE has been deeply involved in research and policy advocacy regarding sustainable urban growth. This includes work on urban mobility, waste management, and urban planning that integrates green infrastructure, affordable housing, and low-carbon technologies.
5. Waste Management: Waste management, including solid waste and hazardous waste, is a significant issue that CSE tackles through research and advocacy. The organization works on policies to improve waste segregation, composting, and recycling while advocating for policies that reduce the environmental impact of landfills and waste incineration.
6. Food Safety and Sustainable Agriculture: CSE has conducted extensive research on pesticides and chemicals used in agriculture, pushing for stricter food safety regulations. Its campaigns also focus on promoting organic farming, sustainable agricultural practices, and the reduction of chemical inputs in food production.
7. Environmental Education and Media: CSE believes in empowering the public with knowledge and thus runs multiple educational and awareness programs. It also publishes the well-known magazine Down to Earth, which covers various environmental and development issues in India and around the world.
8. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: The organization promotes energy conservation through the adoption of renewable energy technologies, particularly in rural areas. CSE also advocates for policies that encourage the use of solar power, wind energy, and other sustainable energy sources.

Key Programs and Initiatives

CSE’s various programs have earned national and international recognition. Some of its flagship initiatives include:

1. Green Rating Project (GRP): This project assesses the environmental performance of major industrial sectors in India. The GRP has been instrumental in encouraging industries to adopt cleaner technologies and sustainable practices.
2. The Right to Clean Air Campaign: One of CSE’s most successful initiatives, the Right to Clean Air Campaign, was pivotal in reducing vehicular pollution in Delhi by pushing for the transition to CNG-powered public transport.
3. Water Program: CSE’s water program promotes sustainable water management strategies such as rainwater harvesting and wastewater recycling. The Jal Swaraj campaign, which focuses on decentralized water management in rural India, is one of its hallmark programs.
4. Sustainable Buildings Program: This program works to promote green buildings and sustainable construction practices in India. CSE advocates for energy-efficient buildings and supports policies to incorporate sustainability into the real estate sector.
5. Community and Capacity Building: CSE offers training programs for government officials, NGOs, and local communities, focusing on various aspects of environmental governance, including waste management, climate change, water conservation, and air quality monitoring.

Global Influence and Recognition

CSE’s work has extended beyond India’s borders, with the organization influencing international environmental discourse, particularly in the areas of climate justice and sustainable development. It is a regular participant in global climate change negotiations and other environmental policy forums.

In 2005, CSE’s founder Anil Agarwal was posthumously awarded the Padma Bhushan, one of India’s highest civilian awards, for his contributions to environmental protection. CSE has also received several awards, including the prestigious Stockholm Water Prize for its work on water management.

Final words

The Centre for Science and Environment plays a critical role in shaping environmental policy and practice in India. Through its rigorous research, advocacy, and public outreach, it has helped to influence government policy, promote sustainable development, and raise awareness on critical environmental issues. The organization continues to evolve in response to new environmental challenges, staying committed to its goal of creating an equitable and sustainable future.

🌍 Unlock the Foundations of Urban and Regional Planning!

Dive into the essential theories that shape our cities and communities with our comprehensive Planning Theory Lectures. Whether you’re a student, a professional, or just curious about the intricacies of planning, these lectures are your gateway to understanding the principles that guide urban development.

📚 What You’ll Get:

• In-Depth PowerPoints: Visually rich slides that break down complex concepts into digestible insights.
• Detailed PDFs: Comprehensive documents that provide a deeper exploration of planning theories, perfect for study and reference.

🛠️ Key Topics Covered:

• Evolution of Planning Theories
• Rational Planning Model
• Advocacy and Equity Planning
• Sustainable Development and Planning
• Critical Urban Theory

👨‍🏫 Learn from the Best: Our expertly curated content is designed to enhance your knowledge, inspire critical thinking, and equip you with the tools to apply theory to practice.

Don’t miss out on this opportunity to elevate your understanding of urban and regional planning. Download your lectures today and start planning for a better tomorrow!

Key Concepts and Definitions

What is Theory PPT

What is Planning Theory

What is Planning Theory

Rate this:

Walled cities and fortifications represent one of the most defining features of pre-modern urban planning. From ancient civilizations to the medieval period, cities were often enclosed within defensive walls, gates, and protective systems to safeguard inhabitants from invasions, conflicts, and external threats. These fortified settlements were not only military structures but also shaped the urban form, land use, circulation, and socio-economic life of cities.

This topic is crucial in planning history as it demonstrates how security considerations directly influenced urban morphology.

---

1. Concept of Walled Cities

A walled city is an urban settlement enclosed by defensive walls, often supplemented with gates, towers, moats, and bastions.

Purpose of Walls:

• Protection from external attacks
• Control over entry and exit
• Assertion of political power
• Demarcation of urban boundaries

Examples:

• Jaipur
• Shahjahanabad
• Babylon

---

2. Historical Evolution of Fortifications

2.1 Ancient Period

6

• Early fortifications made of mud, brick, or stone
• Cities like Babylon and Harappa had defensive walls
• Focus on basic protection

---

2.2 Classical Period (Greek and Roman)

6

• Fortified acropolises in Greek cities
• Roman cities had strong walls and watchtowers
• Integration of defense with planned layouts

---

2.3 Medieval Period (Peak of Fortification)

7

• Extensive use of walls, moats, and bastions
• Cities designed primarily for defense
• Multiple layers of fortification

---

2.4 Early Modern Period

6

• Development of star-shaped forts due to gunpowder
• Geometric bastion systems
• Improved defensive technology

---

3. Components of Fortification

3.1 City Walls

• Thick and high barriers made of stone or brick
• Primary defense structure

3.2 Gates

• Controlled entry and exit points
• Often heavily guarded
• Example: gates of Jaipur

3.3 Bastions and Towers

• Projections from walls for surveillance and defense
• Allowed crossfire against attackers

3.4 Moats

• Water-filled trenches around walls
• Prevented direct attacks

3.5 Citadel or Fort

• Inner fortified area for rulers and administration
• Last line of defense

---

4. Planning Characteristics of Walled Cities

4.1 Compact Urban Form

7

• Limited space within walls
• High-density development
• Efficient land use

---

4.2 Controlled Expansion

• Growth restricted by walls
• Expansion occurred by building new walls or suburbs outside

---

4.3 Hierarchical Street Network

5

• Main roads connecting gates to central areas
• Secondary and tertiary streets branching inward

---

4.4 Central Core Development

• Palace, temple, mosque, or administrative center at core
• Markets located along main streets

---

4.5 Functional Zoning

• Separation of residential, commercial, and administrative areas
• Often influenced by social hierarchy

---

5. Examples of Walled Cities (Indian Context)

5.1 Jaipur

• Planned walled city with grid layout
• Nine-square mandala planning
• Controlled gates and wide streets

5.2 Shahjahanabad

• Fortified Mughal capital
• Red Fort as central citadel
• Chandni Chowk as main axis

5.3 Jodhpur

• Fort city with Mehrangarh Fort
• Dense settlement within walls
• Narrow streets for climate and defense

---

6. Planning Principles of Walled Cities

The major principles include:

6.1 Defense-Oriented Planning

• Security as the primary objective

6.2 Compactness

• Efficient use of limited space

6.3 Controlled Access

• Limited and monitored entry points

6.4 Hierarchical Organization

• Clear structure of streets and land use

6.5 Integration of Functions

• Residential, commercial, and administrative areas within walls

6.6 Adaptation to Topography

• Hill forts, river-based defenses

---

7. Advantages of Walled Cities

• Enhanced security and protection
• Strong sense of community
• Efficient land use
• Clear urban boundaries

---

8. Limitations of Walled Cities

• Restricted expansion
• Overcrowding and congestion
• Poor sanitation in dense areas
• Difficulty in accommodating modern infrastructure

---

9. Decline of Fortifications

Fortifications declined due to:

• Development of modern warfare (artillery)
• Political stability
• Expansion of cities beyond walls
• Industrialization and transport development

Walls were often demolished or converted into roads and public spaces.

---

10. Relevance to Modern Planning

Although walls are no longer required for defense, their planning principles remain relevant:

• Compact development → Supports sustainable urban form
• Controlled access → Used in gated communities and secure zones
• Defined boundaries → Urban growth management
• Walkability → Dense, mixed-use neighborhoods

In TOD context:

• Compact walled cities resemble high-density, walkable urban forms

---

Conclusion

Walled cities and fortifications played a crucial role in shaping the urban landscape of ancient and medieval times. They reflect a period when security, control, and defense were central to planning decisions. These cities developed compact, efficient, and well-structured urban forms within constrained boundaries.

While modern cities no longer rely on walls for protection, the principles derived from fortified settlements—such as compactness, hierarchy, and controlled growth—continue to influence contemporary urban planning. Studying walled cities provides valuable insights into how urban form evolves in response to external pressures and internal needs, offering lessons for creating resilient and well-organized cities today.

By Arjun Singh Lodhi

In recent years, Dubai has emerged as a global hub for employment opportunities, attracting talent from all corners of the world.

With its booming economy, diverse industries, and tax-free salaries, it’s no surprise that many individuals aspire to work in this vibrant city.

However, securing a job in Dubai requires more than just a desire to relocate.

Understanding the essential qualifications and requirements is crucial for job aspirants looking to make their mark in this competitive market.

Educational Qualifications

One of the primary qualifications sought by employers in Dubai is a relevant educational background.

While the specific requirements may vary depending on the industry and job role, having a bachelor’s degree is often considered a minimum standard.

Certain professions may necessitate advanced degrees or specialized certifications.

For instance, roles in finance and engineering typically require a bachelor’s degree in the respective field, while positions in healthcare may require specific medical qualifications recognized by the relevant authorities in Dubai.

Professional Certifications

In certain industries, possessing specific professional certifications can significantly enhance a candidate’s employability.

For example, individuals seeking employment in the fields of finance may benefit from certifications such as Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA) or Certified Public Accountant (CPA).

Similarly, professionals in the IT sector may find certifications like Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) or Project Management Professional (PMP) to be valuable assets on their resumes.

Job aspirants should research industry-specific certifications relevant to their desired roles and consider obtaining them to boost their credentials.

They can also explore available opportunities and compare jobs with salary in Dubai at UAESalary.com to gain insights into salary ranges within their chosen field.

Language Proficiency

Given Dubai’s multicultural environment and the prevalence of English as the business language, proficiency in English is typically a prerequisite for many job opportunities.

In addition to English, proficiency in Arabic or other languages commonly spoken in the region can be advantageous, particularly for roles that involve interaction with local clients or stakeholders.

Job aspirants are encouraged to demonstrate their language skills through standardized tests such as the IELTS or TOEFL, especially if English is not their first language.

Relevant Experience

Employers in Dubai place a high value on practical experience and skills relevant to the job role.

While entry-level positions may be available for fresh graduates, mid-level and senior roles often require a certain number of years of experience in a similar role or industry.

Candidates with a proven track record of success, demonstrated through previous employment, internships, or projects, are more likely to stand out to recruiters.

Visa and Work Permit

Before applying for jobs in Dubai, it’s essential for job aspirants to understand the visa and work permit requirements.

Non-citizens of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) typically require a valid work visa sponsored by a registered employer in Dubai.

The process of obtaining a work visa involves several steps, including medical tests, background checks, and documentation verification.

Job seekers should ensure that they meet the eligibility criteria for obtaining a work visa before committing to any employment opportunities.

Cultural Awareness and Adaptability

In addition to technical qualifications, employers in Dubai often seek candidates who demonstrate cultural awareness and adaptability.

Dubai’s workforce comprises individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, and employers value candidates who can navigate cultural differences and work effectively in a multicultural environment.

Demonstrating an understanding of local customs, norms, and business etiquette can enhance a candidate’s appeal to potential employers.

Networking and Professionalism

As with any job market, networking plays a crucial role in securing employment opportunities in Dubai.

Job aspirants are encouraged to leverage professional networking platforms, attend industry events, and connect with professionals working in their desired field.

Building a strong professional network can provide valuable insights, referrals, and job leads.

Additionally, maintaining a professional demeanour throughout the job search process, from submitting applications to attending interviews, is essential for creating a positive impression on prospective employers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while Dubai offers a wealth of opportunities for job aspirants, securing employment in the city requires careful consideration of the essential qualifications and requirements.

By obtaining the necessary educational qualifications, gaining relevant experience, acquiring professional certifications, understanding visa regulations, demonstrating cultural awareness, and networking effectively, job seekers can enhance their chances of success in Dubai’s dynamic job market.

With determination, preparation, and the right qualifications, aspiring professionals can embark on fulfilling careers in one of the world’s most exciting cities.

References

Buckley, M. (2012). From Kerala to Dubai and back again: Construction migrants and the global economic crisis. Geoforum, 43(2), 250-259.

Lodhi, A. S., & Sharma, S. N. Contemporary Trends in Commerce-The Rise of Ecommerce Industries.

Varrel, A. (2020). A job in Dubai and an apartment in Bangalore: Transnational dynamics of migrant property in globalizing cities. City, 24(5-6), 818-829.

By: Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Staff management is a critical component of running a successful company. The manner in which a business manages its employees directly impacts productivity, morale, and ultimately, the bottom line. To foster a positive work environment and maximize the potential of your team, implementing effective staff management strategies is essential.

Clear Communication

Open, transparent communication is the cornerstone of effective staff management. Providing clear expectations, goals, and guidelines empowers employees to perform their best. Regularly scheduled meetings, both one-on-one and team-wide, facilitate communication channels and ensure everyone is aligned with the company’s objectives.

Encouraging Collaboration and Teamwork

Fostering a culture of collaboration and teamwork among employees can significantly boost productivity and innovation. Encourage brainstorming sessions, cross-departmental collaboration, and team-building activities to cultivate a cohesive work environment. When employees feel valued and supported, they are more likely to go above and beyond in their roles.

Recognizing and Rewarding Performance

Recognizing and rewarding exceptional performance is a powerful motivator. Acknowledging achievements, whether big or small, reinforces positive behavior and encourages employees to strive for excellence. This can be in the form of bonuses, public recognition, or other incentives tailored to the preferences of your team.

Providing Opportunities for Growth and Development

Investing in the growth and development of your staff not only enhances their skill sets but also increases their loyalty to the company. Offer training programs, workshops, and mentorship opportunities that align with individual career goals. When employees feel that their professional development is valued, they are more likely to remain committed to the company’s success.

Establishing a Feedback Loop

Constructive feedback is crucial for improvement. Encourage a feedback-rich culture where employees feel comfortable providing input and receiving feedback on their work. This helps in identifying areas for improvement and allows for continuous growth both individually and as a team.

Embracing Flexibility and Work-Life Balance

Recognize the importance of work-life balance in maintaining a motivated and engaged workforce. Offering flexible work arrangements, such as remote work options or flexible hours, demonstrates trust in your employees and accommodates their personal needs. Employees who feel supported in balancing their professional and personal lives tend to be more satisfied and productive.

Handling Conflict and Challenges Effectively

Conflicts may arise in any workplace. Effective staff management involves addressing conflicts promptly and professionally. Implement clear conflict resolution procedures and encourage open dialogue to resolve issues before they escalate, fostering a harmonious work environment.

Leading by Example

Leadership plays a pivotal role in staff management. Leading by example sets the tone for the entire team. Managers who embody the values, work ethic, and dedication they expect from their employees tend to earn their respect and inspire them to excel.

Conclusion

Effective staff management is a multifaceted endeavor that involves fostering a positive work culture, providing support for professional growth, and creating an environment where employees feel valued and motivated. By implementing these strategies, companies can optimize their workforce’s potential, leading to increased productivity, higher employee retention, and overall success in achieving business goals.

References

Davis, John R., Edward P. Rawana, and Denise R. Capponi. “Acceptability of behavioral staff management techniques.” Behavioral Interventions 4.1 (1989): 23-44.

Jordan, Peter, and Caroline Lloyd. Staff management in library and information work. Taylor & Francis, 2017.

Lakbala, Parvin, and Mahboobeh Lakbala. “Knowledge, attitude and practice of hospital staff management.” Waste management & research 31.7 (2013): 729-732.

Quilitch, H. Robert. “A comparison of three staff‐management procedures.” Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 8.1 (1975): 59-66.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, Shankar Chatterjee, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Challenges and Opportunities.” Think India Journal 26.1 (2023): 7-15.

Suda, Kim T., and Raymond G. Miltenberger. “Evaluation of staff management strategies to increase positive interactions in a vocational setting.” Behavioral Interventions 8.2 (1993): 69-88.

By: Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Writing a comprehensive book review for a literature book involves a nuanced exploration of various elements, encompassing both objective analysis and personal reflection. Begin by immersing yourself in the book, carefully absorbing its contents and taking note of key aspects such as plot intricacies, character dynamics, and the overarching themes. It’s crucial to understand the author’s intent and evaluate how successfully they convey their message. When initiating your review, furnish readers with basic information about the book, including the title, author, genre, and publication date. Following this, provide a concise yet insightful summary of the plot without divulging major spoilers, emphasizing pivotal characters and events. As you delve into the analysis, scrutinize the author’s writing style, examining whether it is engaging, descriptive, or poetic, and elucidate on how this style contributes to the overall reading experience.

Delve into the exploration of themes and motifs, assessing their development throughout the narrative and how they enhance the depth of the story. The characters, as the heart of any literary work, warrant close examination—evaluate their complexity, development, and how effectively they resonate with the reader. Equally significant is the setting, and it’s imperative to discuss how it shapes the atmosphere and tone, enhancing the reader’s immersion in the narrative. Assess the pacing of the story and the structure of the plot, considering whether they maintain engagement or falter at certain points. Expressing your personal reactions to the book adds a subjective touch to the review; delve into what aspects resonated with you emotionally or intellectually. Constructive criticism, if necessary, should be articulated with examples from the book, providing a well-rounded perspective. Optionally, compare the book to others in the same genre or by the same author to provide additional context.

Considering the target audience is essential; reflect on whether the book effectively reaches its intended readership. Conclude your review by summarizing your thoughts and offering a recommendation based on the strengths and weaknesses discussed. The recommendation should guide potential readers toward the book if it aligns with their preferences and interests. Lastly, before finalizing your review, proofread it meticulously for grammatical and spelling errors, ensuring that your thoughts are organized and clearly articulated. This meticulous approach ensures that your book review serves as a comprehensive guide for prospective readers, combining both critical analysis and personal insights.

Writing a good book review requires a thoughtful and well-structured approach. Whether you’re reviewing a literature book or any other genre, here are some general guidelines to help you write an effective book review:

1. Read the Book Carefully:

• Before you start writing, read the book thoroughly. Take notes on significant plot points, characters, themes, and any notable quotes.

2. Understand the Author’s Intent:

• Consider the author’s purpose and message. What is the book trying to convey? How successful is the author in achieving their goals?

3. Provide Basic Information:

• Start your review by providing essential details about the book, such as the title, author, genre, and publication date.

4. Offer a Brief Summary:

• Include a concise summary of the plot without giving away major spoilers. Highlight the main characters and events that shape the narrative.

5. Discuss the Writing Style:

• Evaluate the author’s writing style. Is it engaging, descriptive, or poetic? Discuss how the style contributes to the overall reading experience.

6. Explore Themes and Motifs:

• Analyze the themes and motifs presented in the book. How are they developed throughout the story? Do they add depth to the narrative?

7. Examine Character Development:

• Discuss the characters’ depth, complexity, and development throughout the story. How well do you relate to or understand the characters?

8. Comment on the Setting:

• Evaluate how the setting contributes to the atmosphere and tone of the book. Is it vividly described? Does it enhance the reader’s immersion in the story?

9. Critique Plot and Pacing:

• Assess the pacing of the story. Is it well-paced, or does it drag at certain points? Evaluate the plot structure and whether it keeps the reader engaged.

10. Express Your Personal Reaction:

• Share your personal reactions to the book. What did you enjoy the most? Did any parts resonate with you emotionally?

11. Compare with Other Works (optional):

• If relevant, compare the book to others in the same genre or by the same author. This can provide context for your review.

12. Be Constructive in Criticism:

• If you have criticisms, express them constructively. Back up your opinions with examples from the book.

13. Consider the Target Audience:

• Reflect on who the book is intended for and whether it effectively reaches its target audience.

14. Conclude with a Recommendation:

• Summarize your thoughts and conclude with a recommendation. Who would you recommend this book to, and why?

15. Proofread and Revise:

• Before finalizing your review, proofread it for grammar and spelling errors. Ensure that your thoughts are well-organized and clearly expressed.

Remember that a good book review balances objective analysis with personal opinion. Providing specific examples and evidence from the book will strengthen your review and help readers understand your perspective.

References

Adshead, Gwen. “How I write a book review.” Psychiatric Bulletin 23.8 (1999): 510-510.

Bamyeh, Mohammed A. “From the editor: Ways to write a good book review.” International Sociology 29.2 (2014): 79-80.

Clark, Terry, and Leonard L. Berry. “Book Review: Learning to Write, Writing to Learn.” (1998): 123-125.

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Shashikant Nishant Sharma. “Fate of Slums of Bhopal-A Tale of Struggle and Resilience.” Think India Journal 26.4 (2023): 12-18.

Heyd, Michael. “How to Write a Book Review–And Why You Should.” Journal of Hospital Librarianship 17.4 (2017): 349-355.

Lee, Alexander D., et al. “How to write a scholarly book review for publication in a peer-reviewed journal: a review of the literature.” Journal of Chiropractic Education 24.1 (2010): 57-69.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Understanding Citations: A Crucial Element of Academic Writing.” (2023).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Book Review: City Times and Other Poems by Vihang A. Naik.” International Journal of Research 2.1 (2015): 781-783.

Stevens, Dannelle D. “Write Book Reviews.” Write More, Publish More, Stress Less!. Routledge 121-133.

By:

Okafor, Judith Nneka

Email: srnnejokafor@gmail.com

Prof. Nwogbo, Vivian Ngozi

Email: vn.nwogbo@unizik.edu.ng

Department of Educational Management and Policy, Faculty of Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate Principals’ ICT management ability as predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. Two research questions guided the study and two null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Correlational survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study comprised 5,286 teachers in the 263 public secondary schools in Anambra State. A sample of 528 teachers was drawn using proportionate sampling technique. Two sets of instruments titled: Principals’ Technology Leadership Questionnaire (PTLQ) and Teachers’ Technology Integration Questionnaire (TTLQ) were used to collect data from the respondents. Data collected were analyzed using simple regression analysis. Findings revealed that Principals’ ICT management ability of support is a moderate and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration, while Principals’ ICT evaluation ability is a strong and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that Principals need technology competence and skills to provide ICT facilities and support services for effective ICT programmes in schools in order to increase teachers’ technology integration in the school.

Keywords:  Principal, ICT management, technology integration

Introduction 

The use of communication as a medium of passing information from one person to another has been viewed as an important tool for managing change and innovation in organisations. The era of technology is a big change in the proactive way of doing things in the 21^st century. When this changes in information and communication technology are integrated into education, it produces knowledge and skills required for improvement in the educational system with impact on the society in general (Williams, Uchendu and Mbon, 2014).  However, teachers need to use ICT to enhance their teaching effectiveness. Thus, there has to be availability of prudent management of ICT resources by school principals and ensuring proper utilization of these resources to boost teachers’ technology integration. The proper management of ICT facilities in schools of learning is very paramount for execution of activities by the school personnel especially the teachers. 

Surbhi (2015) defined management as an act of planning and organizing people and their work, for achieving a common goal by using the organizational resources. The major activities performed by management include planning, organizing, controlling, coordination and decision-making. Management in ICT entails effective planning, organization, selection, support, assessment and training of human resources and managing the application of best available technologies for achieving the institutional goal and that of the learner. According to Nwizu (2016), management of ICT facility requires proper planning to serve as a hub upon which the transmission of knowledge is based. It is a process of determining ICT requirement that will ensure and enhance quality achievement of learning outcome. This will necessary serve both the students and the teacher to achieve the objective of the programme. The initial effort in outlining ICT plan is to determine the type of ICT apparatus that will be able to reach the students and be accessible to them.

Similarly, Oluyemesi (2015) stated that school principals are saddled with the responsibility of managing ICT in schools for the realization of educational goals, hence the need for management of ICT facilities such as computers, aiding the provision of internet services, projector, fax machine, interactive digital white boards, online zoom, video conferencing classes where students watch lecturers at home on the computers and smart phones, powerpoint slides among others to improve teaching effectiveness and students’ learning outcome. Besides, the overwhelming influence of ICT and social media in all facet of human life is so alarming. All life activities are connected to ICT and social media to the extent that whoever is not in the use of any type of ICT will appear (analogue) not to be moving along with the trend of the 21^st century. The era of technology is a big change to the proactive way of doing things in the 21^st Century.

In furtherance, Oluyemesi (2015) defined information and communication technologies (ICT) as those high-tech digital and electronic innovations and facilities that enable accessing, analyzing, processing, management and communication information over long distance. Also, it is a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to transmit, store create, share or exchange information which include computers, internet, live broadcasting technologies (radio, television, webcasting) recorded broadcasting technologies (podcasting, audio and video players, storage devices) and telephone and satellite technologies.  In agreement with the above, Ogonnaya (2017) defined ICT as an electronic technologies used in the creation, collection, storage, processing, retrieval, transmission of information between individuals for the benefit of human race. Therefore, management of ICT simply means planning, organizing and supporting the use of technology facilities to achieve an effective learning goal. Thus, principals should harness the integration of ICT facilities to support the operation and achieve the objectives of the entire programme.

Akuegwu, Ntukidem, Ntukidem and Jaja (2013) argued that the integration of ICT in teacher training programmes is vital in that teachers will gain knowledge in the use of ICT in teaching. That the knowledge-driven nature, powered by information and communication technology, has made the use of information and communication technology second to none in ensuring quality instructions in the schools. This means that ICT can be used by teachers to improve instructional activities at various levels of education. Hence, the ICTs, such as computers, internet facilities, video computer disc, and close circuit television among others increase the productivity of teachers. Therefore, there are factors that are involved in principals’ ICT management ability: ICT support ability and evaluation ability.

ICT support ability of a principal according to Akuegwu, Ntukiden, Ntukidem and Jaja (2013) entails having needed technology skills and changes aimed at maximizing learning achievement and goals through the supply and use of technology and mass media resources. It involves the process of providing support services for effective ICT programmes in schools such as videos, televisions, computers, ICT laboratory, and overhead projectors. Similarly, principals should utilize strategic partnerships to support comprehensive improvement, creating and maintaining a robust technology infrastructure, including integrated and manageable technology systems to support management, operations, teaching and learning exercise. This is to ensure that subject teachers can easily have access to ICT tools whenever needed.

ICT evaluation ability of principals is key element that ensure attainment of instructional outcome in learning experience. Thus, ICT evaluation ability of the school principal is the capacity of the principal to successfully assess ICT programmes in school. Evaluation of ICT can be in form of observing teachers use ICT to teach students, rating teachers’ ICT utilization and providing feedback to stakeholders who will be interested in knowing the extent at which their objectives have been achieved. Every principal is therefore expected to adopt appropriate evaluation ability to effectively assess the effects of use ICT on teaching and learning exercise. Nevertheless,  the competence factor plays an important role in the integration of ICT in the teaching and learning activities, whereby the competence of the user (teachers) are said to be balance with the integration in classroom exercise.

According to Charania, (2011), technology integration is when the electronic devices are fit in comfortably with the curriculum or instructional plans of teaching and learning exercise. Thus, technology rather than an additional layer in the classroom is embedded within the design of the teacher’s lesson plan and the pedagogy. Besides, in this approach, the teacher designs learning activities and students use technology to construct their own learning.  For instance, students use technology for seeking information, construct and organize their learning and represent it through computer applications. Thus, the teacher plays a role of a facilitator.

However, it has been observed that some principals lack ICT management ability to either support the integration of ICT in teaching and learning activities or evaluate the use of ICT by teachers. This is because principals do not show readiness to learn to become technology leaders in their various schools, while some do not have interest to become competent ICT managers. Some principals do not know how to access emails, online interactive classroom, and video conferencing or to integrate the use of scratch cards to check results by the student. This ICT non competent of the principals affects the goal attainment of schools. A typical example is during the outbreak of corona virus pandemic that brought a total lockdown of schools. Principals were advised to use different technology facilities to connect students to teachers in order to maintain on-going teaching and learning activities. It was expected that principals should work with their computers to ensure that the gap created by the lockdown was filled with ICT and online administration, but the reverse was the case. Despite the level of awareness, there were perceived attitude of computer phobia and withdrawal approach in the use of computer in administration. It is common experience today among the principals of the continued use of paper and pen in disseminating information on their school notice board. Most at time official information are mutilated or misplaced. This is very embarrassing and sort of worry that this kind of issue are still being witnessed in public secondary schools in Anambra state, when many formal organization have left analogy system to e-administration. This necessitated the need to investigate principals’ ICT management ability as predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary school.

Purpose of the study

The study investigated principals’ ICT management ability as predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state. Specifically, the study sought to: 

1. Find out the predictive value of principals’ ICT management ability of support on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.
2. Determine the predictive value of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study.

1. To what extent can principals’ ICT management ability of support predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.
2. What is the extent of prediction of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state?

Hypotheses 

The following formulated null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant prediction of principals’ ICT management ability of support on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state.
2. There is no significant prediction of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra state.

Method

A correlational survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study is 5,286 teachers in the 263 public secondary schools in Anmbra state. Proportionate stratified sampling technique was adopted for the study. The state public secondary schools were divided into six strata and the six education formed the six strata. Ten percent of the total number of each strata was sampled, given a total of 528 teachers as sample of the study. The administration of the instruments was carried out with the help of six research assistants. 528 copies of questionnaires were used for the study. The data for the study was collected using the two sets of instruments titled: “Principals’ Technology Management Questionnaire” (PTMQ) and “Teachers’ Technology Integration Questionnaire” (TTIQ). Principals’ technology management instrument was divided into two components that are collapsed. First component contained items on principals’ ICT support, and principals’ ICT evaluation item. The second set of the instrument is “Teachers technology integration questionnaire that contained 40 items. To establish the reliability of the instrument, the questionnaire was tested using twenty teachers outside the study area. The reliability indices for two components of principals’ technology management questionnaire were 0.80 and 0.72 respectively. The reliability index for teachers’ technology integration was 0.86. The overall coefficient of (PTMQ) was 0.82, while that of teachers was 0.86. Thus, the researcher considered the instrument to be reliable and fit for administration. This is in line with the view of Nworgu (2015) who posited that Cronbach Alpha is a good statistical tool for testing internal consistency of an instrument that have homogenous not dichotomous items and who also recommended that a co-efficient value of 0.70 and above is adequate for a research instrument. The data collected were analyzed using simple regression analysis. Muijs’ (2004) cited in Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007, p. 523) suggestion for assessing the goodness of fit of regression model using squared regression coefficient (R²) was adopted for the research questions. Where: 0 – 0.1 = weak, 0.1- 0.3=modest, 0.3 – 0.5 = moderate, > 0.5 = strong. For the hypotheses, p-value was used to determine the significance of the prediction. Where the calculated p-value is less than the stipulated level of significance (0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected. Whereas the null hypothesis was not rejected where the calculated p-value is greater than the stipulated level of significance (0.05)

Results 

Research Question 1: To what extent can principals’ ICT management ability of support predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State?

Table 1. Summary of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT management ability as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β
Constant	.63	.40	.40	67.08	2.31	.63
Principals’ ICT management ability of support				2.43	.12

Data in Table 1 indicates that principals’ ICT support is a moderate predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. This is shown by the regression coefficient (R =.63) and the coefficient of determination (R² = .40) which indicates that principals’ technology support explained 40% of the variance in teachers’ technology integration.

Research Question 2: What is the extent of prediction of principals’ ICT management evaluation ability on teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State?

Table 2. Summary of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT management evaluation ability as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β
Constant	.82	.68	.67	43.74	2.02	.82
Principals’ ICT management evaluation ability				4.45	.43

As shown in Table 2, principals’ ICT management evaluation ability is a strong predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. This is shown by the regression coefficient (R =.82) and the coefficient of determination (R² = .68) which indicates that principals’ evaluation explained 68% of the variance in teachers’ technology integration.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: Principals’ ICT management ability of support does not significantly predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.  

Table 3. Test of Significance of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT management ability of support as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β	t	F	P
Constant	.63	.40	.40	67.08	2.31	.63	28.95	362.98	.00.00
Principals’ ICT support ability				2.42	.12		19.05		.00

The analysis in Table 3 shows that the simple regression coefficient (R) is .63 while the R² is .40. The F-ratio associated with these is 362.98 and the P-value = .00, since the P-value is less than the stipulated 0.05 level of significance, it was decided that Principals’ ICT support ability is a significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected.

Hypothesis 2: Principals’ ICT management evaluation ability does not significantly predict teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State.  

 <                                                                                 

Table 4 Test of Significance of Simple Regression Analysis with Principals’ ICT Evaluation Ability as Predictor of Teachers’ Technology Integration

	R	R2	Adj.R2	B	SE B	β	t	F	P
Constant	.82	.68	.67	43.74	2.02	.82	21.65	1117.29	.00.00
Principals’ ICTevaluation ability				4.45	.13		33.42		.00

The analysis in Table 4 shows that the simple regression coefficient (R) is .82 while the R² is .68. The F-ratio associated with these is 1117.29 and the P-value = .00, since the P-value is less than the stipulated 0.05 level of significance, it was decided that Principals’ ICT evaluation ability is a significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected.

Discussion of Findings

The finding of this study indicated that principals’ ICT management ability of support is a moderate and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. This finding is in support of Rogers (2000) who examined the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of principals’ technology leadership and their use of technology in the classroom and found that teachers who stated that their school principals exhibited a supportive role in terms of provision of ICT technology for use in the classroom were more likely to integrate technology into their courses. In line with this, Hughes and Zachariah (2001) pointed out that when principals provide and make ICT facilities as well as other support services available for effective ICT programmes in schools, teachers’ technology integration in the school improves.

The study also revealed that principals’ ICT evaluation ability is a strong and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration in public secondary schools in Anambra State. Evaluation of ICT is the ability of school principals to successfully assess ICT programmes in their schools in form of observing teachers use of ICT to teach students, rating teachers’ ICT utilization and providing feedback to stakeholders who will be interested in knowing the extent at which their objectives have been achieved. The finding of this study supports that of Papa (2011) who found that school principals’ ability to observe and rate teachers’ ICT use in the classroom improves teachers’ ICT performance. This finding is not supported by Lafont (2011) that teacher’s technology integration cannot be predicted by Principal’s ICT evaluation. The finding of this study also contradicts Page-Jones (2008) who proved that there is no relationship between technology leadership and the use of technology by teachers in schools. The reason for this contradiction may be attributed to the location where these studies were carried out. The study by Lafont (2011) and Page-Jones (2008) were conducted outside Nigeria and that may have influenced the contrary findings.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher concludes that Principals’ ICT management ability of support is moderate and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration, while Principals’ ICT evaluation ability is strong and significant predictor of teachers’ technology integration. 

Recommendation

            Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:

1. Principals need technology competence and skills to provide ICT facilities and support services for effective ICT programmes in schools in order to increase teachers’ technology integration in the school.
2. The study also recommends that for teachers to embrace and implement educational technology in accomplishing the intended learning outcomes, principals must be able to successfully assess ICT programmes in their schools by observing teachers use ICT, rating teachers’ ICT utilization and providing feedback on the extent at which their objectives have been achieved.

REFERENCES

Akuegwu, B. A., Ntukidem, E. P. Ntukidem, P. J. and Jaja, G. (2013). Information and communication technology (ICT) facilities utilization for quality instruction service delivery among Universities Lecturers in Nigeria. Review of Higher Education in Africa, 3(1), 33-53. 

Charania, A. (2011). An integrated approach to technology in K-12 classroom. National seminar on information communication technology in education, department of education.

Cohen, L. Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. USA, Rutledge.

Hughes, M., and Zachariah, S. (2001). An investigation into the relationship between effective administrative leadership styles and the use of technology. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 5(5), 1-10.

Lafont, S. L. B. (2011). The relationship between principals’ technology leadership and the   teachers’ use of technology. South eastern Louisiana University.

Nwizu, S. C. (2016). Higher Distance Education Programmes in Nigeria: The Quality Perspective UNN 114^th Inaugural lecture retrieved on 2/8/18 from www.unn.edu.ng.>inaugural-final.

Nworgu, B.G. (2015). Educational research: Basic issues and methodology (3rd ed.): University Trust Publishers.

Ogbonnaya, C. N. (2017). Teaching profession and challenges of ICT in teacher education. In W. Cheta, F.D. Asodike (Eds). The Teaching Profession & Teaching in Digital World. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers. 115-125.

Oluyemesi, A. O. (2015). ICT and effective school management: Administrators’ perspective: Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering. London, UK. Retrieved from: www.iaeng.org/publication/wce2015. Pp 249 – 257.

Page-Jones, A.B. (2008). Leadership behaviour and technology activities: The relationship   between principals and technology use in schools. Doctoral dissertation, University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida.

Papa, R. (2011). Technology leadership for school improvement. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Rogers, P. L. (2000). Barriers to adopting emerging technologies in education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 22(4), 455-472.

Surbhi, S. (2015). Difference between Management and Administration. Retrieved July, 2018 from https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-management-and-dministration.html

Williams, R. E., Uchendu, C. C. and Mbon, U. F. (2014). Information and Communication    Technology facilities and public secondary school work performance in Akwa Ibom    State, Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Administration Planning and Research 6(1), 71-81.

by:

Koppula Ujwala

Lecturer in English 

TSWRDC

Ibrahimpatnam

Dr. Mellisa Helen

Assistant Professor

Nizam College, Osmania University

Abstract:

Language is a powerful tool that not only enables communication but also serves as a gateway to understanding diverse cultures, traditions, and perspectives. For English language learners (ELLs), the journey of acquiring a new language is a profound and often challenging experience. In this context, the development of linguistic intelligence takes center stage, offering ELLs a unique opportunity to harness the transformative potential of language through reading and critical thinking. This article explores the vital connection between linguistic intelligence, reading, and critical thinking within the context of English language learning. It delves into the ways in which reading literary texts can enrich the linguistic skills of ELLs and enhance their capacity for critical thought. As ELLs navigate the complexities of a new language, they embark on a voyage that not only broadens their linguistic horizons but also nurtures their ability to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information critically.

Through the exploration of literature, ELLs can expand their vocabulary, deepen their understanding of syntax and grammar, and sharpen their listening and speaking skills. At the same time, reading exposes them to the intricate tapestry of cultural and social nuances embedded in language, allowing them to appreciate the depth and diversity of the English language. However, this article goes beyond the linguistic aspects of language acquisition. It highlights how reading and critical thinking serve as powerful tools for ELLs to engage with different worldviews, perspectives, and ways of life. By immersing themselves in literary works, they can relate to characters, empathize with their experiences, and gain insights into the human condition. These experiences not only nurture their linguistic intelligence but also foster a deep appreciation for the interplay between language and culture.

A literary text stimulates the language acquisition process of a student in comparison to informational materials. The introduction of a literary book in a language school can enhance the proficiency of the students. It facilitates the expansion of the learner’s imagination and awareness of language necessary for good debate or discourse. Reading literary writings from other eras can provide a comprehensive understanding of the various cultures, social conventions, and sociopolitical conditions that existed at the time, enabling the student to project them when participating in conversations or debates on the issue. The article will delve into practical strategies and best practices that educators and ELL instructors can employ to harness the synergy between linguistic intelligence, reading, and critical thinking. By doing so, they can empower ELLs to not only master the English language but also to become adept critical thinkers who can navigate a world characterized by diverse linguistic and cultural landscapes. This article aims to shed light on the immense potential that reading and critical thinking hold for English language learners, as they embark on a transformative journey of linguistic growth, cultural exploration, and intellectual empowerment.

Keywords: Literature, Literary Texts, Language Learning, Language and Literature, critical thinking.

Introduction 

Literature and language are inextricably linked, a truth that no one can dispute. Brumfit and Carter (1986) have previously said that literature serves as “an ally of language.” The method of teaching language through literature is not a new methodology, but it has been frequently utilized as a tool for achieving educational objectives. Until now, there have been numerous adjustments to instructional approaches. Texts of the target language were read and translated using the grammar translation method of language instruction. The emphasis placed on grammar rules diminished interest in the text’s literary content. The structural approach to literature lost its legitimacy when it relied solely on the traditional canon. The functional notional approach placed less emphasis on reading and more emphasis on fixed communication using authentic language samples.

Literature and English Language Learning

According to Coleridge, the essence of literature is to beautify language. Language is a wonderful attire for touching human emotions. Literature and language are two sides of the same coin. Language, if literature is thinking, is for communication. It helps the development of English language skills through various genres, including plays, poems, short stories, novels, and lyrics. Literature is a learning instrument that assists the student to acquire English fluency. The learner will increase his vocabulary, word structures, and syntax through reading literature. It is essential for students to upgrade their English language skills in order to compete effectively in the global marketplace.

In recent years, teaching the English language through literature has gained considerable attention. According to researchers, literature enables students to become acquainted with vocabulary, dialogues, and writing that can be used to improve their language skills. Literature employs descriptive language and introduces a diverse cast of people. The students enhance their English language fluency and accuracy by developing their reading skills through the application of specific tactics. Students will develop knowledge of figurative language such as metaphor and simile, as well as demanding vocabulary. The study of literature for enjoyment is a potent educational instrument that instils ideals and cultural richness. Shakespeare’s works, such as Macbeth, Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, etc., continue to pique the curiosity of modern readers due to their present relevance and potential in substance and structure. Ben Johnson says it accurately: “He was not of an age but of all time.” The phrases he coined in his works are still in use today. For example: All that glitters is not gold (The Merchant of Venice, 1596), All’s well that ends well and The game is up (Cymbeline, 1611), etc.

“Literary texts can develop the student’s knowledge of language at the levels of vocabulary, structure, and textual organization,” (Hedge 1985 p. 22).

In recent years, the importance of literature in a language classroom has grown substantially. Literature is a potentially rich source of relevant information outside the classroom, according to Pugh. Literature teaches the learner to recognize creativity and higher degrees of imagination in all aspects of his daily life. It aids in the development of the student’s reading, writing, grammar, and vocabulary. This contributes to the total linguistic competence, which includes syntax, phonetics, diction, etc. As poetry contains a great deal of figurative language and pictures, students may encounter difficulty in its interpretation. Teachers of the English language can, however, transform this resistance into genuine interest.

Students can obtain knowledge of diction and sentence usage. Through the interactions with literary books, students can improve their communication skills. Novels, plays, and stories provide learners with an understanding of the culture that existed during various time periods, so enabling them to understand the vocabulary of other eras. Students can improve their writing abilities by engaging with literary materials and expressing their ideas. This enhances their critical reasoning. They may choose an alternative ending to a short narrative or compose a brief analysis of what they have read. In an interactive session following the reading of a literary text, students can exchange ideas that enhance their comprehension of the text.

Literature imbued with words conveys the essence of existence. English Literature has become the zenith of linguistic excellence with considerable finesse. Even though there have been several changes in the use of language as a result of advancements in various industries caused by the entrance of technology components, it has never lost its allure and will stay lovely forever.

Literature and Critical Thinking

In recent years, literature and the teaching of language and critical thinking through linguistic intelligence have gained significance. Literature is recognized as a collection of works containing significant language teaching materials. It contains a vast array of language-focused stories, plays, and poems. Literature can be utilized as a legitimate strategy for enhancing language levels. Literature discusses the people, locations, sociocultural elements, and cultural backdrop of many historical periods. This permits the student to gain an understanding of human nature. These universal concerns can be used to enhance language skills, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Literature aids students’ cultural enrichment and personal development (Collie & Slater, 1991; Carter & Long, 1991).

When students develop critical literacy abilities, they are able to rely on a variety of arguments and evidence to support their claims. For instance, hard sciences such as physics and biology advance by incorporating lower levels of knowledge and comprehension into newly introduced ones. Each new area of knowledge is constructed using a pyramidal structure. In contrast, educational sociologists such as Basil Bernstein (1999) explains that the humanities, such as literature and visual arts, tend to develop as independent entities along a horizontal line. For this reason, critical thinking and reading skills are developed and exhibited differently across fields. It is necessary to urge students to pay attention to the specific requirements of various school disciplines and to request feedback from their teachers on manifestations of critical thinking that have been deemed worthy.

Bloom’s taxonomy places ‘comprehension’ at the bottom and ‘evaluation’ at the top, with analysis, synthesis, and evaluation as the three highest levels, which are essential for developing critical thinking. (Kennedy et al., 1991). Bloom’s taxonomy is consistent with a centuries-old Indian idea called “Pari-Prashna” that encourages critical, analytical, and autonomous thinking. The term ‘prashna’ means ‘questioning,’ while ‘pari’ indicates ‘depth and persistent’ It is essential to comprehend the above-mentioned definitions of critical thinking at the outset.

Critical thinking is not a new concept, but it has only gained attention in recent years. It is a component of the Vedic learning method from an eastern perspective. Cromwell (1992) states, “Almost everyone agrees that one of the primary aims of education is the enhancement of student thinking. In the past ten years, there has been a growing concern that graduates at all levels lack higher-order thinking skills. Our educational system emphasizes grammar at all levels but places less emphasis on literature. Memory is detrimental to comprehension and application. This will hinder their future employment, and Hirose (1992) laments, “Many of today’s youngsters lack the reasoning and critical thinking skills required to analyze and refine knowledge in order to perform effectively in the workforce.” It is now required to understand the significance of critical thinking and, more significantly, how it may be fostered in students. Utilizing literature in a language-based classroom is one technique for developing critical thinking skills.

Literature contains tales, plays, and poetry that can teach students not only the language but also real-world settings. Reading literary works in a language school helps students improve their language skills and enhance their critical thinking. Reading literature requires the reader to engage in analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of ideas. While examining the plot and interacting with the characters in a work, the reader is prompted to consider and reconsider his or her thoughts. A good literary work should be difficult in multiple ways. The experience obtained from reading a text enables the student to think critically and develop other attributes such as self-confidence, problem-solving, and an open mind.

Analyzing, drawing conclusions, assessing, and making decisions are all components of critical thinking. As it serves multiple purposes, a literary text affords linguistic chances in a variety of ways. Reading books is enjoyable and enriches the reader’s language. In addition, reading fiction, nonfiction, and poetry exposes the reader to the events and people of various eras. Thus, literature fosters the ability to comprehend culture and recognize the shared experiences that bind people from throughout the globe. Literature affords the reader the opportunity to develop their imagination. These abilities enable them to be inventive and productive in their daily lives. They begin to interact with others who share the same emotions, evaluate the nature of others, and make acceptable life decisions. Higher-order thinking skills are directly related with creativity and imagination. These skills help the learner to internalize knowledge and turn it through critical analysis into cognitive tools. In addition, they support the development of learners’ scientific-related knowledge through science fiction, despite their lack of expertise in science and technology.

Reading a literary text enables the development of the reader’s imagination. Numerous characters in various literature allow the reader to consider them from their point of view. Sometimes the stories and characters mimic the lives of the readers, providing them with hints on how to handle their problems or respond to specific situations. Literature encourages readers to expand their imaginations, form new concepts, and go far beyond plain facts. It is a rich trove of diverse civilizations and traditions that illuminate human nature. Human emotions and human situations are grasped through the study of literature. This allows for the activation of cognition. Questions arise axiomatically, giving rise to critical thought. Thus, the cognitive abilities of the student are also stimulated.

Relationship between Reading a Text and Linguistic Intelligence

When engaging with a literary text, individuals with strong linguistic intelligence have the ability to savor the intricate beauty of the written word. They can appreciate the author’s use of metaphors, similes, and symbolism, allowing them to delve into the nuances of the narrative. This deep connection to language enables readers to immerse themselves in the story and vividly imagine the scenes and characters described. The text becomes a canvas on which linguistic intelligence can paint a vibrant mental picture, enriching the reading experience. Moreover, linguistic intelligence empowers readers to explore the minds of the characters and empathize with their experiences. Through dialogue, inner monologues, and descriptive prose, readers can tap into the emotions and thoughts of the characters. They can analyze the characters’ linguistic choices, understand their perspectives, and even relate to their personal struggles. This process not only enhances their imaginative capacities but also nurtures their ability to see the world through diverse linguistic lenses.

The parallels between the lives of the readers and the characters they encounter in literature serve as a powerful tool for individuals with linguistic intelligence. They can extract valuable insights from characters’ journeys, applying the wisdom gained to their own lives. Whether it is dealing with love, loss, ambition, or ethical dilemmas, literature offers a treasure trove of scenarios and linguistic expressions to guide readers in navigating their real-world challenges. Through this symbiotic relationship between linguistic intelligence and literary texts, readers can find solace, inspiration, and guidance, empowering them to make informed decisions and craft their own narratives. As linguistic intelligence delves into the rich tapestry of civilizations and traditions found in literature, it also nurtures the reader’s ability to decode cultural nuances and linguistic subtleties. Readers with this form of intelligence can appreciate the beauty of idiomatic expressions, regional dialects, and the linguistic evolution of a language over time. This broadens their understanding of human nature, enabling them to connect with diverse cultures and societies, and fostering a deeper sense of empathy and inclusivity.

Thus, reading a literary text is an intellectual adventure that greatly benefits individuals with linguistic intelligence. The interplay between language and imagination creates a dynamic space where readers can explore the human experience, empathize with characters, and draw inspiration for their own lives. Linguistic intelligence breathes life into the words on the page, making literature an invaluable source of intellectual and emotional growth, and a testament to the enduring power of language in shaping our world and ourselves.

Conclusion

According to Povey’s (1972) observation “literature will increase all language skills because literature will extend linguistic knowledge by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and complex and exact syntax” (cited in McKay 1982: 529). 

In the event that a difficulty arises in a brand-new circumstance, students typically rely on their former learning patterns or academic experiences. If they are armed with critical thinking skills, they will feel confident and come up with creative solutions to issues. Critical thinking enables the student to engage in relevant and engaging dialogues. This enables students to evaluate difficulties by gaining a thorough understanding of the available options, analyze through deft questioning, and synthesize by conceptualizing an original solution. All of these reside at the pinnacle of Bloom’s taxonomy. Questions spark curiosity in the minds of the learners, which ultimately leads to mastery. One of the fundamental purposes of education is to enable the student to achieve perfection through independent thought. Additionally, inquiries lead students to investigate. Therefore, learners/students should be enabled to formulate their own questions, albeit intensively at first, but progressing to a more extended level with the assistance of the teacher. The English language instructor may select basic passages, but pose questions that require students to sit up straight, think, and analyze while making decisions.

Students should be enabled to develop higher-order thinking skills. This is achieved by reading comprehension activities with unfamiliar passages. Collaborative learning can promote critical thinking since it allows for conversation, the generation of new ideas, questions, clarifications, and assessments. In order to improve critical thinking and problem-solving skills, technology-assisted collaborative learning might be incorporated into the objective if conventional methods fail to produce the intended outcome. Albert Einstein once remarked, “The significant issues we confront cannot be handled with the same level of thinking we used to create them.” In this period of fast change, students can no longer rely on outmoded ways of thinking. They must develop their critical thinking through assimilation in order to reach their aim of obtaining a higher education.

Reading and thinking critically are also required for research. To write a successful summary of a reading passage, for instance, students must be able to incorporate appropriate information, identify the most significant concepts, and be sufficiently detailed or generic. In addition, students must be able to supervise the process through which they read the section, form a thought, verify it with the source text, write the summary, and lastly compare the written summary with the source text. Additionally, it is vital to consider the target audience and goal of the summary, as both influence what will be written or kept (Taylor, l983). If critical thinking is essential for any student, it is absolutely essential for university students. Paul (1990) identified as a deficiency in the reading comprehension skills of university students the inability to “identify the evidence an author requires to explain the inferences that follow from what the author said” (p. 50). In an effort to remedy the deficiency in this academic cognitive skill, he argued that instead of approaching “written material as a collection of sentences,” a university student should experiment with “various interpretations until one fit all of the work, rather than ignoring or distorting statements that do not fit their interpretation” (p. 335). According to Paul and Elder (2014), the critical thinking abilities of university students are not limited to identifying the primary idea, critiquing it, or even accepting the materials you are reading; rather, they involve constructing a knowledge map and reading to comprehend systems of thought. They believed that “knowledge occurs in meaning systems with interconnected fundamental, secondary, and peripheral ideas” (p. 2). After gaining a comprehension of these conceptual layers, the reader would be able to think within the system.

In addition, the reader can determine the goal of the academic work by “taking command of the structures that are the basis of all thought” (p. 18) and by “actively initiating a dialogue with the writer” (p. 18).

In the pursuit of language mastery, English language learners embark on a remarkable journey filled with challenges and opportunities. The development of linguistic intelligence through reading and critical thinking emerges as a guiding light in this voyage. As this article has explored, the interplay between language, literature, and critical thought enriches the linguistic abilities of ELLs and nourishes their understanding of the world. English language learners are not merely acquiring a new means of communication; they are immersing themselves in a vast and intricate world of expression, culture, and imagination. Through the pages of literary texts, they gain not only vocabulary and grammar but also a profound appreciation for the subtleties and nuances of the English language. More importantly, they find in these stories a reflection of the human experience that transcends linguistic boundaries.

As educators and ELL instructors, we have the privilege of guiding these learners on this transformative path. By fostering a love for reading, nurturing critical thinking skills, and creating an environment where linguistic intelligence can flourish, we enable ELLs to navigate the complexities of language and culture with confidence and grace. The journey of linguistic intelligence through reading and critical thinking among English language learners is not just a quest for language proficiency; it is a voyage of self-discovery, cultural understanding, and intellectual growth. It is a testament to the power of language to unite, inspire, and empower. And it is a reminder that, in the world of education, we hold the key to unlocking the doors to a universe of possibilities for every English language learner.

REFERENCES

Banegas D. The Role of Literature in ELT – Part One, 2010.

Brumfit  CJ,  Carter  RA.  (eds.)  Literature and Language Teaching.  Oxford:  Oxford University Press, 1986.

Correia R.  Encouraging Critical Reading in the EFL Classroom.  English Teaching Forum 2006; 44(1): 16-19.

Arjen DK, Lazar G.  Literature and Language Teaching:  A Guide for Teachers and Trainers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. 

Brunfit, C. J, & Carter, R. A. (Eds.) (1986). Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 

Brumfit, C.(1985). Language and literature teaching: From practice to principle. Oxford: Pergamon Press.  

Brumfit, C. J. (1991). Language awareness in teacher education, in James, C. and Garrett, P., Language Awareness in the Classroom. London, Longman. pp. 24-39). 

Carter, R., & Long, M.N. (1991). Teaching Literature. United States of America: Longman.

Kennedy, M., Fisher, M. B., & Ennis, R. H. (1991). Critical thinking: Literature review and needed research. In L. Idol & B.F. Jones (Eds.), Educational values and cognitive instruction: Implications for reform (pp. 11-40). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates.

Collie, J.,& Slater, S. (1987). Literature in the language classroom; A resource book of ideas and activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cromwell, L., 1992. Teaching critical thinking in the arts and humanities. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions.

Hirose, S., 1992. Critical thinking in community colleges. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports, The George Washington University, ED348128

McPeck, J., 1981. Critical thinking and education. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2002). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional and personal life. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Financial Times Prentice Hall

Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (1987). Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the national council for excellence in critical thinking. Retrieved on Oct. 15, 2015 from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766.

by: K.V.B. Ravindra Babu

Associate Professor

Department of EoL

VFSTR (Deemed to be University)

Vadlamudi, Guntur.

Mail: kvbravindra@gmail.com

Abstract:

Listening is an essential skill required for information reception and conversational participation. Though it is a primary skill acquired by all of us at the early stages of life, it is not often verified to enhance its effectiveness in the learners. Effective listening involves a complex mental process which is not trainable easily.  Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) provides an opportunity to learners for real life language use. In the acquisition of second language learning, scaffolding techniques help the learners to accomplish the tasks with the help of ‘More Knowledgeable Others’(MKO) and thus extend their ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD). The present paper shares a part of doctoral research on ‘Using Scaffolding as a Technique to Enhance ESL Learners Language Proficiency at Tertiary Level: A Task-based Approach.  This paper presents the effectiveness of using scaffolding techniques to enhance the listening skills of the learners at graduate level in a private deemed to be university in the state of Andhra Pradesh.  The performance of the learners in this study is assessed as per the scales of Cambridge Assessment English and Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). 

INTRODUCTION

The language skills are broadly categorised into receptive and productive skills.  Reading and Listening are considered receptive skills as the learners receive information by reading a printed text or listening to sounds.  Some people consider that the receptive skills are passive as the learners are not engaged actively in any action and they read or listen to something silently.  But it is not true.  When the learners engage in reading or listening to a text, they immediately activate their previous knowledge to understand the meaning of the text effectively. Their cognitive processing would be busy in relating the new information to the existing knowledge and try to assimilate both to draw conclusions.  Hence, it is wrong to say that receptive skills are passive.  The learners are to be given training in using effective reading and listening strategies to comprehend the messages.  As the comprehension in receptive skills is a complex mental process and the teacher cannot monitor how it happens or where it has gone wrong, it is difficult for the teachers to correct the errors and give feedback to the learners so precisely and instantly.  As there are no structured attempts at various levels of education to know how effectively the learners listen to or read in a given context, the learning gaps are created in their knowledge acquisition and it is also resulted in their poor communication skills.  The present research focuses on enhancing the listening skills of the ESL learners at tertiary level by using scaffolding techniques in the Task-based Language Teaching. 

THEORITIAL BACKGROUND

In the socio-cultural theory, the development of a new skill is handled through the notion of ‘scaffolding’.  In the usual sense, scaffolding is a temporary structure that is often put up in the process of constructing a building.  When each new bit is constructed, the scaffolding is removed or taken down.  The use of scaffolding is temporary but it is essential for the construction of a building successfully.  

The term ‘scaffolding’ was first used in the educational sense by Wood, Bruner, and Ross in their examination of parent-child talk.  They defined scaffolding as a “process that enables a child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted efforts” (1976: 90).  Bruner described scaffolding in its metaphorical sense as “the steps taken to reduce the degree of freedom in carrying out some tasks so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill in the process of acquiring” (1978: 19).  Scaffolding is not another word for help, it is a special kind of help that assists learners to move towards learning new concepts, new skills and new levels of understanding.  Pauline Gibbons defined scaffolding as “temporary assistance by which a teacher helps a learner know how to do something, so that the learner will later be able to complete a similar task alone” (2002: 10).  

Rod Ellis presented his views on scaffolding in the context of social interaction as “scaffolding is the dialogic process by which one speaker assists another in performing a function that he or she cannot perform alone” (2003: 182).  He elaborated that when the students have the opportunity to perform tasks with skilled teachers, their opportunities for learning are maximized.  In the opinion of Jim Scrivener, “scaffolding refers to the way a competent language speaker helps a less competent one to communicate by both encouraging and providing possible elements of conversation” (2011: 227). Jeremy Harmer (2015) suggested scaffolding as one of the best ways for the teachers dealing with learners of mixed abilities.  He says,

Scaffolding is the name given to a particular concept of learners’ support which involves breaking tasks down into their component parts.  For students who have difficulty in understanding that they are supposed to do or find it difficult to ‘stay on task’ – we can try to identify a number of ‘do-able’ chunks so that they move from one ‘successes to another.  When they are involved in each of these mini-tasks, we can support them and help them move on to the next stage.  The best approach, therefore is go from stages that the students can do fairly easily to the next, slightly more difficult stage, and then from there to another more difficult stage etc. (2015: 151). 

In addition to breaking things into do-able parts, Harmer advised to support the learners to understand things through all possible means. In the recent publications, the term scaffolding has lost its flavour and the new terms ‘collaborative dialogue’ and ‘instructional conversation’ are used instead.  Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) identified the following features of scaffolding.

• Recruiting interest in the task
• Simplifying the task
• Maintaining pursuit of the goal
• Marking critical features and discrepancies between what has been produced and the ideal situation
• Controlling frustration during problem solving
• Demonstrating an idealized version of the act to be performed

These features characterise the effect of scaffolding on both cognitive demands of the task and the affective states of the person attempting the task. According to Wood, Bruner & Ross (1976), teachers share the perspective of the learners in Scaffolded teaching and it serves as a means for the teachers to make a high-level involvement of the learners in the process of learning and also make them feel responsible for their learning.  The teacher is a ‘scaffold’ or ‘more knowledgeable other’ who helps and engages the learner in the tasks that they are unable to accomplish on their own.  The teacher provides an initial support to the learners and enables them understand the procedure of accomplishing the task. When the learners have become capable of accomplishing the task on their own, the teacher gradually withdraws the support and assigns the responsibilities to the learners.  Scaffolding does not mean that the teacher provides everything the learner needs.  It is a systematic support given to the learner in the beginning of a task to enable him/her responsible for their learning.  Gallimore and Tharp (1990) have referred to the term ‘scaffolding’ as ‘assisted learning’ and suggested six ways of supporting the learners.  They are 

1. Modelling: The teacher may show a reading strategy to the learners by performing it in front of them.
2. Instructing: It does not mean just the teacher assigning the task.  It is directing the learners’ focus on to fulfilling a particular sub-task to begin a difficult task involving various level of accomplishment.  
3. Questioning: The teacher invokes mental operations of the learners by asking some questions to draw their attention towards the key elements of the text to understand it better. 
4. Cognitive Structuring: The teacher enables the learners to think and act in an organised way by making use of their background knowledge and relate it to the new conditions.  This helps them in giving explanations or making predictions.
5. Contingency Management: The teacher has to sustain the enthusiasm, involvement and interest of the learners in the tasks by encouraging them with praise and rewards. 
6. Feedback: The teacher gives feedback report by comparing the learners’ performance to certain standard norms. The feedback may also include suggestions on the areas of improvement. 

METHODOLOGY

The present study focuses largely on enhancing language proficiency of ESL Learners at Tertiary Level by using Scaffolding Techniques in TBLT.  This paper reports the performance of learners in listening skill, one of the four skills dealt in the main study.  The researcher has chosen an experimental study to find out the effectiveness of scaffolded instruction in enhancing the learners’ language skills. The study is conducted in a private deemed to be university in Andhra Pradesh.  A sample group of 120 learners are chosen for this study.  They are pursuing their first-year graduation in Computer Science Engineering.  These learners are offered an English Proficiency Course in the university and at the end of the course they appear for Cambridge Preliminary English Test, a B1 Level Language proficiency test as per Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).  Cambridge Preliminary English Test materials are used for both pre-test and post-test of this study. The learners are divided into experimental and control groups as per their performance in pre-test.  A twelve- week intervention with scaffolded instruction in TBLT is offered to the experimental group by the researcher and the control group is taught by using Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) method. A Post-test is conducted after the intervention for both the groups and their performance is analysed by using Software Programme for Social Sciences (SPSS).  Conclusions are drawn based on the finding of this study. 

            In the present study, the researcher has used several ways of scaffolding, called them techniques, to make the learning implicit and effective. Some of them are mentioned below. 

• Tasks are analysed on the basis of their linguistic complexity, cognitive complexity and communicative pressure.   Some of the tasks are broken down into smaller parts and presented to the learners in an increasing complexity.  The teacher ensured that the task presented are within the learners’ Zone of Proximal Development’ as suggested by Vygotsky (1935). 
• The teacher-researcher has used the task-based framework advocated by Willis (1996) in administering the tasks in the classroom.  Several Lead-in activities are conducted to revive the previous knowledge of the learners and some new linguistic information is provided in the priming stage to prepare the learners for doing the tasks. 
• The teacher-researcher has ensured at each stage of the task whether the students have understood the procedure of doing it and the goals to be reached at the end of it or not by using Instruction Check Questions (ICQs) and Comprehension Check Questions (CCQs).  
• The teacher provides enough time for the learners to complete the task and creates a collaborative learning environment by assigning pair and group work in tasks.
• The teacher explains the concepts with more examples and illustrations.  He uses multiple ways to make sure that the learners understand the process of approaching and solving problems. 
• The teacher gives a clear description about purpose, goals and sub-goals of learning activity that the learners are expected to reach.  
• Providing evaluation rubrics has also helped the learner to understand the key elements to be covered in the process of accomplishing a task. 

The teacher creates classroom conditions suitable for collaborative work and peer feedback.  The learners get the remarks and suggestions from the peers instantly on their writing and speaking performance. This also helps them learn from their peers’ performance.

Scaffolding for Listening Tasks

Teaching listening skills is considered to be one of the difficult areas in language skills development.  As both the teacher and the learner do not know how much language is acquired, it is difficult to fill the gap.  And listening to a foreign accent and comprehending it, is all new to many of the learners in the present study.   Most of the learners need strategy training in listening skills from the basics.  Scaffolding has begun with showing the distinction between hearing and listening. 

i)   Listening Task 1: The learners have to understand the key information from the short dialogues or monologues and identify the correct picture from three options. 

Scaffolding: T introduces a set of three pictures and elicit the learners’ explanation and guess about the situation of those pictures.  Ls are encouraged to predict in the pre-listening.  Ls are advised to be keen on the context and key words of the task to arrive at the correct answer.  T cautions about the distractors in all the options.  T encourages for peer check and repeated listening for accent practice with the support of audio script in the later stages.

ii)   Listening Task 2: The learners are expected to listen to a longer informative monologue or interview.  The learners have to listen for detailed understanding and should identify specific details about the listening text. 

Scaffolding: T introduces the task format.  It is choosing one from three option multiple choice questions.  T asks Ls some questions about the context of the task and directs them to see the instructions in the task sheet.  T points out certain strategies to be followed before starting the listening.  Ls are directed towards reading the task quickly before listening and predict what they are going to listen.  Ls are advised to follow the paraphrased options in the questions and to be careful about negatives, word spotting and distractors. This is a complex task involving the learners processing both receptive skills – listening and reading – simultaneously. 

iii)   Listening Task 3: The learners have to fill the gaps in the notes by following a longer monologue or speech.  They should listen to identity, understand and interpret the message. 

Scaffolding: T elicits important pieces of information about an event to explain what information is generally crucial.  T explains the structure of the task and genre of the audio.  Ls are asked to look at each gap and listen to the audio to find the information related to the given gap.  Ls are advised not to try for understanding the whole listening.  Ls focus is drawn towards the key information by predicting the listening text with the help of gaps in the task.  T reminds them of spelling and legibility of the answers. 

iv)   Listening Task 4: The task expects the learners to listen to and understand the opinions, attitudes, likes and dislikes of the speakers in a dialogue.  The learners have to decide whether the given statements are right or wrong. 

Scaffolding: T brainstorms Ls by encouraging the argument on any controversial statement.  This helps the learners to be familiar with the supporting and opposing reasons of arguments. T asks Ls to question about the context of the dialogue after playing the instructions part.  T reminds the Ls that the statements of the task are in the sequence of the listening text.  Ls are advised not to look for the exact language of the statement in the listening text.  Ls are trained to infer the meaning of paraphrased statements and compare them with the listening text.

RESULT ANALYSIS

In the collection of the demographic details and learning backgrounds of the sample group learners, a few interesting details are found in this study.  The learners have expressed their level of difficulty in dealing with various language skills and elements. 

Figure-1: Easy and difficult about English

Figure 1 shows the learners’ responses about what they feel difficult or easy about English.  The highest number of students (36%) have felt that reading is easy for them and 26 percent students express the same with writing.  The primary skills of the language, listening and speaking are considered easy by 14 percent and 19 percent students respectively and grammar and vocabulary are also not felt easier.  Only 4 percent say that grammar is easy for them and 1 percent have felt that vocabulary is easy.  A reversal of opinion is observed in what the students expressed very difficult for them about English.  31 percent have felt that vocabulary is a very difficult area for them to cope with the second language and it is followed by grammar which is felt difficult by 26 percent students. Listening and speaking skills are considered to be of moderate difficulty and 19 percent and 15 percent students have expressed their concern about them.   The academic skills reading and writing are not felt so difficult by majority of the students.  Seven percent students say that writing is difficult for them and 2 percent students say the same about reading.  They have felt that reading skill is the easiest for them and learning and using new vocabulary is the most difficult for them about English.

Figure-2: Difficulty in Listening

In finding the problems of listening comprehension in second language as shown in figure-2, 59 percent learners felt that the pace of the speakers is very difficult to follow.  Different accents used by the speakers (29%) and the speed of the speakers are the two major factors that influence the level of listening comprehension of the learners.  9 percent learners have felt that the unfamiliarity of the context which the speakers are talking about is hard to understand.  3% learners find some other problems in listening like the use of unfamiliar words, expressions and idioms by the speakers.

Listening Skills Data Analysis

Listening is one of the primary skills of a language.  Though no one denies its significance as a source of pronunciation, intonation, style etc. in the acquisition of second language, the learners are not provided any guided listening practice or the use of any strategies in listening.  When the researcher conducted the listening test as a part of pre-test, more than 90 percent students expressed that they have taken listening test for the first time in their 12 years of language learning process.  

The researcher adopted Cambridge Preliminary English Test Listening component for this study. This is a B1 level language test as per Common European Framework of Reference. There are four tasks in the listening test which focus on assessing the learners’ ability to listen and identify the key information from short conversations, monologues, interviews or longer informal dialogues.  There are different kinds of listening tasks used in pre- and post-tests.  Some of them are identifying the differences in the pictures by following the descriptions or short exchanges, understanding and interpreting the information to fill the gaps in the texts for note-taking, drawing the conclusions by identifying the opinions and attitudes of the people. 

There are multiple choice questions, gap-fills and true or false type of 25 objective questions in the listening test.  The test is conducted for 35 minutes after reading and writing components.  After the question papers are distributed to the learners, audio is played from the speakers to the whole group at once.  All possible precautions are taken to avoid any noise or disturbance from outside.  Each recording is played twice. The learners mark the answers in their question papers and transfer them later into the answer sheet.  The responses of the learners to the listening tasks are evaluated by using the answer key and the marks are normalised to the score of 170.  The results are mapped to CEFR levels of language proficiency. 

Listening Skills: Pre-test

The performance of the experimental and control group learners in the listening skills pre-test is given in Table-1.

Table-1: Students’ Performance in Listening Skills Pre-test

Listening: Pre-test	Experimental Group		Control Group
Scores (CEFR Levels)	No. of Learners	%	No. of Learners	%
80-99 (Pre-A1)	15	25	10	17
100-119 (A1)	19	32	34	57
120-139 (A2)	18	30	15	25
140-159 (B1)	7	12	1	2
160-170 (B2)	1	2	–	–

The performance of experimental group learners in listening skills is found more in the first three levels of language proficiency.  There are 15 learners who scored between 80 and 99, 19 learners scored between 100 and 119, while 18 learners scored between 120 and 139, 7 learners scored between 140 and 159 and only one learner scored above 160. The performance of control group learners is the highest in the score of 100 and 119 range as there are 34 learners who showed their proficiency at this level.  10 learners are at Pre-A1 level with the score between 80 and 99.  Another 15 students have scored between 120 and 139.  There is only one learner at the score range of 140 and 159.  

Figure-3: Listening Skills Performance in Pre-test

The performance of learners in both the groups in listening skills is shown lucidly with percentages in Figure-3. The lines in the figure show that one fourth (25%) of experimental group learners are at pre-A1 level in the listening skills pre-test while 17 percent of control group learners are at this level.  32 percent of experimental group learners score at A1 level, where as 57 percent of control group learners performed at this level.  There are 30 and 25 percent learners at A2 level from experimental and control groups respectively.  There are 12 percent learners from the experimental group at B1 level but only two percent control group learners have performed at this level. Only 2 percent of experimental group learners have shown their listening skills performance at B2 level where there is no performance from control group.

Listening Skills: Post-test

During the intervention, the researcher has paid more attention to alleviating the fears of learners about listening skills. The production of English sounds is explained to the learners with pictures and videos.  The learners are engaged in a lot of pair and group activities to practice the accent and to find the specific and detailed meaning of the speakers in monologues and dialogues.  The listening tasks have been done repeatedly with and without relying on audio scripts.  The following Table-2 illustrates the performance of the learners from both the groups in the post-test of listening skills.  

Table-2: Students’ Performance in Listening Skills Post-test

Listening: Post-test	Experimental Group		Control Group
Scores (CEFR Levels)	No. of Learners	%	No. of Learners	%
80-99 (Pre-A1)	–	–	–	–
100-119 (A1)	5	8	7	12
120-139 (A2)	37	62	49	82
140-159 (B1)	13	22	4	7
160-170 (B2)	5	8	–	–

It is good to observe that there are no learners at Pre-A1 level language proficiency in listening skills post-test.  There are only 5 learners from experimental group and 7 learners from control group who have scored between 100 and 119.  There are 37 learners from experimental group who have scored between 120 and 139, where as 49 learners of control group scored at this range.   Another 13 learners of experimental group have scored between 140 and 159 but only 4 learners of control group reached to this score.  There is no learner from the control group who scored above 160 but 5 learners from experimental group have performed at B2 level with the scores between 160 and 170.  The detailed graphical view of this performance is presented in Figure-4.

Figure 4: Listening Skills Performance in Post-test

The listening skills post-test performance of the learners is relatively better than the pre-test performance.  There are no learners from both the groups at Pre-A1 level.  There are 8 percent learners from experimental group and 12 percent learners from control group who have scored at A1 level.  Majority of the learners from both the groups – 62 percent from experimental and 82 percent from control groups – are at A2 level, just below the targeted B1 level.  22 percent learners from experimental group have performed at B1 level and another 8 percent at B2 level.  No control group learner could reach B2 level and there is only 7 percent of learners of that group reached to B1 level.   

Listening Skills: Mean Scores of Pre- and post-tests

The statistically important data form the pre- and post-tests of listening is presented in Table-3.  The mean scores and standard deviation of both experimental and control group learners are presented. 

Table-3: Statistics of Listening Skills Pre & Post-tests

Listening: Pre & Post-tests		Mean	N	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Pre-test	Exp.Listening	113.33	60	22.904	2.9568
	Con.Listening	111.29	60	13.77	1.7777
Post-test	Exp.Listening	137.07	60	13.726	1.772
	Con.Listening	128.83	60	9.037	1.167

The mean scores of both experimental and control groups in both pre- and post-tests of listening skills show that there is a progress in the learners of both the groups form pre-test to post-test.    The mean score of experimental group has progressed from 113 to 137.  The mean score of control group has also improved from 111 to 129.  It is important to note that the pre-test performance is at A1 level for both the groups and it has improved to only A2 level in posts-test.  The table also shows the Standard Deviation and the Standard Error Mean of the results test-wise and group-wise. The mean scores of experimental and control groups in pre- and post-tests of listening skills are illustrated clearly in Figure 5.

Figure-5: Mean scores of Listening skills Test-wise and Group-wise

Listening: Paired Samples two tailed t-Test

As mentioned in the earlier section of this chapter, the P value shows whether the difference between the mean scores of both groups in pre-test and post-test is significant or not. The test-wise analysis of the learners’ performance in listening skills is shown in Table-4. 

Table-4: Statistics of Paired Samples t-test on Listening Skills

Listening: Paired Samples t-Test		Paired Differences					t	df	Sig.      (2-tailed)
		Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
					Lower	Upper			P
Pre-test	EG & CG	2.04	25.329	3.27	4.5032	8.5832	0.624	59	0.535
Post-test	EG &CG	8.233	17.786	2.296	3.639	12.828	3.586	59	0.001*
*  The Value of P is < 0.05.  Hence, the difference is significant.

The P value of paired groups in listening skills pre-test is 0.535.  This value is more than 0.05 (P > 0.05).  It means that there is no significant difference between the listening skills performance of control group learners and experimental group learners in the pre-test.  The P value of paired groups in listening skills post-test is 0.001.  This value is less than 0.05 (P < 0.05).  It means that there is a significant difference between the listening skills performance of experimental group learners and control group learners in the post-test.  It implies that the learners of experimental group have performed better in listening skills post-test than the learners of control group in the same test.

FINDINGS & CONCLUSION

Practising and testing of listening skill is an entirely new area for many learners.  The listening activity is scaffolded by making the learners expose the very small aspects of listening one after the other.  Showing the difference between hearing and listening, practice on minimal pairs to understand accent better, presenting the task before the audio, predicting or guessing the content before listening, guiding when to use and how to use audio scripts are some of the features of scaffolding used in listening.  The analysis of the data shows that the learners of experimental group performed better than the learners of control group in listening post-test.  

Learners could understand and respond positively to the strategies suggested for comprehending listening and reading texts.  Activating the learners’ previous knowledge and relating it to understand the new information, understanding the task before going to read or listen to it, predicting the context of the text with the help of task or pictures, focus on one thing at a time while using sub-skills etc., are a few strategies that the learners have used effectively in TBA. The study has revealed that ‘scaffolding’ techniques enable the learners to understand the process of learning a second language.  The learners are able to follow a systematic procedure for moving from simple to complex parts of the tasks.  The teacher’s support and guidance in the initial stages of accomplishing the tasks help the learners to expand their zones of proximal development. 

Bibliography

Council of Europe. (2011). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books. 

Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching Second Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Graddol, D. (2010). English Next India: The Future of English in India. London: British Council.

Harmer, J. (2015). The Practice of English Language Teaching (5^th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Hashemi, L. and Thomas, B. (2010). Objective PET: Student’s Book with Answers with CD-ROM.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Piaget, J. (1965). The Language and Thought of the Child. New York: World Publishing Co.

Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rizvi, M. A. (2018). Effective Technical Communication: 2/e. Chennai: McGraw-Hill Education.

Scrivener, J. (2011). Learning Teaching (3^rd ed.). London: Macmillan.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1935,1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. London: Longman.

By: Dr Kumar Mahabir, 

Chairman, Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC)

Don Miguel Road, San Juan, Trinidad and Tobago

Website: https://indocaribbeanpublications.com

On Sunday October 8, 2023, the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) hosted its 176^th edition of its ZOOM Public Meeting entitled “Interrogating the Declaration of CARICOM as the Sixth Region of Africa” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8SbUwZ4_9M0). The panellists included Professor Clinton Sutton, Dr. Adit Adityanjee, Professor Emeritus Patricia Mohammed, Dr. Indira Rampersad and Ms Omolora Wilson. 

The speakers referred to releases from UWI, CARICOM and articles in the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, and the CARICOM website which featured and acknowledged CARICOM as the “Sixth Region of Africa”. The release from the UWI Regional Headquarters dated September 13, 2023 stated: “Caricom has been designated as the sixth region of the African continent. The region commemorated the second annual Africa-CARICOM Day on September 7, signalling an ongoing commitment to strengthened relationships between the two populations” (https://sta.uwi.edu/news/releases/release.asp?id=22682).

The statement was echoed by the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday of September 20, 2023 which ran the headline, “CARICOM recognized as sixth region of Africa” and stated specifically that “CARICOM has been formallydesignated as the sixth region of the African continent. The declaration was made during the second annual Africa-Caricom Day on September 7^th, at the University of the West Indies (UWI) regional headquarters in Jamaica”  (https://newsday.co.tt/2023/09/20/caricom-recognised-as-sixth-region-of-africa/).

In a release issued on July 26, 2023 by CARICOM Today in its CARICOM website, the CARICOM Secretary-General, Dr Carla Barnett, announced: “I am pleased to join you today as part of the African Union’s sixth region for the Annual Global Africa People-to-People Forum 2023 and to reflect on the Inaugural CARICOM-Africa Summit, which was hosted by His Excellency Uhuru Kenyatta, then President of Kenya, on 7^th September2021. (https://today.caricom.org/2023/07/21/caricom-africa-partnership-making-progress-caricom-sg/).

In light of the above, panellists and members of the audience at the ICC ZOOM Public Meeting raised a number of concerns:

With regards to the release of the University of the West Indies (the UWI), of September 13, 2023: 

1. Who “designated” CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, and when and where was such a “designation” undertaken? 

1. Did the CARICOM Secretary General, Dr. Carla Barnett – who made remarks at the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations – endorse the “designation” of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”? 

1. To what extent does the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, at the Africa-CARICOM Day which was attended and celebrated by the CARICOM Secretary-General, blatantly contradict the description of CARICOM in its website as “a grouping of twenty countries: fifteen Member States  and five Associate Members. It is home to approximately sixteen million citizens, 60% of whom are under the age of 30, and from the main ethnic groups of Indigenous Peoples, Africans, Indians, Europeans, Chinese, Portuguese and Javanese. The Community is multi-lingual; with English as the major language complemented by French and Dutch and variations of these, as well as African and Asian expressions” (https://caricom.org/our-community/who-we-are/).

1. Does the P.J. Patterson Institute for Africa-Caribbean Public Advocacy, headed by the Most Honourable P. J. Patterson, and who also joined in the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations, recognise the presence of other ethnic groups in the Caribbean, given his statement: “The ethnic origins and commonality of our colonial experience are beyond dispute … it is in recognition of this irrefutable reality that the African Union declared the existence of six regions, and on this special occasion to unite in recognising our shared history and aspirations.”

• How can the UWI, which is a multi-ethnic regional institution which is publicly funded by contributing Caribbean territories with multi-cultural societies, with the Secretary General of CARICOM, annually celebrate on September 7^th, an Africa-Caribbean Day, but has made no overtures towards a complementary celebration of an India-Caribbean Day, a China-Caribbean Day, an European-Caribbean Day, a Latin American-Caribbean Day, and an Indigenous/First Peoples-Caribbean Day, inter alia? 

• Who funded the Africa-CARICOM Day cultural extravaganza at the UWI Regional Headquarters?

• Was the UWI community, including the various Campuses and their respective Principals consulted on this Africa-CARICOM Day extravaganza at Mona, and did they agree on the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa?”

• Is this part of a UWI and CARICOM agenda to promote African hegemony in the region to the exclusion of other ethnic populations and contributions?

With regards to the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday article of September 20, 2023, in addition to the questions in (1) above: 

1. How, where and when was CARICOM “formally” designated as the “sixth region of Africa”?

1. What formalities were observed, and what form did the “Declaration” take? 

1. Were there signatories to the “Declaration” including those of Heads of Governments, at the UWI Regional Headquarters in Jamaica on Sept 7^th?

1. Does the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday have a political and ethnic agenda in blasting the headline: “CARICOM recognised as “sixth region of Africa”, and then proceeding to deem it a “Declaration”?

With regards to the release from the CARICOM website on July 26, 2023, and the statement from the Secretary General, Dr. Carla Barnett: 

1. When was Dr. Barnett (or CARICOM), formally recognized as part of the African Union’s sixth region? Is she endorsing this “sixth region of Africa” as a personal celebration, or on CARICOM’s behalf?

1. Does the current Chair of CARICOM, the Honourable Roosevelt Skeritt, endorse this designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of the African Union”? Does his statement at the UWI Africa-CARICOM Day celebrations on Sept 7, 2023, suggest an acceptance of CARICOM as Africa’s sixth region. Skerrit stated: “I am confident that our relationship will continue to flourish in the years ahead. Our Community is home to many citizens of the African Diaspora, designated as Africa’s Sixth Region”? (https://today.caricom.org/2023/09/07/statement-from-caricom-chairman-pm-roosevelt-skerrit-on-africa-caricom-day-7-september-2023/)

1. Did the African Union endorse CARICOM as its sixth region? 

1. In as much as the African Union deems its diaspora as its sixth region, does CARICOM perceive itself as constituting the entire African diaspora, or part of the diaspora? If the latter is the case, then the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”, is geopolitically incorrect. It is also ethnically incorrect as the African diaspora is dispersed throughout the world.

• Were any referenda conducted either by the UWI, the African Union or by CARICOM of their various populations on “designating” or “declaring” CARICOM its sixth region?

• On whose authority, was the “designation” or “declaration” made?

Some of the panellists also touched on the issue of reparations. Of particular concern to the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) are:

1. The complete lack of inclusion of the non-African communities, both in the CARICOM Reparations Commission headed by UWI’s Vice-Chancellor Professor Sir Hilary Beckles. Professor Beckles was appointed in 2013 as Chair of the CARICOM Reparations Commission by then Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago in her capacity as Chair of CARICOM, Mrs Kamla Persad-Bissessar. He has repeatedly stated that the Reparations Movement builds “upon the historic efforts of past organisations to bring justice to the victims of native genocide, chattel enslavement, and deceptive indentureship”. Yet, there is not one single person of East Indian or Chinese or indigenous descent in the CARICOM Reparations Commission which he heads. This brings into question the very notion of reparatory justice and its inherent ironies.  

1. The complete exclusion of persons of East Indian descent and all other races despite the fact (or possibly because of the fact) that Indians constitute more than half of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, from the Trinidad and Tobago National Commission on Reparations first constituted in 2015. Moreover, the Commission was reconstituted very recently as reported on October 3, 2023 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Trinidad and Tobago. According to the report, the entities represented in the reconstituted Commission are “the Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs; Ministry of Tourism, Culture and the Arts; Tobago House of Assembly (THA); Emancipation Support Committee; Orisha Elders; Santa Rosa First Peoples; All Mansions of Rastafari; Media and Youth. There is no mention of specific representation from the East Indian community, although the Santa Rosa First Peoples are now included (https://foreign.gov.tt/resources/news/appointment-of-trinidad-and-tobagos-reconstituted-national-committee-on-reparations/).

1. Whether these two Commissions (Regional and Trinidadian) are about genuine reparatory justice or about ensuring sustained African dominance and hegemony, given the exclusion of other groups in the composition of their membership, is a critical question.

Some of the panellists and members of the virtual audience raised the following questions about the designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”. 

1. Is CARICOM, UWI and the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday employing the optics of branding, naming and framing to promote political and ethnic agendas?

• What message is this conveying to other non-Afro ethnic communities?  

• What message is this conveying to the African population in the Caribbean? 

• What does CARICOM – being the “sixth region of Africa” – mean, in particular, for the governments and peoples of Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname with considerably large Indo-Caribbean populations who believe that they have been excluded and marginalised for decades by an Afro-dominated political directorate?

• What does the “sixth region of Africa” mean for our culture and our identity now, and in the future? 

• Are we trading the European branding for an African one? 

• Is this conceptualisation and designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa” a deliberate policy or politics of exclusion, or an unintended consequence?

• Is this a response to the global competition for economic space and an initiative for Africa to dominate and/or recolonise the Caribbean?

1. Whose initiative was it to designate CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa”? Was it the African Union, was it CARICOM or was it the University of the West Indies? Or was it some or all of these?

• Was there a signed Declaration or formal ratification by Heads of Government for CARICOM to be deemed and recognised as the “sixth region of Africa”? If not, then the legitimacy and relevance of this designation at the UWI Regional Headquarters, and the declaration is questionable. 

• Can this designation of CARICOM as the “sixth region of Africa” facilitate global problems like climate change? If so, how?

• To what extent does this designation stoke divisiveness among the various ethnic communities of the Caribbean?

• Is this declaration a return to the colonial policy of divide and rule?

• To what extent does this designation distract from other more critical issues facing the region such as economic challenges, climate change and crime?

• Given the timing of this designation, is there any truth to the contention that it is part of a UWI-Caribbean-CARICOM political agenda to mobilise the support of the fifty-five member states of the African Union with that of CARICOM states, to rally for the Prime Minister of Barbados Mia Mottley, who is allegedly a contender for the position of UN Secretary General?

• Is the designation consistent with CARICOM’s stated agenda of promoting regional integration and embracing diversity and multiculturalism in the region?

At the Indo-Caribbean Cultural Centre (ICC) virtual forum held on October 8, 2023, Dr. Hilary Brown, Programme Manager for Culture and Community Development at the CARICOM Secretariat, as a member of the audience, categorically denied that there is any Declaration for CARCIOM to be designated the sixth region of the African Union. Her recorded words contradict the statement from the UWI release that “Caricom has been designated as the sixth region of the African continent” and the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday headline that “CARICOM recognised as sixth region of Africa” and which continues with the story that “CARICOM has been formally designated as the sixth region of the African continent. The declaration was made during the second annual Africa-Caricom Day on September 7^th, at the University of the West Indies (UWI) regional headquarters in Jamaica”. 

The firm denial by Dr. Hilary Brown at the ICC forum suggests that the statements in the UWI release and in the Trinidad and Tobago Newsday are false, misleading, reckless, ethnically biased and dangerous to the harmonious co-existence of the multicultural ethos of the peoples of CARICOM. In this vein, the ICC is hereby making a clarion call for clarification on these matters and a public verbal and written apology as well as a retraction of public statements, articles and news releases where necessary, in response to the issues, concerns and questions raised above. 

By: Kavita Dehalwar | Publication date: Oct. 20, 2023 | Source: Track2Training

Bhopal, the capital city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, is known for its rich history, vibrant culture, and thriving industries. However, like many cities in India, Bhopal also grapples with the challenge of urban poverty, leading to the development of slums. The slums of Bhopal are a complex and multifaceted issue that sheds light on the broader challenges faced by urban areas in the country.

Bhopal, the capital city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, is a city of stark contrasts. Its history is a tapestry of ancient traditions and modern progress, its culture a vibrant mosaic of diversity, and its industries a testament to the city’s economic dynamism. However, beneath the veneer of this bustling metropolis lies a poignant and pressing challenge: urban poverty, which has given rise to the development of sprawling slums within the city. The slums of Bhopal, like similar settlements across India, are emblematic of a complex and multifaceted issue that not only impacts the lives of those residing within their narrow lanes but also illuminates the broader challenges faced by urban areas across the nation.

Bhopal’s Rich History and Culture

Bhopal’s history is steeped in rich tradition and historical significance. It served as the capital of the erstwhile princely state of Bhopal and was ruled by a succession of dynamic Begums (queens), who played a pivotal role in the city’s socio-cultural development. Their legacy is still evident today, as Bhopal boasts a unique amalgamation of Hindu and Muslim influences, resulting in a harmonious blend of art, music, and cuisine.

The city’s cultural landscape is as diverse as its history, with numerous festivals, art exhibitions, and music and dance performances taking place throughout the year. This rich tapestry of culture has made Bhopal a dynamic and cosmopolitan hub in the heart of India.

Thriving Industries and Economic Growth

In recent decades, Bhopal has experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth. The city’s industrial sector encompasses manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and education. This economic dynamism has attracted a steady influx of migrants seeking job opportunities and a better life for their families. However, this wave of urbanization has also exacerbated the challenges associated with urban poverty, resulting in the proliferation of slums within Bhopal.

The Pervasive Issue of Urban Poverty

Urban poverty is a harsh reality in Bhopal, as it is in many Indian cities. The convergence of factors such as rural-to-urban migration, a lack of affordable housing, high levels of poverty, and unemployment has led to the rapid growth of slum settlements. These marginalized communities grapple with a multitude of challenges that affect the lives and well-being of their residents.

Challenges Faced by Bhopal’s Slum Dwellers

The slums of Bhopal are home to thousands of families struggling to make ends meet in substandard living conditions. These challenges include:

1. Poor Living Conditions: Slum dwellers often live in cramped, unhygienic conditions, residing in makeshift shanties constructed from corrugated metal, wood, or even discarded materials. Such living conditions expose them to diseases, respiratory problems, and other health issues.
2. Lack of Basic Services: Many slum areas lack access to clean water, proper sanitation facilities, and healthcare services. The absence of these fundamental amenities significantly impacts the health and well-being of residents.
3. Education Barriers: Slum children often face obstacles in accessing quality education. Schools may be located far from their homes, and their families may not have the financial means to support their schooling. This educational disadvantage perpetuates a cycle of poverty.
4. Vulnerability to Disasters: Slum dwellings are often haphazardly constructed and located in areas prone to natural disasters such as floods and fires. This puts residents at heightened risk in times of emergencies.

Initiatives to Improve Slum Conditions

Efforts are being made to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers in Bhopal. These initiatives include:

1. Habitat for Humanity’s Work: Non-governmental organizations like Habitat for Humanity are actively engaged in improving living conditions in Bhopal’s slums. They are providing affordable housing solutions and promoting community development.
2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Indian government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, or Clean India Mission, is aimed at addressing sanitation issues in both urban and rural areas, including the slums of Bhopal.
3. Resettlement Projects: The Bhopal Municipal Corporation has launched resettlement projects to provide slum dwellers with proper housing and essential services.
4. Community Engagement: Engaging the community in decision-making processes and development projects is proving to be an effective way to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers. Empowering the residents themselves to be a part of the solution is a crucial step in improving their living conditions.

Defining the Slums

Slums are densely populated, low-income neighborhoods that lack basic amenities and infrastructure, such as proper housing, clean water, sanitation facilities, and healthcare access. Bhopal, like many other Indian cities, has a substantial population living in slum areas.

Causes of Slums in Bhopal

1. Rapid Urbanization: Bhopal has experienced rapid urbanization over the years, driven by factors like industrialization, job opportunities, and better education facilities. As a result, rural-to-urban migration has led to the unplanned growth of slum settlements.
2. Lack of Affordable Housing: The city has struggled to provide affordable housing for its growing population, leading to the proliferation of slums as a coping mechanism.
3. Poverty and Unemployment: High levels of poverty and unemployment contribute to the growth of slums. Many residents of these areas work in the informal sector, which often lacks job security and fair wages.
4. Lack of Land Tenure: Many slum dwellers lack legal land tenure, which makes them vulnerable to eviction and limits their access to essential services.

Challenges Faced by Bhopal’s Slum Dwellers

1. Poor Living Conditions: Slum residents live in cramped, unhygienic conditions, often without proper shelter. These living conditions make them vulnerable to diseases and other health issues.
2. Lack of Basic Services: Many slums lack access to clean water, proper sanitation, and healthcare services, which are essential for a healthy and dignified life.
3. Education Barriers: Slum children often face challenges in accessing quality education, as schools may be located far from their homes, and their families may not have the resources to support their schooling.
4. Vulnerability to Disasters: Slum dwellings are often poorly constructed and located in areas prone to natural disasters like floods or fires, leaving residents at risk.

Initiatives to Improve Slum Conditions

1. Habitat for Humanity’s Work: NGOs like Habitat for Humanity are actively working to improve the living conditions in Bhopal’s slums by providing affordable housing solutions and promoting community development.
2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Indian government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) aims to address sanitation issues in urban and rural areas, including the slums of Bhopal.
3. Resettlement Projects: The Bhopal Municipal Corporation has initiated resettlement projects to provide slum dwellers with proper housing and essential services.
4. Community Engagement: Involving the community in decision-making processes and development projects has proven to be an effective way to address the challenges faced by slum dwellers.

Conclusion

The slums of Bhopal represent a complex issue that intertwines urbanization, poverty, and lack of basic amenities. However, it’s important to recognize the resilience and strength of the residents who, despite facing numerous challenges, contribute to the city’s growth and development. To address the issue of slums effectively, a multi-pronged approach is needed, combining urban planning, affordable housing, and community engagement. With the right strategies and support, Bhopal can work towards transforming its slum areas into thriving and sustainable communities. The slums of Bhopal represent a microcosm of the broader challenges that urban India faces concerning poverty, inadequate housing, and essential service deficiencies. However, it’s important to recognize the strength and resilience of the slum residents, who, in the face of numerous hardships, continue to contribute to the city’s growth and development. To address this complex issue, a multi-pronged approach is essential, involving urban planning, affordable housing solutions, and community engagement. With the right strategies and support, Bhopal can work towards transforming its slum areas into thriving and sustainable communities, embodying the true spirit of “Incredible India.”

References

Agarwal, Sarika, and Shashikant Nishant Sharma. “Universal Design to Ensure Equitable Society.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 1.

Choudhary, A. K., et al. “Factors associated with low birth weight among newborns in an urban slum community in Bhopal.” Indian journal of public health 57.1 (2013): 20-23.

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Jagdish Singh. “Current State of Water Management System: Case Review of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.” International Journal of Civil, Structural, Environmental and Infrastructure Engineering Research and Development (IJCSEIERD) 5.6 (2015): 35-40.

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Jagdish Singh. “Challenges and strategies for the improvement of water management in Bhopal.” European Scientific Journal 12.2 (2016).

Dehalwar, Kavita, and Jagdish Singh. “A Critical Evaluation of the main Causes of Water Management Problems in Indian Urban Areas.”

Hughes, Robert C., et al. “Who actually cares for children in slums? Why we need to think, and do, more about paid childcare in urbanizing sub-Saharan Africa.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 376.1827 (2021): 20200430.

Lall, Somik V., Ajay Suri, and Uwe Deichmann. “Household savings and residential mobility in informal settlements in Bhopal, India.” Urban Studies 43.7 (2006): 1025-1039.

Laughlin, Kim, and George Marcus. “Representing ‘Bhopal’.” Connected: Engagements with media (1996): 221-46.

Melwani, Veena, et al. “A study to assess the prevalence of anaemia amongst adolescent girls residing in selected slum of Bhopal city.” Int J Community Med Public Health 5.3 (2018): 1096-1099.

Saxena, Prem Narayan, and Rajesh Joshi. “Eradication of slums in Bhopal City.” Int J Sci Technol Eng 2.6 (2015): 104-112.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Urban forms in planning and design.” International Journal of Research 1.1 (2014): 7-16.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Sustainable development strategies and approaches.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 2 (2013).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. Participatory Planning in Plan Preparation. BookCountry, 2014.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Review of most used urban growth models.” International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET) 10.3 (2019): 397-405.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Introduction to Sociology.” New Perspectives in Sociology and Allied Fields (2016): 1.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Fate of Rural Sanitation Scheme.” International Journal of Research (IJR) 1.2 (2014).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, and Arindam Biswas. “Best practices for ensuring total sanitation.” International Journal for Social Studies, ISSN (2016): 2455-3220.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “A Review of Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana.” Think India Journal 23.1 (2020): 26-32.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Evaluation of the JnNURM Programme of Government of India for Urban Renewal.” Think India Journal 8.2 (2005): 1-7.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Evaluation of Implementation of Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban).” Think India Journal23.1 (2020): 1-13.

Singh, Bhupendra Pratap. Community participation framework for slum improvement-a case study of Bhopal slums. Diss. SPA, BHOPAL, 2017.

Yadav, Manju, K. K. Dhote, and Praveen Yadav. “Impact of urban floods on slum redevelopment case of Bhopal.” Available at SSRN 3334401 (2018).

BY

¹Kingsley Obumunaeme Ilo, PhD

Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: kingsley.ilo@unn.edu.ng

²*Uchenna Timothy Umeifekwem*, PhD

Department of Public Administration, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University

Email: ukochenna2011@yahoo.com

³Ohabuenyi, Jonas

Social Sciences Unit, the School of General Studies/ Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Jonas.ohabuenyi@unn.edu.ng

⁴Sabo Okonu

Department of Political Science, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: sabo.okonu@unn.edu.ng

Abstract

Conflicts of all types have a serious negative impact on society generally. Conflict between communities is an unavoidable component of human existence. It is the result of a variety of circumstances, including environmental, social, political, ethnic, and cultural elements. When it happens, communal conflict is the main reason for starvation, malnourishment, and food insecurity because of the complicated humanitarian crisis that comes with it. The focus of this paper is to analyse the nexus between communal conflict and development in Nigeria. Journal articles, textbooks and newspaper publications were used as sources of data for this article. At the end, the article calls for  communities to learn how to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes. 

Keywords: Communal conflict, Education, Health, Violence, Social Infrastructure.

INTRODUCTION

Disputes over land or natural resources, including oil reserves, solid minerals, and water, are the major causes of communal disputes in Nigeria. Conflict situation may also occur when groups want to protect their honour, property, or even their very existence against the attack of other societies (Burde, Kapit, Wah, Guven, and Skarpeteig, 2013; Okpiliya, Ekong, & Eni, 2013). Bolarinwa (2006) observed that the prevalence of community disputes hampers the daily livelihoods of rural dwellers and food supply to urban centres. The bulk of farmers have stopped cultivating their far-flung farmlands. They are practically confined to their compounds and a few nearby farmlands. Movement restrictions have hampered access to critical agriculture inputs, including better seeds, fertilisers, and loans. In the end, many farmers could not sell their agricultural products effectively (Ajayi, Akinnagbe, and Aghojare, 2009).

The destruction of property, the deaths of people, and the resulting humanitarian crisis have hampered the socioeconomic and political activity of the affected communities in Nigeria plagued with communal conflict. A growing body of data from an impressively diverse variety of cultural and geographical settings suggests that communal conflict has offensive negative consequences on socio-economic and political well-being of the people.  Using a cross-sectional data Popoola, Olawale, and Muftau, (2020) demonstrate that communal conflict negatively impacts on business activities in Osun State, Nigeria. They also found that communal conflict has negative effect on entrepreneurial activities and causes economic damage and seriously affect entrepreneurship development in that community. Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015) similarly show that economic activity is disrupted, a community’s productive base shrinks, and human capital, such as health and education, is lost as a result of communal strife. A loss in family income and wealth is expected to result from all of these repercussions of community strife, they said. As incomes decrease, more families will slip into poverty, and those already in poverty will fall even more. Farming and other rural economic pursuits are becoming more vulnerable to violence resulting from communal conflict.

 Gafaro, Ibanez, and Justino (2014) corroborate these results to a large extent, though they link them to the presence of armed non-state actors. Studies by Marc, Verjee, and Mogaka (2015); Jones and Naylor (2014); Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, and Neville (2014) suggest that communal conflict can negatively affect various economic, health, and labour related outcomes. 

COMMUNAL CONFLICT 

Wig and Kromrey (2018), defined communal conflicts as violent confrontations between non-state actors where the cleavages largely fall along ethnic or tribal lines. Wig and Kromrey (2018) classified communal conflict into two distinct types, namely, inter-communal conflict, that is conflicts between ethnic groups and intra-communal conflict, that is conflicts within a one particular group. However, the classification of ethnic groups and subgroups are ambiguous, making it hard to extricate between intra-communal and inter-communal conflicts. In many of these communal crisis, crimes and ethnic cleansing are commonplace. Also, the crises have left many victims with lasting effects of trauma, homelessness, economic losses, as well as the weakening of social trust.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

. Rural development refers to the process through which capitalism spreads across rural regions, together with the set of policies and projects that are being implemented in rural areas with the goal of improving human conditions. As used by Atkinson (2017), rural development involves efforts that are economic and social in nature intended to encourage concepts of retention, growth, and expansion in areas outside cities, including improving quality of life for rural residents through such activity. According to Nwobi, (2007), rural development can be viewed as the development of the moral, social, political and economic potentialities of rural communities to enhance their self-reliance through the provision of appropriate infrastructure such as pipe-borne water, electricity, good roads and small scale industries, increase their political consciousness and participation, promote their moral and social well-being which will result in tolerance, good discipline, justice, fairness, kindness, love and peace. As such, the term suggests that rural development is a strategy that tries to obtain an improved and productivity, higher socio-economic equality and ambition, and stability in social and economic development..

FACTORS ENCOURAGING COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN NIGERIA

. The root of communal conflicts in Nigeria is linked to several complex factors and vary from one group to another. It has been demonstrated empirically by several researchers that, in particular, the causes of communal conflicts are not static but rather dynamic and varied in nature depending on the socio-economic and geopolitical circumstances at the time (Yecho, 2006, Albert, 2001, Onwudiwe, 2004, and Alimba, 2014). 

Poor economic conditions 

Like the rest of Africa, Nigeria is neither immune to the poverty cancer nor ignorant of its impact on their fragile peace and stability. With over 80 per cent of her population living below the US$1 a day, civil unrest and grievances, both recipes for conflicts, become widespread. Indeed hunger, starvation, lack of economic growth and development create a high likelihood of violent conflicts and available army of people who are ready to prosecute the conflict either as machinery or as militias. For instance, in research conducted by Vinck et al (2011), 30 per cent of the Liberian population indicated that poverty was one of the root causes of the Liberian civil war. Similar assertions have also been made with regards to the conflicts in Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau (Voz di Paz and Interpeace 2010).

Access to small arms weapons 

Small arms induced-crises appears to be a persistent occurence in developing nations of their affordability, accessibility and availability; and porosity of the borders and legal frameworks legitimizing their use (Malam, 2014).This may be adjudged true because a significant number of the communal conflct that occured in Nigeria were prosecuted with small arms, and in  some instances extremely sophisticated weapons fit for external assault. The evil perpetuated through this weapon are not measurble, as their avalaibility is usually considered as a major cause that influences communal conflict and the outbreak as well as the continuation of internal conflicts and tensions in Nigeria.

Land ownership

Notable examples of communities in Nigeria that plunged into serious communal conflict hinged on land tussle with destabilized implications to their socio-economic well-being are well documented in literature. In Ebonyi state, Nigeria, there was an ensuing conflict between the people of Ezza and Ezillo communities over a portion of land which resulted in high death rates, destruction of basic infrastructure and services, and malnutrition. With the intervention of government and security agencies, violence was abated leading to a ceasefire between the two communities. However, this superficial peace has always been short-lived as longstanding and simmering ethnic rivalry and distrust has always plunged these two communities into perpetual communal conflict. 

Also, In December, 2018, four communities in Biase Local Government Area of Cross River State engaged in three days conflict which result to wanton destruction of lives and peoples’ properties. The conflict was deeply rooted in the “decision by Orugbam people to annex some land in other Erei communities.” The Inyima, Onyadama conflict in March, 2016, where women, children, the aged and the entire houses in Inyima were set ablaze. The conflict which has become a recurring decimal was first fought in 2008 then 2014 and repeated in 2016. The cause of the war according to sources is that an Inyima man was said to have harvested cassava in a disputed portion of land with Onyadama community and since the first outbreak of the conflict many years ago, there have continued to be bad blood and    recurring skirmishes which have kept the two erstwhile sister communities at daggers drawn. 

IMPACT OF COMMUNCAL CONFLICT ON DEVELOPMENT

 The evidence from previous communal clashes in Nigeria, demonstrates that communal conflict has a significant negative impact on development and the well-being of the populations affected by such persistent violence. During community disputes, violence causes devastation and restricts commercial transactions. As a consequence, public and private assets are damaged, individuals are injured or murdered, and markets shrink as transaction costs rise. In addition, people change their behaviour to survive amid violence. Thus, instead of maximising profits, the population dedicates most of its effort to avoiding victimisation and increasing their chance of survival. Both dynamics reduce the income of those caught in violent attacks, cause poverty for the affected families, and make it hard for them to escape hardship.

Communal conflict causes extensive morbidity and mortality among the warring factions. Individuals, families, and whole communities are displaced as a result of armed conflict, leading to large numbers of people being forced to flee their homes. Previous communal conflicts in Nigeria have been marked by excessive cruelty and violence towards civilians, which has resulted in the deaths of a large number of individuals. Health, education, the economy, and social welfare services collapsed, and many features of traditional life and the social structure were destroyed. Moore (2005) argued that “communal conflict negatively impacts human capital by causing physical and mental impairment, declines in health and nutritional status, and education and training opportunities, which in turn drive individuals and households into poverty”. In both the short and long run, declines in health and well-being may limit an individual’s ability to work, thereby limiting their ability to make an income. In times of community war, the physical disabilities of civilians and fighters may keep people poor for a long time.

Impact of communal conflict on Healthcare delivery

Data suggest that over a third of maternal fatalities and half of all infant deaths occur in locations where health systems have been disrupted by violence. During conflict, malaria and other endemic illnesses are likely to be accelerated. Their results suggest negative effects of the insurgency on weight-for-age and weight-for-height z-scores and an increase in the probability of wasting. In their study, Patel, Gibson- Fall, Sullivan, and Irwin (2017) reported in their study the ordeal of health workers in conflict zones. They observed that health workers are frequently attacked and their working tools destroyed. Primary health centres (PHC) are often damaged during conflict. In most cases, the primary health centres are used by fighters as their base, where they sleep and keep their weapons. This makes health workers demoralized and feel bad about their jobs, which makes them less happy about their job.  

Impact of communal conflict on Education

. In times of armed conflict, schools and centers of learning are often targeted. Conflict reduces access to education by stopping schools from opening, endangering children’s safety while traveling to and from school, and causing teacher absenteeism. There is an increase in school dropouts, and lower educational survival rates owing to relocation, military enlistment, or economic hardship. Inadequate supply of basic essentials like food, water, and school supplies, education quality diminishes, particularly in communities surrounding the war that may see an inflow of refugees or internally displaced pupils. As a consequence of increased hardship caused by conflict, parents may be forced to prioritize their investments among their children, perhaps resulting in more girls than boys dropping out of school. Furthermore, safety and security concerns may be more prevalent among girls than among boys, with females being more vulnerable to sexual and gender-based abuse than males upon leaving the house.

Many children in developing countries have had their education interrupted or stopped because of endless conflict. In some conflict-torn nations, however, millions of school children have never had the chance to attend school in the first place. Conflict may hinder national development by adversely affecting family income and human resources that could be used to invest in education. This means that there are fewer resources available for families and governments to spend on education than there would be if there were no conflicts. The effect of a conflict extends well beyond the local region of the targeted school. It may lead parents to be hesitant about taking their children to school, instructors to be hesitant about teaching, and schools to shut down. In rare circumstances, military forces may issue instructions prohibiting children from attending school or may restrict entry tacitly. From the forgoing, it is obvious that conflict promotes illiteracy. Illiteracy is a powerful predictor of poverty and hunger, and it is primarily a rural phenomenon that impedes rural development and food security; threatens productivity and health; and hinders possibilities to boost individual living standards and gender parity. The chances of having good job prospects as well as a good income is low for the illiterate population. As a result, they are often faced with the challenges of dependency, low self-esteem, and higher levels of crime. 

Impact of communal conflict on Social amenities 

Studies have shown that, there has been an increase in the damage of infrastructure due to natural and anthropogenic disasters (Nyanga 2018, Nyanga & Sibanda 2019, Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, & Sillah 2013). The majority of the studies presented fresh information, insights, and understanding regarding the degree to which infrastructure has been devastated by the conflict and how this has affected rural development in general. Nyanga and Sibanda (2019) found that due to the devastation of roads and bridges, workers in conflict zones had a difficult time getting to and from work. Uyang, Nwagbara, Undelikwo, and Eneji (2013) demonstrated in their study that a significant relationship exists between boundary disputes and food security. Dava, Chigora, Chibanda, and Sillah (2013) showed that “a lot of economic infrastructure such as road networks, dams, Information Technology (IT), and financial services were destroyed by the civil war that erupted in Mozambique in 2013.” The study revealed that the destruction caused a lot of disturbances and disruptions to the economy, especially in the agricultural, manufacturing, and banking sectors. The economy was affected by the destruction of roads, bridges, information technology systems, energy and power infrastructure, and communication networks. Chang (2003) study revealed that disasters have huge economic and societal costs that directly affect firms. According to Nyanga (2018), armed conflict destroys the economic infrastructure and breeds insecurity.

One of the most direct ways in which conflict distorts rural development is through reduced production. Farmers lose money directly as a result of damaged health infrastructure caused by conflict, and this can have a big impact on agricultural growth and the lives of people in rural areas. Conflict and long-term crises are making more and more people poor, food insecure, and refugees. It wreaks havoc on agricultural and rural lives, resulting in severe financial loss, food shortages, and harm on all levels. According to Angara (2000), agricultural operations are generally the first to be impacted when there are conflicts in rural regions. Some of these things have a big impact on agricultural output, which leads to a high level of self-sufficiency and a lot of hunger and food shortages.

CONCLUSION

Communal conflict is damaging and can have a big impact on the socioeconomic activities of rural people. The reality is that community strife is on the rise, and its effect on development has been quite worrisome. The poor living standards of the inhabitants in the affected region are aggravated by the prevalence of violent conflict, which seems to affect subsistence farming, the population’s main source of income. These conflicts have slowed down most projects from both government and non-government organizations. Past conflict between communities in Nigeria has led to the deaths of many people. It collapsed the local economy, left the health, education, and social infrastructure devastated, and many aspects of traditional life and social structure obliterated. In order to reduce injustice and promote fairness and transparency, community leaders must adopt appropriate procedures for the distribution of landed properties. Communities should learn to resolve their differences through dialogue instead of carrying arms against each other. It is also necessary for the government, chiefs, and elders to exhibit a high degree of impartiality when mediating between parties in land disputes. Land-owning clans must carefully ensure that land borders between clans are accurately established, delimited, and recorded as soon as possible.

References

Akresh, R. & de Walque, D. (2008). Armed conflict and schooling: evidence from the 1994 Rwandan genocide. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4606. Washington DC: World Bank.

Alabi, D. L. & Famakinwa M. (2017). Effects of community conflicts on rural economic activities in Osun state, Nigeria: implications for sustainable development. Ife Journal of Agriculture, 29 (1), 63-73

Albert, I.O. (2001). Ife-Modakeke crisis. In Otite, O & Albert, I.O. (eds.) community conflicts in Nigeria: management, resolution and transformation. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. 

Alimba, N. C. (2014). Probing the Dynamic of Communal Conflict in Northern Nigeria. African Research Review 8 (1), 177-204

Allan, (2006). Conflict and Critical Theories. https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/13636_Chapter7.pdf

Ani, K. J. (2017). Ezza-Ezillo conflict and national implications in Nigeria : the need for multi-dimensional peace-building AFFRIKA Journal of Politics, Economics and Society 7 (2), 

Asif, I.  & Saeed, A. (2014). Job satisfaction of secondary school teachers. Abasyn  Journal  of  Social  Sciences, 5(1), 49-65.

Atkinson, C. L. (2017). Rural Development. Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, 1–7.

Buckland, P., (2005). Reshaping the Future: Education and Post-conflict Reconstruction. O. Adonteng-Kissi et al. International Journal of Educational Development xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx World Bank Publications.

Bundervoet, T. (2012). War, health and educational attainment: a panel of children during Burundi’s civil war. HiCN Working Paper 114.

Burde, D., Kapit, A., Wah, R., Guven, O., Skarpeteig, M., (2013). Education in emergencies. In: A Review of Theory and Research, Paper Presented at the Comparative and International Education Society. New Orleans, March 10–15.

Caleb, A. & Grerald, O. (2015). The role of small arms and light weapons proliferation in African conflicts. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. 9(3), 78-85

Carter, N., Bryant-Lukosius, D., DiCenso, A., Blythe, J., & Neville, A.J., (2014). The use of triangulation in qualitative research’. Proceedings of the Oncology Nursing Forum, vol. 41.

Dava, P. O., Chigora, P., Chibanda, T.W., & Sillah, R., (2013). An analysis of the effects of civil war and prospects for development in Mozambique: The case of frelimo-renamo in Chokwe District. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 2 (6), 66-75.

Dill, J. C. & Anderson, C. A. (1995). Effects of frustration justification on hostile aggression. Aggressive Behaviour, 21(4), 359 – 369.

Dollard, J. et al (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press.

Ekhator-Mobayode, U. E.  & Asfaw, A. A. (2019). The child health effects of terrorism: evidence from the Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria, Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, 51(6), 624-638

Gafaro, Margarita and Justino, Patricia and Ibáñez, Ana María, Collective Action and Armed Group Presence in Colombia (July 9, 2014). Documento CEDE No. 2014-28, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2489128 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2489128

Homer-Dixon, T. F. (2001) Environemnt, scarcity and violence. USA, Princeton university press.

Jones, A. & Naylor, R. (2014) The quantitative impact of armed conflict on education: counting the human and financial costs. Doha: PEIC. Available at http://educationandconflict.org/

Justino, P., Leone, M. & Salardi, P. (2011). Education and conflict recovery: the case of Timor Leste. HiCN Working Paper 100

Krause, J. (2020). Restrained or constrained? Elections, communal conflicts, and variation in sexual violence. Journal of Peace Research, 57(1), 185–198.

Lai, B., & Thyne, C. (2007). The effect of civil war on education. Journal of Peace Research, 277–292.

Malam, B. (2014). Small arms and light weapons proliferation and it implication for West African regional security. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(8), 260-269.

Moore, J. (2005). Seven recommendations for creating sustainability education at the university level. A guide for change agents. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education 6 (4), 326-339

Nwobi, T. U. (2006). Cooperatives and rural financing. In E. E. Umebali (Eds.) Readings in Cooperative Economics and Management. Lagos: Computer Egde Publishers.

Nyanga, T. & Sibanda, R., (2019). Impact of onsite health care centers on job satisfaction In Armed Conflict Societies: The Zimbabwean War Of Liberation Perspective,” Business Excellence and Management, Faculty of Management, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania, vol. 9(3), pages 47-58

Nyanga, T., (2018). Examining the usefulness of job satisfaction theories in armed conflict society. Amity Global Human Resource Management Review, 8 (2), 40-48.

Oji, R. O. (2014). Communal conflicts in Nigeria: an examination of Ezillo and Ezza-Ezillo conflict of Ebonyi state, (1982-2012) Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review 4 (1), 514-526

Onwudiwe, E. (2004). Communal violence and the future of Nigeria. Global Dialogue, 6(3-4).

Popoola, M. A., Olawale, S. M. & Muftau, F. A. (2020). Effect of communal conflict on economic activities inOsun State, Nigeria. Business And Management Research Journal 10 (2), 41-46

Shemyakina, O., (2011). The effect of armed conflict on accumulation of schooling: results from Tajikistan. J. Dev. Econ.95 (2), 186–200.

Singh, P. & Shemyakina, O. N.  (2013). Gender-Differential Effects of Conflict on Education: The Case of the 1981-1993 Punjab Insurgency, HiCN Working Papers 143, Households in Conflict Network.

Singha, K. (2015). Does Conflict Affect Educational Development? The Indian Economic Journal 62(4), 1313–1335.

Swee, E. L. (2009). On war and schooling attainment: The case of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Households in Conflict Network Working Paper 57. Falmer: University of Sussex, April.

UNDP (United Nations Development Program) (2012). UNDP Human Development Report. New York: UNDP

Uyang, F. A., Nwagbara, E. N., Undelikwo, V. A., Eneji, R. I. (2013). Communal Land Conflict and Food Security in Obudu Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. Advances in Anthropology 3 (4), 193-197

Vinck, P, Pham, P N and Kreutzer, T (2011). Talking Peace: A population-based survey on attitudes about security, dispute resolution, and post-conflict reconstruction in Liberia. Berkeley, CA: Human Rights Center, University of California, Berkeley.

Voz di Paz and Interpeace (2010). Root causes of conflict in Guinea-Bissau: The voices of the people. Guinea-Bissau: Voz di Paz/Interpeace.

Wig, T. & Kromrey, D. (2018). Which groups fight? Customary institutions and communal conflicts in Africa. Journal of Peace Research, 1-15

World Bank (2011) World development report, 2011: Conflict, security and development. Washington: IBRD/World Bank.

Lena Ellitan; Ani Suhartatik

Faculty of Business

Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya Indonesia

Abstract

Product quality has a positive impact on repurchase intentions. Good product quality with good taste, and the wide variety of products available will make consumers visit and buy this product again in the future. Good service quality has a significant effect on repurchase intentions. This shows that good service quality alone is not enough to make consumers have the intention to buy again. Product quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction because good product quality will create a sense of satisfaction experienced by customers. The higher the quality of the product provided, the higher the customer satisfaction will be. Quality products with a wide variety of menus to make consumers feel satisfied and create a desire to visit and buy existing products again. Good service quality makes consumers feel good. Providing good service to make consumers satisfied, apart from good service, providing a comfortable atmosphere and eye-catching design so that consumers feel satisfied with the place and the service provided to their customers. Customer satisfaction creates an intention to buy again. Customer satisfaction will create an intention to repurchase. Consumers will have the intention to repurchase if consumers are satisfied with the quality of the products offered and also the services provided. Good service quality can create a good positive perspective from consumers so that consumers have the intention to come back. This article discusses the role of product quality, service quality and satisfaction in increasing repurchase intentions.

Keywords: Product Quality, Service Quality, Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention

Introduction

Product and service quality is closely related to customer satisfaction and company profitability (Kotler and Keller, 2016). According to Schroder, (2011) quality is a distinctive attribute or characteristic that a product has. Better food quality will provide high customer satisfaction. Food quality is also an important attribute in food. Lovelock and Wirtz (2011) stated that service quality is the number of services that require direct interaction between customers and business actors. Differences in service methods between one service provider and another can often be seen from the attitudes and skills of employees. Felix (2017) believes that consumer satisfaction is a customer’s feeling of satisfaction or disappointment resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations. If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the results match the customer’s expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Companies that focus on customer satisfaction will be able to increase customer loyalty and at the same time will help the company to have a positive image (Tjiptono and Chandra, 2011). Customer satisfaction is also defined as a determinant of post-purchase attitudes that reflects positive or negative results. Hawkins and Lonney in Tjiptono (2004) also stated three dimensions of customer satisfaction, namely suitability of satisfaction, repurchase intention and willingness to recommend.

Santoso (2016) argues that repurchase intentions represent a customer’s likelihood of engaging in objectively observed future behavior. This is defined as a consumer’s intention to repurchase a particular product or service in the future (Wand and Yu, 2016). There are four dimensions of repurchase intention, namely transactional intention, referential intention, preferential intention and exploration intention (Ferdinand in Saidani and Samsul, 2012). Companies need to implement marketing strategies that are right on target in marketing their products. Determining strategies in terms of food quality and service quality to consumers which triggers consumer satisfaction which ultimately makes consumers have the intention to repurchase the products produced to introduce or brand their business. Based on the phenomena and background above, it is hoped that this article will provide benefits as a study of product quality, service quality, customer satisfaction, and be useful for further research as reference material. And used as input for entrepreneurs in managing their platforms and products according to product quality, service quality and customer satisfaction.

Product quality

Kodu (2013), states that product quality can be interpreted as the ability of a product to carry out its function which includes durability, reliability or progress, strength, ease of packaging, and product repair and other characteristics. Kotler and Armstrong (2012: 283) add that product quality is the ability of a product to perform its function. Product quality is determined by product attributes. Kotler (in Negara, 2018) also states that product quality is the character of a product that has the ability to meet consumer needs. Kotler and Keller (2009: 143) suggest that product quality consists of the features and characteristics of goods and services, the intensity of which can determine the performance capabilities of a product which can be stated or implied. This is related to the quality of the product or service itself, company profitability, and consumer satisfaction which determine the selection of a product. Kotler and Keller (2009: 144) state that the higher the level of product quality offered to consumers, the higher the price, the lower the costs required, and the company can maintain the experience that consumers feel when purchasing the product.

Kotler and Armstrong (2012) argue that product quality is the ability of a product to perform its function. Product quality is determined by product attributes. Product attributes are product elements that are considered important by consumers and are used as the basis for decision making (Tjiptono, 2009 in Afrilia, 2017). According to Kotler (2008), the higher the product quality, the higher the consumer’s decision to make a purchase. *When consumers purchase a product, there will be certain considerations that will become the benchmark for consumers to fulfill their desires, including the condition and appearance of a product marketed by the company. Kotler and Armstrong (2017:249) state that product quality is one of the positioning factors in determining marketing strategies.             

Product quality is the performance of a product in accordance with the commitments made by the manufacturer to consumers. This commitment can be explicit or implicit, namely in terms of quality management expectations from the average consumer of the product. A product can be known as a good and quality product only if the quality of the product is able to meet the criteria and desires of consumers. Product quality in physical appearance must be beautiful to the eye in order to attract consumer interest and achieve good product quality. To achieve this, quality standardization is needed.

Service Quality

Service quality is the activity of offering services that are felt by customers who have used the service. Service quality is very important for customer satisfaction and trust (Rahmani Nejad, Firoozbakht, & Taghipoor, 2014). Wibowo & Soedjono (2014) stated that service quality can be said to be good and of high quality if the service provided by a company can satisfy its customers. The company will not remain silent in terms of customer satisfaction, so that its customers can feel satisfied. According to Kotler, (2007) customer satisfaction is a person’s feeling of happiness or disappointment that arises after the person compares the performance (results) of the product in question against the expected performance. Service quality is how far the difference is between customer reality and the customer expectations they receive (Adabi, 2020). According to Kotler (2009), customer satisfaction can be felt after customers compare their experiences in purchasing goods or services from sellers or providers of goods and services with the expectations or feelings they get from the buyers themselves. Kotler and Keller (2007) state that service quality must start from customer needs and end in customer perception, where customer perception of service quality is a comprehensive assessment of the superiority of a service. According to Adipramita (2019), quality is often considered a measure of the relative goodness of a product or service which consists of design quality and suitability. According to Aryani and Rosita (2010) service quality is very important to achieve improvement efforts for business continuity, where with good service quality the value delivered to customers becomes more positive, and will provide satisfaction to consumers. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires and the accuracy of delivery to match customer expectations. According to Tjiptono (2014:282) there are five dominant factors or determinants of service quality.

1. Tangible. Namely in the form of physical appearance, equipment and various materials that are visible and can be assessed as good.

2. Empathy. Namely employee willingness to build relationships, good communication, personal attention, and understanding of customer needs.

3. Responsiveness. Namely the readiness of employees to meet consumer needs in a responsive and friendly manner. Employees must have the willingness to provide service quickly and responsively.

4. Reliability. Namely the employee’s ability to provide services promptly, accurately, consistently and satisfactorily

5. Guarantee (Assurance). Namely, employees must include the knowledge, competence, readiness and trustworthiness of employees regarding the promises given, free from danger, risk and doubt.

Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is a customer’s feelings, both satisfied and disappointed, resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations (Kotler and Keller, 2018). If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the performance meets expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Customer satisfaction is an individual’s perception of performance or service in relation to consumer expectations (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). Kotler and Armstrong (2008) also define customer satisfaction as the extent to which the product performance received is in line with customer expectations. Companies that focus on customer satisfaction will be able to increase customer loyalty and at the same time will help the company to have a positive image (Tjiptono and Chandra, 2011). Customer satisfaction is defined as a determinant of post-purchase attitudes that reflects positive or negative results. Agustiansyah and Tauik (2019) also stated that customer satisfaction plays a very important role in competitive industries, because there is a very large difference in loyalty between customers who are satisfied and customers who are truly satisfied or happy. Satisfaction is the difference between expectations and performance. Customer satisfaction will always be based on efforts to eliminate or narrow the gap between expectations and performance. Customer satisfaction is the level of customer feelings after comparing perceived service performance and compared with expectations (Kotler and Keller, 2016). Customer satisfaction is a person’s feeling of happiness or disappointment that arises after comparing the performance obtained with the expected performance. If performance does not match expectations, then customers become dissatisfied. If performance meets expectations, then customers will be very satisfied (Nurmalina, 2017). Customer satisfaction is an evaluation process after purchasing or evaluation results after comparing what they feel with their expectations (Yamit, 2013). Satisfaction is the level of feeling after comparing the perceived performance or results with expectations (Sumarwan, 2012). Kotler in Lupiyoadi (2013) states that satisfaction is a level of feeling where someone states the results of a comparison of the product performance received and expected. Hamdani (2011) found that achieving customer satisfaction can be improved through service quality with several approaches as follows:

1. Minimize the gaps that occur between management and customers. For example, by conducting research by distributing questionnaires over several periods, to find out customer perceptions of service.

2. Companies must be able to build a joint commitment to create a vision for improving service processes. This includes improving the way of thinking, abilities, behavior and knowledge of all existing human resources.

3. Give customers the opportunity to convey their complaints by forming a system of criticism and suggestions, and correcting deficiencies that customers complain about

4. Develop and implement accountable, proactive and partnership marketing according to the marketing situation. The company contacts customers after the service process occurs to determine customer satisfaction and expectations (accountable). The company contacts customers from time to time to find out the progress of its services (proactive). Companies build closeness with customers which is useful for creating the company’s image and position in the market (partnership).

Kuo et al (2013) stated that consumers who have a high level of satisfaction will repeatedly return to the same place to get optimal results. Efendi (2020) states that customer satisfaction is a post-purchase consumer evaluation where the alternative chosen does not provide the same results or exceed consumer expectations, while dissatisfaction will arise if the results obtained are below consumer expectations.

Repurchase Intention

Repurchase intention represents a customer’s likelihood to engage in objectively observed future behavior (Santoso, 2016). This is defined as a consumer’s intention to repurchase a particular product or service in the future (Wand and Yu, 2016). There are four dimensions of repurchase intention, namely transactional intention, referential intention, preferential intention and exploration intention (Ferdinand in Saidani and Samsul, 2012). Pham et al (2018) define repurchase as an actual action, and repurchase intention shows that the customer decides to engage in future activities with the seller. Hendarsono (2013) believes that repurchase interest is the behavior of customers who respond positively to what has been provided by a company and are interested in making return visits or consuming the company’s products again. Nurhayati (2012) states that repurchase intention is a consumer’s desire and action to repurchase a product because of the satisfaction received in accordance with what is desired from a product.

Repurchase is a post-purchase consumer action, the occurrence of consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction will influence subsequent behavior, if the consumer is satisfied then they will show a higher possibility of repurchasing the product. Repurchase intention refers to a possibility or opportunity to use a previous service provider again in the future. Repurchase intention is a customer’s tendency to buy products from the right manufacturer over a long period of time (Gounaris, Bimitraids and Stathakopoulos, 2010). Repurchase is a tendency for consumer buying behavior for a product or service that is carried out repeatedly over a certain period of time and actively likes and has a positive attitude towards a product based on experiences that have been made in the past (Suryana and Dasuki, 2013). And inform other people about good things about the product and will not pay too much attention to similar product offerings from other companies (Kotler and Armstrong, 2008).

Discussion

Several studies support that product quality has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. High quality products are products that are able to excel in competing to meet consumer needs (Wood, 2009). Product quality plays an important role in shaping consumers’ repurchase intentions (Mahendrayanti and Wardana, 2021). Excellent product quality can provide confidence for consumers who will buy the product again (Nurahma et al, 2016). This research is also in line with research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022) explaining that product quality in the Erigo brand has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. The better the quality of service provided to consumers, the greater the consumer’s interest in making repeat purchases. Service quality is a factor that significantly encourages consumers to make repeat purchases (Prastika and Sugiono, 2017). According to Mardikawati and Farida (2013) service quality describes the nature of product appearance or performance which is a main part of the company’s strategy in order to achieve sustainable excellence as either a market leader or a strategy to continue to grow. In research conducted by Hidayat, et al (2020) at the Hotplate restaurant in Jakarta, it was found that there was a significant influence on service quality on repurchase intentions.

Customer satisfaction can be created by many things, good product quality is one factor in customer satisfaction. Good product quality will make consumers buy the product again and feel satisfied with the product. Kotler and Keller (2009: 144) state that the higher the level of product quality offered to consumers, the higher the price and lower costs required, and can enable a company to maintain the experience that consumers feel when purchasing the product. In research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022), it was found that product quality has a positive effect on customer satisfaction.

There are many factors that create customer satisfaction, one of which is service quality. Service quality is a reflection of a company’s reputation. A good company will have good quality service, which is able to make consumers feel comfortable and satisfied with the services provided. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires as well as the accuracy of delivery to meet customer expectations. In research conducted by Hidayat et al (2020), it was found that service quality has a positive effect on customer satisfaction.

According to Mensah & Mensah (2018) customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions are very important to increase restaurant profits. Customers who are satisfied, both with the product and the service, will make repeat purchases at that place. If customers are not satisfied with the product and service, then customers will not come to that place again to make repeat purchases. In research conducted by Hidayat et al (2020) at a HotPlaye restaurant in Jakarta, it was found that there was a significant influence on customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions.

In several studies, customer satisfaction is able to mediate product quality which has a positive effect on repurchase intentions. The process of forming consumer buying interest must first form a sense of satisfaction for consumers through the quality they have (Savitri and Wardana. 2018). North et al (2004) state that product quality is defined as the ability of a product to meet consumer needs and their requests, and also as a set of attributes that contribute to consumer satisfaction and expectations in use. In research conducted by Fathurahman and Sihite (2022) conducted at Erigo Surakarta, it was stated that product quality mediated by customer satisfaction had a positive effect on repurchase intentions. Bailia et al (2014) stated that product quality partially has a positive effect on satisfaction. The consumer’s experience in purchasing a product will result in the consumer’s assessment of the product. Consumer repurchase intentions represent possible future behavior, while behavior is an objectively observed level (Santoso, 2016). Service quality is closely related to customer satisfaction and company profitability (Kotler & Keller, 2016). Awi and Chaipoopirutana (2014) argue that to increase repurchase intentions, businesses must focus on increasing their customer satisfaction. Mensah & Mensah (2018) also added that customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions are very important to increase restaurant profits. In research conducted by Hidayat, et al (2020), it was found that service quality, mediated by customer satisfaction, has a positive effect on customer repurchase interest.

Conclusion

            Product quality has a positive impact on repurchase intentions. The results of this research are also supported by Danu and Haryono (2022) that product quality has a positive effect on repurchase interest. Good product quality with good taste, and the wide variety of products available will make consumers visit and buy this product again in the future. Good service quality has a significant effect on repurchase intentions. This shows that good service quality alone is not enough to make consumers have the intention to buy again. Service quality can be mediated by customer satisfaction so that consumers’ repurchase intentions increase. Product quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction because good product quality will create a sense of satisfaction experienced by customers. The higher the quality of the product provided, the higher the customer satisfaction will be. Quality products with a wide variety of menus to make consumers feel satisfied and create a desire to visit and buy existing products again.

            Good service quality makes consumers feel satisfied. Research conducted by Widjoyo, et al (2014) also found that service quality has a significant effect on customer satisfaction. In this study, researchers stated that if service quality is improved, customer satisfaction with the restaurant will also increase. Providing good service to make consumers satisfied, apart from good service, providing a comfortable atmosphere and eye-catching design so that consumers feel satisfied with the place and the services provided to their customers. Customer satisfaction creates an intention to buy again. Customer satisfaction will create an intention to repurchase. Consumers will have the intention to repurchase if consumers are satisfied with the quality of the products offered and also the services provided. Kotler and Keller (2018) customer satisfaction is the customer’s feelings, both satisfied and disappointed, resulting from comparing product performance or results with expectations. If the performance is less than expectations then the customer will feel disappointed and if the performance meets expectations then the customer will feel satisfied. Good service quality can create a good positive perspective from consumers so that consumers have the intention to come back.

Researchers found a significant influence of product quality on repurchase intentions which was mediated by customer satisfaction. According to Kotler (2008), the higher the product quality, the higher the consumer’s decision to make a purchase. When consumers purchase a product, there will be certain considerations that serve as benchmarks for consumers to fulfill their desires, including the condition and appearance of a product marketed by the company. Service quality mediated by customer satisfaction has a significant effect on repurchase intention. Consumers who make repeat purchases also pay attention and feel directly the quality of service from a restaurant. Nur, A.I (2018) found that service quality can be mediated by customer satisfaction which results in consumers’ repurchase intentions. Good quality service will certainly make consumers feel satisfied and make repeat purchases. Service quality can be said to be good and of high quality if the service provided by a company can satisfy its customers. According to Tjiptono (2014: 268) service quality is centered on efforts to fulfill customer needs and desires and the accuracy of delivery to balance customer expectations so that customers can feel satisfied with the services provided and the intention to buy again arises.

References

Adabi,  N.  (2020).  Pengaruh  Citra  Merek, Kualitas  Pelayanan  dan  Kepercayaan Konsumen Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian  Indihome  di  Witel  Telkom Depok. Journal Of Management.

Adipramita,V.  (2019).Pengaruh  Kualitas Pelayanan,     Persepsi     Harga,     Dan Lokasi Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Di  Toko  Perhiasan  Emas Lancar    Jaya    Sekaran    Lamongan. JEM17:  Jurnal  Ekonomi  Manajemen. https://doi.org/10.30996/jem17.v4i1.2916.

Afrilia, V.S. (2017). Pengaruh Harga Kualitas Produk dan Citra Merek Terhadap keputusan Teh Siap Minum Dalam Kemasan Teh Botol Sosro.

Agustiansyah, E. C., & Taufik, E. R. (2019). Mediasi Kepuasan Nasabah Pada Pengaruh Kualitas  Pelayanan  dan  Citra  Perusahaan  Terhadap  Loyalitas  (Studi  Pada PT. Bank  Syariah  Mandiri  KCP  Pandeglang).Jurnal  Riset  Bisnis dan  Manajemen Tirtayasa,3(1), 1-19.

Anjelia, G.P., Dkk. (2018). Pengaruh Kualitas Produk, Harga dan Word of Mouth Terhadap Miat Beli Konsumen Handphone Pada Mahasiswa FEB Unsrat. Vol.6, No.3.

Annisa, R. A., Wardhana, A. (2016). Pengaruh word of mouth Terhadap Minat Beli Konsumen Baraya Travel Pool Buah Batu. Vol.10, No.2. 

Aryani, Dwi dan Rosinta, Febrina. 2010. Pengaruh Kualitas Layanan terhadap Kepuasan Pelanggan dalam Membentuk Loyalitas Pelanggan. Jurnal Ilmu Administrasi dan Organisasi, Volume 2, halaman 114-126.

Awi, Y. L., & Chaipoopirutana, S. (2014). A Study of Factors Affecting Consumer’s Repurchase Intention toward Xyz Restaurant, Myanmar. International Conference on Trends in Economics, Humanities and Management, 181-184.

Bagus, A.D., Ratna, N.N., dan Imam, A.B. (2021) Pengaruh Kualitas Produk, Harga, Desain dan Citra Merek terhadap Minat Beli Ulang Produk Sepatu. Vol.1, No.1.1

Bailia,  Jefry  F.T,  Agus  Supandi  Soegoto  dan  Sjendry  Serulo  R.  Loindong.  2014. Pengaruh    Kualitas    Produk,    Harga    dan    Lokasi    Terhadap    Kepuasan Konsumen  Pada  Warung –Warung  Makan  Lamongan  Di  Kota  Manado. Jurnal EMBA, 2(3), 1768 –1780.

Danu, A.P., dan Haryono. T. (2022). The Effect of Brand Image and Product Quality on Repurchase Intention Mediated by Consummer Satisfaction Study at Uniqlo in Solo. Vol.6, issue.2.

Fajriati, Nadia., Megawati (2021). Pengaruh Harga, Kualitas Produk, Lokasi, dan Word of Mouth (WOM) Terhadap Minat Beli Konsumen pada Toko Jaya Sentosa Mebel 7 Ulu Palembang. Vol.2, No.2.

Ghozali, Imam, 2016, Aplikasi Analisis Multivariate dengan Program IBM SPSS23, Edisi Delapan, Journal of Economics and Finance, Semarang, Universitas Diponegoro.

Hannan, S., Suharjo, B., Kirbrandoko., & Nurmalina, R. (2017). The Influence of Customer Satisfaction , Trust and Information Sharing on Customer Loyalty of Professional Services Company : An Empirical Study on Independent Surveyor Services Industry in Indonesia. Abstract of Economic, Finance and Management Outlook, Conscientia Beam, 11(1), 344–353.

Indonesia, D. (n.d.). Industri Mamin Tumbuh 2,54% PADA 2021. Dataindonesia.id. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://dataindonesia.id/sektor-riil/detail/industri-mamin-tumbuh-254-pada-2021

Sudibyo, G. C. (2022). 4 Sektor Usaha Menjanjikan Untuk Strategi bisnis 2022. PRIEDS. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://www.prieds.com/post/4-sektor-usaha-menjanjikan-untuk-strategi-bisnis-2022

Devi, Irma P. et.all. 2020. Pengaruh Persepsi Harga, Kualitas Makanan dan Kalitas Pelayanan Terhadap Niat Beli Di Warung Dekade. Jurnal Ilmu Manajemen. ISSN: 2721-6810. Vol.1, No.2.

Felix, R. (2017). Service quality and customer satisfaction in selected banks in Rwanda. Journal of Business & Financial Affairs, VI(1), 246-256.

Hamdani.A. 2011.  Manajemen  Pemasaran  Jasa.  (Edisi  2).  Salemba  Empat. Jakarta.

Hasan, A. 2010. Marketing Dari Mulut Ke Mulut. Edisi 12. Jilid 2. Media Presindo, Yogyakarta.

Hair Jr., J. F., Hult, G. T., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N. P., & Ray, S. (2021). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (Pls-Sem) Using R (1st Ed.). Springer Cham. 

Hume, M., & Sullivan, M. (2010). The Consequence Of Appraisal Emotion, Service Quality, Perceived Value And Customer Satisfaction On Repurchase Intent In The Performing Arts. Journal of Services Marketing, 24(2), 170 – 182.

Imasari, K.P. (2012). Odd Price: Harga, Psikologi dan Perilaku Konsumen Dalam Purchase Decision Making. Vol.11, No.2.

Kodu, Sarini. 2013. Haga, Kualitas Produk dan Kualitas Pelayanan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Mobil Toyota Avanza. ISSN : 2303-1174. Vol.1, No.3.

Knight, J.B., Kotschevor, L. (2000). Quality Food Production Planning and Management: 3rd Edition. Canada: Simultaneously.

Kotler dan Amstrong, G 2012. Principles Of Marketing. 14th Edition Pearson International Edition. Prentice Hall. New Jersey

Kotler, Philip and Gary Armstrong. 2012. Prinsip-prinsip Pemasaran. Edisi 13. Jilid 1. Jakarta: Erlangga.

Kotler, P., & Keller, K. L. (2016). Marketing Management (15th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.

Kotler, Philip dan Amstrong, Gary. 2011/ 10th Edition. “Marketing an introduction”. Indonesia: Parason

Kotler, Philip and Armstrong, Gary. (2014). Principles of Marketing, Fifteenth Edition, Pearson Education, England.

Kotler, P.& Amstrong, G. (2016). Principles of Marketing Edisi 16 Global Edition .England: Pearson Education Limited

Kotler, P., dan Armstrong, G. 2017, Principles of Marketing, 7th ed., United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited.

Kotler, Philip dan Keller, Kevin Lane. (2018). Manajemen Pemasaran. PT Indeks.

Mahendrayanti, Made., & Wardana, 2021. “The Effect Of Proce Perception, Product Quality, and Service Quality on Repurchase Intention, 5(1), 182-188.

Mardikawati, Woro dan Farida, Naili. 2013. “Pengaruh Nilai Pelanggan dan     Kualitas Layanan Terhadap Loyalitas Pelanggan, Melalui Kepuasan Pelanggan pada    Pelanggan    Bus Efisiensi”. Jurnal Administrasi Bisnis. Semarang: UNDIP.

Mensah, I., & Mensah, R. D. (2018). Effects of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Repurchase Intention in Restaurants on University of Cape Coast Campus. Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, 4(2), 27-36.

Negara, A.A Ngurah Dianta Esa (2018). Pengaruh Kualitas Produk dan Brand Image terhadap Minat Beli (Survei pada Pembeli di Gerai Starbucks di Kota Surabaya). Sarjana thesis, Universitas Brawijaya.

North, M.O., and D.D. Bell. 2004. Commercial Chicken Production Manual. 4th Ed.An Avi Book Publish. by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Nur, A.I, (2018). Pengaruh Experiental Marketing dan Kualitas Pelayanan Terhadap Niat Pembelian Ulang di Waroeng Spesial Sambel dengan Kepuasan Pelanggan Sebagai Variabel Mediasi. Vol 3

Nurahma.R, dkk. (2016). Peranan Kepuasan Pelanggan dalam Memediasi Pengaruh Kualitas Produk dan Kualitas Layanan Terhadap Pembelian Ulang Produk Jasa Larissa Skin Care di Jember. Artikel Ilmiah 1-6.

Nurhayati  dan  Wahyu  Wijaya  Murti.  2012.  Analisis  Faktor-Saktor  Yang  Mempengaruhi Minat  Beli  Ulang MasyarakatTerhadap  Produk  Handphone. Value  Added,  8  (2):47-62.

O. Pappas, I., G. Pateli, A., N. Giannakos, M., & Chrissikopoulos, V. (2014). Moderating effects of online shopping experience on customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 42(3), 187–204.

Oktavia, Fanny. (2019). Studi Komparatif Mengenai Word of Mouth dan Minat Beli Pada Pusat Oleh-Oleh Pempek Candy dan Pempek Vico Palembang. Vol.2, No.1.

Permadi., G.P. (2017) Pengaruh Kualitas Produk Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian dan Dampaknya Terhadap Kepuasan Konsumen. Jurnal administrasi bisnis. Vol.48, No.1.

Pham, Q. T., Tran, X. P., Misra, S., Maskeliunas, R., & Damaševičius, R. (2018). Relationship between convenience, perceived value, and repurchase intention in online shopping in Vietnam. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010156

Pradana, Dedhy., Hudyah, Syarifah. dan Rahmawati (2017). Pengaruh Harga Kualitas Produk dan Citra Merek Brand Image Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Motor. Vol.14, No.1.

Prastika dan Sugiono. 2017. Pengaruh Kualitas Pelanyanan Dan Keragaman Produk Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Pada Leopard Cafe Way JeparaLampung Timur. Jurnal Dinamika. Volume 3 (1).

Rahmani-Nejad, L., et al. (2014) Service Quality, Relationship Quality and Customer Loyalty (Case Study: Banking Industry in Iran). Open Journal of Social Sciences, 2, 262-268.

Satria, Arief Adi (2017). Pengaruh Kualitas Harga, Promosi, dan Kualitas Produk Terhadap Minat Beli Konsumen Pada Perusahaan A-36. Vol. 2, No.1. 

Savitri, Wardana (2018). Pengaruh Citra Merek, Kualitas Produk, dan Persepsi Harga Terhadap Kepuasan dan Niat Beli Ulang. Vol. 7, No. 10

Sahabuddin, Romansyah. (2019). Manajemen Pemasaran Jasa: Upaya Untuk Meningkatkan Kepuasan Nasabah Pada Industri Perbankan. Pustaka Taman Ilmu

Siadari, C. (n.d.). Pengertian Harga Menurut Para Ahli. Kumpulan Pengertian. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.kumpulanpengertian.com/2020/12/pengertian-harga-menurut-para-ahli.html

Suryana,  Popo  dan  Eliyandi  S.  D.  2013.  Analisis  Faktor  Yang  Mempengaruhi Keputusan Pembelian dan Implikasinya Pada Minat Beli Ulang. Trikonomika, 12 (2):190-200

Upamannyu, N. K., Gulati, C., Chack, A., & Kaur, G. The effect of customer trust on customer loyalty and repurchase intention: the moderating influence of perceived csr. International Journal of Research in IT, Management and Engineering, 4(5), pp. 1-31.

Wibowo, A., & Soedjono. (2014). Pengaruh Kualitas Layanan, Harga dan Lokasi Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian di “D’Stupid Baker” Surabaya. Jurnal Ilmu Riset Manajemen, 3(12).

Widjoyo, S.P. dkk, (2014). Pengaruh Kualitas Layanan dan Kualitas Produk terhadap Kepuasan Pelanggan dan Loyalitas Konsumen Restoran Happy Garden Surabaya. Vol.2, No.1.

Yamit, Z. (2013). Manajemen Kualitas Produk & Jasa. Yogyakarta: Ekonisia.

Isaac Odoi Danquah

diok1982@yahoo.com  

Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua, Eastern Region – Ghana. 

ABSTRACT

Illegal gold mining business is so rampant at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana after the discovery of gold within the sub region. This has led to the destruction of natural resources such as lands, surface water bodies, forest reserves, plant species, destruction of natural water channels and destruction of aquifers. With this in mind, total land areas and surfaces are destroyed and changed after an illegal gold mining adventure. The aim of this research work sorts to investigate if an illegal gold mined site can be developed into an Eco park after gold mining adventure for the benefit of mankind, community and country. This is the reason for this research work at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. After the investigation, it is well established that an illegal gold mined site can be designed, developed into an Eco park after turning pits and dugouts into an edifice where tourist siting places (summer hat buildings) can be developed over the pits and dugouts. Aquatic development can also be done in the dugouts containing water after treatment. Other places developed as play grounds for kids and the old. Sight-seeing stands also obtained after the introduction of animal species such as snails, rabbits, antelopes, tortoise, parrots, Monkeys, turkey and birds of different kinds. Different plant species also introduced to serve as learning platforms for ecologist and students from the biology background. With this, all kinds of classifications (Kingdom to species levels) of animals and plant species can be done to serve as learning platform for all. Water resources sectors within the Eco Park such as dugouts and pits well protected  and developed to serve as learning platforms for professionals and students from the water resources sector. Finally, total beautification of the place with green grasses and flowers after good designing by bioengineers. 

Keywords: Eco Park, illegal mining, water, land, forest reserves, gold, aquatic, development, ecologist, water resources, dugouts. 

1          INTRODUCTION

Gold mining business in Ghana has yield billions of pounds sterling, dollars and cedis to the Ghanaian economy and the 

world. Both indigenous and migrants are benefiting from the gold mining business which is changing their lives both locally and internationally. But the only problem is the process of accessing or mining the finite product. That is one of the main challenges facing the people and government of Ghana currently. For this reason, gold is explored in various kinds of ways both by legal and illegal gold miners. Gold exploration by illegal gold miners is always leading to the overexploitation of natural resources such lands, forest reserves and surface water bodies. The illegal mining activities is destroying farm produce and commercial farm products such as cocoa, cassava, plantain, palm oil trees, coconuts etc.   

Assessing surface water in Ghana is now a big problem as almost all surface water bodies have been polluted and deteriorated. The once been used by Ghana Water Company Limited for abstraction and treatment for drinking requires huge amounts of money because of the polluted nature of the water body. So is Supong which is one of the areas where the illegal gold is mined. The most interesting thing is that people don’t care and see what is happening, all that they are interested in is the gold and the money. Where will Ghana stand to produce food and cocoa for the international market if all these lands are degraded and becomes infertile hence of no use for crop production. Will the gold money be enough to import all the food Ghanaians needs for sustenance and survival? This is a big no, hence the need to protect the natural resources for the good will of all – both the gold miners and common citizens. Gold mining is a good business that generates Billions of pounds sterling’s and cedis annually for economic growth but comes with repercussions and these need not be toiled with if not it becomes a curse. Since gold mining in Ghana started years ago, generations have come and gone, generations will continue to come and go but this gold resource will continue to be there as this is what nature has blessed the country Ghana for her growth and sustenance hence the need to protect.

Galamsey is a group of unlicensed individuals who come together using crude and sometimes refine methods to mine gold and other minerals. Galamsey or illegal mining became a boom in Ghana in the 1970’s when there was a decline in Ghana’s economy during that time. 

When the president of Ghana was sworn into office, he restated his commitment to protect the land and water bodies that has been destroyed as a result of illegal gold mining activities within the country. The president introduced measures to stop the illegalities, regularise the small-scale mining sector, take measures to prevent occurrence of illegalities in the future, including reform and strengthening of regulatory agencies as well as reform of mining laws by that cleaning the mess created by these galamsey people.

Illegal mining operators wash the ore, and discharge waste products into rivers and other water bodies that serve as raw water sources for drinking for various communities within the country. These wastes include mine tailings which are directly discharged into rivers bodies. Large amounts of waste materials released into the water, a large amount of suspended solids that directly contaminate aquatic habitats. Some mine tailings are toxic and pose serious health problems both to humans, animals and plant life. Most water bodies in Ghana over the years have been serving as drinking water for local communities and a raw water source for the Ghana Water Company. These water bodies have been heavily polluted as a result of illegal gold mining operations. The Supong, Birim, Offin, Ankobra, Tano and Pra Rivers for example, have become extremely expensive to treat for human consumption as a result of the very poor water quality and its turbid nature or level.

Nsutam community has a lot of rich natural resources which needs to be harnessed in the right direction as well as protect it for the future generation.  Some of this natural resources are lands, water, gold, forest reserves etc. The mining of gold within the community is enriching lives and generating Billions of Pounds Sterling for Ghana and the world market. Despite the enrichment of lives, there is the need for the community and government to mine the resource in the right direction as well as sustaining the natural resources for unborn generations to come. In this regards, there is the need to use standard operation procedures to identify the resources and mine it for the betterment of mankind. In doing this, lands, forest reserves, water bodies will be under management through stakeholder participation towards the sustainability of the natural resources. Natural resources identification, assessment and protection hasn’t been the mentality of Ghanaians but only improper way of harnessing it. Ghana as an economy is rich in natural resources so is Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Nsutam a stopover community is now welcoming natural resources discoverers all over the world as its rich in all kinds of resources. One most important thing in all this is the sustainability of the resource for the now and future generation. Ghana lacks protection, maintenance and sustainability attitude among its citizens and so can be seen at Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The natural resources available at Nsutam needs to be harnessed, mined and protected for the future. In doing this, the natural resource can be used to feed the current generation and future generation. It therefore calls on the government, government agencies, tourist board, stakeholders and private investors to help in the maintenance and protection of natural resources within the community as they continue to mine and use to meet daily needs and demands. Some citizens do not have the use for today but keep for future generation and this needs to be installed in their minds in order to protect and maintain the resources at Nsutam. The Ghanaian government needs to cultivate the attitude of resources estimation, protection and maintenance for the future generation. Government institutions such as Water resources commission, Environmental Protection Agency, Lands commission and Tourist Boards needs to look at resources allocation and the potential of private investors to make use and protect the resources before leasing out. By this, private investors who buys lands in communities such as Nsutam will use standard operation procedures to harness resources such as gold whiles protecting lands, forest reserves and water bodies and designing them into tourist attraction sites in Ghana.

Eco Park development from illegal gold mined sites is a good thought through opportunity to make use of damaged sites or design an illegally mined abandoned sites into a tourist site full of beauty to serve mankind, community, country and the international world. With such a project of life span of say 70years, it can serve generations in various directions;

• Serve as a tourist sites
• Serve as learning sites
• Serve as entertaining sites
• Serve as conference center for programs
• Serve the community on special occasions etc.

• RESEARCH AREA

The research area for this study is in Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The people of Nsutam are involved in gold mining, farming and trading. Some of the farm products produced includes coconut, cocoa, plantain, yam, cassava, sugar cane and all kinds of vegetables produced during the farming seasons. The huge amount of gold discovered in the community has resulted in all kinds of illegal gold mining activities destroying water bodies, forest reserves and lands resources. The community has a population of about 7000 (2021 population census) with the majority being immigrants due to the gold mining business, Linda Dor and Paradise Tourist operates in the community. The destroyed land, surface water resources and forest reserves or plant species needs reclamation process in order to restore the infertile lands together with other resources back to normalcy. This fertile rich soils will support plant growth in order to support the hydrological cycle and exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between man and plants. Restoration of the degraded lands will also promote afforestation and wildlife existence in the future for future generation. It will also promote tourist attraction when vegetation’s are groomed and protected with the existence of wildlife’s. Fig 1 below is a view of the study area in the Eastern Region of Ghana where coconut is in mild production to boost livelihoods within the community.

Fig. 1: Map of Fanteakwa south

• METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED FOR THE RESEARCH

The methodology employed for this research is Site Stationed Investigation Procedure (SSIP). With this method, the researcher works on the illegal mined site for several years (2018 – 2023) and embarks on learning and investigations as illegal gold mining is done. The site is designed artificially as various processes and procedures are done by illegal gold miners to access the mineral willingly or unwillingly. Site is discovered after the whole process of illegal gold mining after thorough process to access and analyze what can be done with the site. An Eco Park is seen evolving out the site after the whole process of mining. 

• IDENTIFIED ECO PARK DEVELOPMENT STAGES
  • Summer Hat buildings creation on dugouts

In the process of mining within the identified area, all kinds of pits were dug to obtain the gold metal. These pits were dug to various depths generating water after hitting water table. Water from the Supong was also abstracted to help in the washing of stones and sand to obtain the gold being sort for. This has created dugouts after pit digging to a greater depth. Quite a number of the dugouts have been obtained and full of water to help in the Eco Park design and construction for Nsutam community. Summer hats buildings will therefore be done after concreting on the water bodies or dugouts having four or three access paths. This will be done with safety precautions or protections in mind so that no client or visitor falls inside the dugouts during operations and usage. This will be done nicely to add beauty to the design of the Eco Park at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Some are of the view that creating such summer hat buildings on illegal mined site dugouts is very dangerous but not the case, if proper design is done and constructed across the dugout with maximum precautions. This will be done to ensure safety of visitors, users and clients so that pleasure attainment will be obtained by all who makes use of the Eco Park now and the future. The dugout will be filled with fishes (to be treated under aquatic habitat creation and sight – seeing) and designed with flowers to give it much beauty to serve the people of Nsutam and beyond.

Fig 1: Summer hat building design

Fig 1 is a summer hat building which is going to be constructed over each of the identified dugouts in the illegal mined site. A number of such summer hat buildings will be constructed to add beauty to the Eco Park at Nsutam. This will have all kinds of fishes and aquatic organisms swimming in them to serve as sight – seeing for visitors and anyone who access the Eco Park. Plate 1 is one of the dugouts to have the summer hat building installed over it.

Plate 1: Dugout to have summer hat building installed

The summer hat building installation and creation on all identified possible dugouts will be done to international standards more than that identified in plate 2 below. Such summer hats will have four or three pathways as can be seen in fig 1. There will be a number of them depending on the number of dugouts identified with adequate size and capacity to facilitate the installations and creation.

Plate 2: sample summer hat building to be installed on dugouts

• Creation of playing grounds for kids

Kids like playing especially when they meet in numbers at a designated place to have fun. Arboretwum at Bunso has seen a lot of visitation and patronage and one can observe playing by kids all day round upon visitation at the Eco Park. And this is no exception when GMCL Eco Park is established at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. It therefore deems fit if a playing ground is designed, created or constructed to propagate this gospel of playing among kids, sharing love among themselves and extend friendly hands towards each other. This will enhance cordial relationship creation among kids as they learn how to work and cooperate with each other as they grow and mature into adulthood to serve man and country. 

• Access paths creation

All kinds of access paths will be created within the Eco Park to help one access and move around the Eco Park at ease as he/she embarks on sight – seeing. Access paths will comprise of concrete pavements, roads and green grass vegetated areas within the Eco Park. This will add beauty to the Eco Park and hence attract a lot of people to the place to make it lively. Royal palms together with other flowers and tree species will help in the access path and pathway creation (Plate 2). Runoff generation within the Eco Park is very high and again the water table is closer to the surface of the land hence high rate of water over the area. That is, most of the areas within the catchment becomes waterlogged during heavy storms hence the need for pavements and concreting of areas to avoid dirty storm waters being drained into the dugout. When this is achieved, the water body and all waters in the dugouts will be clean and serene all the time to make the Eco Park admirable. 

Plate 3: Access pathway creation

• Introduction of animals for sight – seeing and learning

In years back, zoos like the Kumasi zoo in the Ashanti Region harbors all kinds of animals and birds serving as for sight-seeing and for education. This is not the case in the Eastern Region of Ghana and GMCL Eco Park seeks to establish this learning and sight-seeing center for all and especially those living at Nsutam and in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Illegal gold mining is being embarked day in day out within the Eastern Region of Ghana which is turning lands and destroying natural resources within the sub region. Mined sites are left aloof after gold mining business and GMCL seeks to use one of the site as a case study in establishing an Eco Park. Extinction of animals and birds is still on going as individuals enter into deep forest like Atiwa forest to harness such animals and birds for sale and food in the homes. GMCL seeks to preserve nature by creating an area within the Eco Park where all kinds of animals and birds will be kept for sight-seeing and learning by students, young and old. Animal species such as snails, rabbits, antelopes, tortoise, turkey, monkey etc and birds of different kinds will be kept at the Eco Park for this purpose. Birds of different kinds can be found at the Eco Park now and some still moving in on daily basis. 

• Ecological creation of plants species

Biologist and Ecologist are much interested in plant species for learning in the schools and universities, for medicinal purposes and so on. For this reason, all kinds of plant species will also be planted within the Eco Park to serve educational purposes of learning at every level of education by all. That is from lower levels of education to the university level in Ghana, Africa and the world. Plant species and flowers will be planted around heaped sands and gravels and decorated into a sight – seeing area where there will be taking of pictures and all kinds of playing activities (photographing area and playground) as shown in Plate 4 below. 

Plate 4: photographing area and play ground

• Aquatic habitat creation and sight – seeing.

To access gold from underground through illegal means, all kinds of pits and dugouts have been generated full of dirty and polluted water. This polluted water has been channeled to the river Supong through the creation of artificial river channels within the obtained sites. This is polluting the river Supong and hence river Birim at a high and fast rate. Self-stratification is playing a major role in bringing the water bodies created within the site to normalcy. Treatments will also be done to help the self-treatment purpose of getting a clean quality water. The good quality dugouts and pits that have undergone self-stratification have fishes in them which are growing at a faster rate. The untreated once do no but will be treated and stocked with fishes and aquatic animals or organisms to boost the status of the Eco Park. It will serve educational purposes which also being used as sight – seeing by the indigenous and all within the Nsutam community in the Eastern Region of Ghana.

Plate 5: Polluted water to be treated to serve as aquatic habitat

• Creation of resting stands with trees and flowers 

Touring within an Eco Park is a tiring work hence the need for various resting stands where visitors and if possible supervisors working in the Eco Park can rest when the need be. With this in mind, various siting and resting places will be created within the Eco Park to serve this purpose. This will be done under shades or trees in order to receive fresh cool air away from heat and the sun. Such areas will be decorated with flowers to have a very attractive natural beauty to make an Eco Park a very stunning one for all. The Eco Park will be serving people of all classes hence will be to a good standard to serve this purpose at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The construction of the Eco Park will be done with Engineers and floweriest and designers who knows how to give beauty to environment and society. All the dugouts which will harbour the summer hat building will have their areas decorated with flowers and trees together with green grasses and other varieties of grasses covering the ground. This will make the Eco Park beautiful and lively area and place for people to visit, learn and have fun. This will be done for such people together with their friends, staff members, colleagues at school or university and family. Creation of such an Eco Park at Nsutam will serve the community which is now a gold mining community with migration of people within Ghana and outside Ghana to the community. 

• Overhead walk creation over Eco Park

Canopy walk is a nice tourist adventure to be embarked on whenever one visits a tourist site with such opportunity. Within the Eco Park will be the planting, nurturing and growing of all kinds of tree species to add beauty and nature to the Eco Park. These trees can be coordinated and modelled into a canopy walk in the future when all the trees are grown and matured. This will give visitors and anyone who accesses the Eco Park a better and nice view of the tourist site and environment. Human beings like adventure and this will give them another adventure opportunity within the Eco Park. This will give a view to human beings comparable to a drone view within the tourist site (Eco Park). 

• Creation of Entertainment and Conference Centers

The Eco Park being established sorts out to serve as an entertaining centre and site as well as serving as an education centre or tourist sites where all kinds of learning can be done. With this in focus, there is the creation of an entertainment center and conference or learning centre. Such two areas will purposefully serve entertainment reason and learning reason. The entertainment areas will comprise of places where children will have playing grounds for fun and learning. This will serve as a playing ground where children can easily move around and play during special occasions when they come in their numbers for tourist and entertainment reasons. Children like learning but it’s usually through playing and entertainment. As they happy themselves, then they play alongside each other for friendship, happiness and entertainment. This will be achieved when a playing ground is established within the Eco Park. A learning or conference center will also be created where students can be taught comparable to a classroom teaching environment. This will purposely serve school children and university undergraduates and researchers. Installing all kinds of animals and plants species requires taking tourist through some great learnings and history which when given at the touring moments is easily forgotten. But when done under a classroom settings, students and researchers can easily take lesson notes and write-ups home. Parents too and working class or staffs can be taken through same at the tourist sites and in the conference center.

4.10           Vegetative cropping stand for learning

A vegetative cropping stand will be created where touring people, students and visitors will be taken through vegetative reproduction. With this, some selected crops will be used to demonstrate vegetative reproduction to students, teachers, working staffs and anyone who visits the Eco Park. It will have some planted crops which have undergone vegetative reproduction for better understanding and learning among visitors to the touring site at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana.

4.11 Aesthetic treatment of created water bodies and dugouts

All the dugouts and pits are full of water undergoing self – stratification. Some have gone through the process over several months past and obtaining the finite good nature of water habited by aquatic organisms (fish, frog, toad etc) and usable by mankind to meet daily water demands. All the dugouts or pits will be aesthetically designed with green grasses, grasses and flowers to make it beautiful and attractive to all. This will be done after installation or construction of the summer hat buildings on the dugouts or water bodies.

• Bioengineering, pavement, concreting and grassing of the Eco Park

Bioengineering of a place with grasses like green grass adds beauty to nature, gives fresh air, increases infiltration, reduces runoff generation full of dirt and sediments into a drain or water body. This will be done in most of the areas with trees planted at vantage points within the Eco Park. Once bioengineering is done together with green grass planting, infiltration will be 100% (higher rate) as runoff generation will be 0% (or to a lesser rate). It is only at the pervious areas where pavements and concreting has been done that will give total runoff generation with various runoff depths. This will be generated during precipitation and will be over the field or Eco Park hence the need to channel all of them downstream. All these runoffs will end up in the connected dugout and finally in river Supong. Most of the bioengineering will be done around the dugouts and connected dugouts towards river Supong. This will be done with green grasses to avoid dirty runoff generation or runoff full of sediments been created and drained into the created dugouts which upon treatments will be of quality and have all kinds of fishes and aquatic organisms. With all kinds of drains within the Eco Park, all generated runoffs void of sediments and dirt’s will be channeled into river Supong. With all these done within the Eco Park, a beautiful sight – seeing Eco Park will be obtained to serve Nsutam community, visitors, country and world comparable to that depicted in plate 6 (Danquah, 2023). 

Plate 6: Bioengineering and pavement creation

5    CONCLUSION

Illegal gold mining is now part and parcel of the Ghanaian economy as its serving as a gainful employment source and a source of income for people and homes. It is generating millions of pound sterling’s, dollars, and cedis into pockets and boosting the Ghanaian economy and the world when it comes to gold production. Illegal gold mining will therefore continue to be embarked by the youth and old within Ghana and hence its resultant repercussions. It will always lead to the destruction of farmlands, lands, water bodies, forest reserves and so one. But what one does with the destroyed lands is the most important thing after illegal gold mining adventure within a community. With these assertions, it is justified that one can turn a destroyed land after a gold mining adventure into an Eco Park that will be beneficial to people, community, country and world.

Acknowledgement

Grateful I am to the Almighty God for the mindset, ability to think thoughtfully and in discovering this Eco Park at Nsutam. Thanks to the Chief and people of Nsutam for playing various roles towards the success of this project. I am again grateful to the Danquah and Darko family of Nsutam and Kukurantumi respectively for their various roles. God bless the chief Osaberima, teacher Yirenkyi, Okyeame Danso and the assembly man of Nsutam, honorable Alex for their help and roles in this project. God richly bless you all.

References

Danquah, I. O. (2023), Stormwater Modelling within Three catchments using MIDUSS v2.25: Real Time Simulation Model to analyze stormwater within catchments, International journal of Research.

Dr  Arthur Sunday

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Caleb Tamwesigire

Assoc. Prof , Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Dr Eliab Byamukama Mpora

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Mr Agaba Moses

Kabale University-Uganda

www.kab.ac.ug

Abstract

Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as a vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2016). Micro finance in Uganda is a vibrant growing industry and the government of Uganda has over the past decade initiated implemented and or supported various micro credit schemes aimed at fighting poverty in the country. Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion. Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability and not on internal control system and lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions. Failure by MFIs to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda. The study analyzed the relationship between Management control system and financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda and it was hypothesized that Management control system positively influences   financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. MFIs have come under spotlight for cases of poor financial performance. Lack of empirical studies to assess the impact of Management control system on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda is the motivation behind this study. Therefore, this study is important not only because it fills the gap, but also it is set out to address this evident knowledge gap. The study adopted positive–phenomenological, epistemology and quantitative-qualitative methodology dimension with cross sectional and correlation designs, the unit of analysis was Microfinance Institutions registered with Association of Microfinance Institutions, and employees were the units of inquiry. Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were used to for statistical modeling

Besides, Hierarchical regression was used to test the predictive power of the variables and indicate precisely what happens to the model as different predictor variables are introduced in the model fit. This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that Management control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance. And Management control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance.  The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient Management control systems. These models can then be used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda .Regardless of the existence of controls in MFI, the results revealed that Management control systems were less efficient due to lack of close monitoring. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals .Policy makers, AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy

Key Words : Management Control System, Financial Performance, microfinance, Institution

Introduction

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion .The microfinance movement has received enthusiasm as a poverty alleviation tool that has eventually become a self-sustaining industry. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2016). Most microfinance institutions have embraced a more business-oriented outlook and maintained their target groups of economically-active poor, in order to achieve financial sustainability (Kalyango, 2004; Baguma, 2008). The micro finance institutions in developing economies are widely growing from time to time. Various studies on different countries on the performance of the MFIs confirm this (Adongo and Stork 2005, Zeller and Meyer 2002, Meyer 2002, Robert cull et al. 2007). Approaches used by microfinance institutions in Uganda to deliver financial services to the poor are similar to those used in other countries where microfinance institutions operate. The approach used depends on the nature and structure of the respective microfinance institution. The institutions providing microfinance services include: Tier I: formal financial institutions Comercial banks, TierII; credit institutions, Tier III; microfinance deposit taking institutions, Tier IV; Saccos (BOU Policy on MFIs 1999).

Microfinance institutions in Uganda from time and again been faced with high operating costs to provide financial services to the poor people and Small and Medium Enterprises (Micro banking Bulletin, 2002). And as such,  are unable to meet their obligations when they become due usually resulting from poor cash flow planning, failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending and micro loan portfolios  (Srinivasan, 2006 due to unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which are volatile. IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears. An enduring problem facing microfinance institutions, however, is how to attain financial sustainability (Dunford, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Woller 2000; Hollis and Sweetman, 1998; Christen et al, 1995). This problem has attracted attention of numerous researchers in recent decades and, as a result many strategies have been identified to ensure that institutions are sustainable (Randhawa and Gallardo, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Yaron, 1992). Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of management control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal control systems can alleviate disruptive performance in a business enterprise. Ledgerwood (1999) as cited by Lincolin Arsyad (2005), conceptualizes financial performance as; Financial viability (operational self-sufficiency, financial self-sufficiency) Profitability (return on assets ratio, return on business ratio, return on equity ratio) and Portfolio quality (portfolio at risk, repayment rates).  Financial performance being a critical factor in the success of microfinance Institutions, therefore, this research focused on financial performance and not social performance

Most of the studies on financial performance of microfinance institutions apply and use different methodologies as in the case of Tilahun (2009) , however this study employed a descriptive research design based on quantitative data. The researcher collected and analyzed annual reports using descriptive statistics.  A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between management control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions. 

Poor financial performance marked by deteriorating returns and portfolio quality has taken a center stage and remained unexplained in microfinance Institutions (Performance Monitoring Tool 2006/2009/). Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which tend to be more volatile (Ssewanyana 2009). According to the IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears hardly existed. Microfinance institutions in Uganda face poor cash flow problems due to changes in market interest rate and failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda (Bank of Uganda 2010/2011)

Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability (Migiri, 2002). Lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions.  Though some studies have identified ICS as a possible predictor of financial performance in different industries, there are still gaps as a result of absence of representative empirical studies that would address the issue of financial performance of microfinance institutions as a result of Management control systems (PekChen, 2005).More so, theories and models apparently used to explain financial performance in firms have proved to be weak and inadequate in explaining this phenomenon. 

This study enabled microfinance firms to have a more definite and direct understanding of the elements of management control system that can influence performance. Besides, understanding of how management control system elements combine to influence firm performance can lead to better resource allocation, which eventually may promote performance in microfinance institutions.

Empirical studies aimed at assessing the impact of Management control systems on the financial performance of Microfinance Institutions in Uganda are missing. Therefore, this study is important because it fills this gap of knowledge

Literature Review 

A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. There are various forms  that have been used to examine the way contextual factors are related to aspects of Management control System with an  attempt to assess whether this association is linked to financial performance of Microfinance Institutions.

Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between magememt control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions

Synthesizing existing studies in the broad area of explaining financial performance of MFIs, indicate a clear dearth of studies examining multiplicative effect of various elements the predictor variable ie Management control system(Internal Control System, Budgeting, Performance Measurement ) on  financial performance of  MFIs . 

Model Specification

Management control system has been conceptualized from the Contingency point of view that assumes that the design and the application of management control systems are influenced by the context in which they are applied (Chenhall, 2007). A contingency approach to management control systems aims at identifying the best design, usage and application of Management control system in a given context (Chenhall and Chapman, 2006).This study follows the use of management control systems and examines the way contextual factors are related to aspects of management control system with attempt to assess whether this association is linked to financial performance of Microfinance Institutions. Any controlled system requires objectives and goals against which its performance can be assessed and the existence of different goals is likely to involve the selection of different performance measures and controls

The contingency approach was cited and explained by Simons’ (1995) levers of management system control model that requires management of effective companies to know how to achieve high degrees of high control efficiency and performance. Simon argued that it is not the identification of controls associated with particular strategies that are important, but the distribution of management attention and efficiency of controls that can lead to high degrees of performance. Simons (1995) organises management control system tools into a coherent model called “levers of control

Independent Variable MCS

Dependent Variable: Financial Performance

Figure 1: Conceptual Frame Work

Internal Control System

Budgeting

Performance measurement

Perceived Financial     Performance

Profitability

Portfolio Quality

Financial Viability

Source: Literature Review

To understand management control system  and financial performance variables in relation to microfinance institutions, the major management control system  pillars i.e. budgeting, performance measurement, internal control system are dissected. Financial performance especially relating to microfinance institutions is also reviewed based on the performance dimensions comprising: Profitability, portfolio quality and financial viability. The significance of Management control system in microfinance institutions is also highlighted. These are compressed in a conceptual framework as shown above. From the conceptual framework above, the hypothesis was structured to ascertain the extent to which management control system can influence financial performance. This was expressed as:

      Y=a+bx 

      FPM= f(MCS)

      Y=α_o+β₁ICS₁+β₂BDGT₂+β₃PFM₃+ ₄  +µ_…

       Where

      Y = Financial performance (proxied by Profitability, portfolio quality, financial viability)

 Key predictor of Management control system is given as 

      ICS₁ = Internal control System, BDGT₂ = Budgeting, PFM₃ = Performance Measurement

Simon (1995), asserted  that Management control systems  have different impacts on organization performance, Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of internal control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies, Davila (2000), in his study his study findings indicated that different strategies will need different interactive use of management controls to raise firm performance.

Welsh (2003), Simons (1995), Chow et al (1999), Merchant (2007), appreciate that Management   control systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers that ensure that errors and fraud are detected, safe guard company’s  assets and opine that MCS greatly influences firm performance.

Recent studies draw from the original organizational theorists (Burns & Stalker 1961, Lawrence & Lorsch 1967, Thompson 1967, Perrow 1970, Galbraith1973) to develop arguments that explain how the effectiveness of control systems  (Chenhall 2003).

Bisbe and Otley (2004), findings indicated that the application of control systems has a huge contingency effect on firm performance. However, Bisbe’s research did not discuss the importance of human effect to control system (Snell, 1992; Abernethy and Brownell, 1997; Keller, 2001; Widener, 2004)

Dexon  (2010), findings revealed that Management Control Systems have a significant positive effect in achieving Value for Money. All the constructs of Internal Control Systems (Control environment, control activities, risk assessment) have a significant positive relationship with Value for Money in a business entity

Internal control  process reduces uncertainty and improves firm performance, Ivancevich (1976), Steers (1976), Imoisili (1989), Locke & Schweiger (1979), Mia (1989), Ezzamel (1990), Hirst & Lowy (1990) etc. Another study on control process and firm performance relationship by scholars (Merchant, 1980; Peel & Bridge, 1988; Edward, et al., 2001) and empirical results (Merchant, 1980) show that control systems enhance the accuracy the degree of information accuracy. In turn, it results in higher performance in organizations.  The increased use of comprehensive ICS practices can be assumed to result in better improved financial performance among firms (e.g. Chenhall 2003, see also discussions in Gul 1991, Gul & Chia 1994, Hoque & James 2000, Ittner et al. 1998, 1998, Scott & Tiessen 1999)

Management Control System acts as a driver variable in firm strategy and performance as found in Chong & Chong (1997) and Baines & Langfield-Smith (2003). Report of bank of Uganda (2002), Simon (1995), results showed that there is indeed a positive association between certain internal control practices when are used concurrently with other strategic initiatives and improvement in financial performance.  Abernethy and Brownell (1999) also discussed the interactive use of management   control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies. The findings confirm the report findings of Armesh (2010) on the influences of internal control system on organizational performance in Malaysia, which showed that Internal Control System influences the behavior and performance of the organizational to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization s objectives.

On the other hand however, McMahon (2001) did not find any significant relationship between use of Control practices and firm performance. Donaldson (2001) found no significant associations were between the use of comprehensive Management Control System and measures of growth in net sales and profitability. 

Additionally, McMahon & Davies (1994) and McMahon (2001) have not found any significant relationships between internal control practices and performance of businesses. Thus, the empirical results on the relationship between various dimensions of Management Control System and performance seem to be rather mixed

Jonathan (2005), study findings revealed that most of the microfinance institutions in Namibia are not yet financially sustainable and it was attributed to the fact that interest rates that Microfinance institutions require to break-even exceed the ceiling imposed. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in financial institutions (Srinivasan, 2006), Studies by Bontis (2002), Chong and Richardson (2006), explained similar performance trends in Portuguese. Study findings revealed that average ROA for MFIs is 3.57%. This concur with study findings of Lafourcade (2005), the findings revealed that, Africa MFIs have the lowest financial performance of ROA of 2% as compared to 7.6%-10% of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The findings are in agreement with Tilahun (2009), study findings on ‘the financial performance and sustainability of microfinance institutions in Ethiopia’; the result of the study indicates that there was a negative shift in the performance indicators particularly in the year 2009  and the gross loan portfolio has declined by 15.73% in the year 2009.

Furthermore, contrary to Chong and Richardson (2006),  study findings, McMahon (2001), did not find any significant relationship between use of control System of Australian business firms and profitability.

Furthermore, Perera et al. (1997) have also reported a respective non significant relationship in manufacturing firms. Malmi et al. (2004) likewise did not find a significant direct relationship between management practices and profitability, even though they reported an interaction effect of the practices and use of other relationship management control systems to be significant in relation to firm performance.

Both theoretical and empirical studies show that strong and efficient systems that maintain high levels of capital adequacy are important in determining financial institutions profitability. Sufian and Habibullah (2009), found out that good systems have a positive impact on bank profitability in China. This confirms Athanasoglou, et al. (2008, 2006) and Kosmidou (2008) who also finds a positive and significant effect of strong control system on bank profitability, reflecting the sound financial condition of banks.This shows that maintaining strong and efficient Managementl control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions (Gramling et al. 2004; Hermanson & Rittenberg 2003; 2004

First, Reid & Smith (2000) found out those developing control  systems, especially in the areas of management and accounting applications, lead to high firm performance, Reid & Smith (2002) , Reid & Smith (2000, 2002) holds that high performers  firms  use and apply internal control systems for daily financial monitoring and for identifying important trends in key variables for their further survival.  On the other hand, Reid & Smith (2002), argue that static performers at satisfactory financial levels tend not to value control systems as much as the others. Consequently, the relationship between Management control system and firm performance seem to be U-shaped

The foregoing reviews reveal that the application of Management control system elements in any organization differ and different interactive use of Management controls to raise firm performance.

The level, application and interactive use of internal control system in Ugandan microfinance industry is elusive. This, therefore, caused the need for a scientific investigation on the use internal control system elements influences financial performance in Uganda’s microfinance industry. This necessitated the study to evaluate the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda. Hence to the hypothesis that “Management control system positively influences financial performance of microfinance institutions”

Methodology 

The study adopted a positivist quantitative paradigm with cross sectional and correlation designs. Correlation design was used to establish relationships between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs. Logical positivism quantitative designs were applied in data collection, analysis and presentation which also helped to test hypothetical deductive generalizations. The study population consisted of 36 MFIs in central region Uganda registered with AMFIU from where the sample size of 33 MFIs were determined comprising a sample of 356 which was consistent with the sample size guidelines of Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006). Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006), multistage, simple rondom sampling and purposive tequniques were used. Primary and secondary data sources were used in the study.Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were also used to for statistical modeling.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the instruments and the instruments were found to be reliable at 0.78. Content  validity of  the  two  instruments was ensured  through use of  valid  concepts  which  measure  the  study  variables .  Content  validity  was  used  to  ensure  that  the questionnaire  was  content  valid. The content validity results were obtained and for all the constructs were above 0.7 as recommended by Sakaran (2000). The study used Means and standard deviations in order to summarize the results. The means were used because they show a summary of data and standard deviation clearly shows how well the means represent the data (Field, 2009). Hierarchical regression was used to estimate the predictive power of the predictor variable on the criterion variable in the model fit.

Findings and Discussion 

Descriptive characteristics

Table 1: Mean and Standard deviations of  the predictor and criterion Variables

	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Budgeting	356	1.75	4.00	3.23	.35
ICS	356	1.30	4.00	3.19	.27
P.Measurement	356	.82	4.00	3.21	.33
Financial Performance	356	.91	4.00	3.09	.25

Source: Primary data

The findings reveal that all mean scores of the constructs in question range between 3.09 and 3.23, with the standard deviations in the range of 0.25 to 0.35. Because of the small and minimal standard deviations compared to mean values, it is evident that the data points are close to the means and hence calculated means highly represent the observed data. In effect, the calculated means are a true reflection of reality (Garson, 2000; Field, 2006, & Saunders et al., 2007). The mean value of financial performance (3.09) is the lowest in contrast to other means .This finding coincides with the earlier assertion about the poor performance of Microfinance institutions in Uganda.

Table 2: Criterion Variables (Profitability)

Profitability
	Return on Asset(ROA)		Return on Equity(ROE)		Profit Margin
Mean	3.6540		16.9460		12.2280
Standard Deviation	.20082		.29263		1.56122
Sample Variance	.040		.086		2.437
Skewness	.466		-.274		1.472
Kurtosis	-2.284		-2.994		1.457
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.000		.000

Source: Primary data, 

The findings reveal that, MFIs ability to generate return on capital employed is quite disparate and p value is significant. And it was further revealed that MFIs do not have similar debt equity ratios in the financing mix and the return on equity for these firms is not identical. The findings reveal that there are significant differences in the levels of return on equity, return on assets, and also in profit margin levels. 

Table 3: Criterion Variables (Financial Viability)

Financial Viability
	Operational Self Sufficiency		Financial Self Sufficiency		Debt/Equity
Mean	111.2000		114.4000		4.2600
Standard Deviation	7.04982		1.81659		.424
Sample Variance	49.700		3.300		.424
Skewness	-.091		.267		.918
Kurtosis	-2.834		1.074		-.387
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.000		.000

Source: Primary data, 

The financing mix among the microfinance institutions varied widely with p value being significant. This has mainly emanated from increasing reliance of the institutions on funds being made available by donors and other funding agencies. Most of the firms are not yet dependent on equity as a source of funds in a big way.

Table 4: Criterion Variables (Portfolio Quality)

Portfolio Quality	Portfolio at Risk>30 days		Portfolio at Risk>90 days		Loan Loss rate
Mean	1.484		.9740		1.3060
Standard Deviation	.4867		.31548		.29619
Sample Variance	.237		.100		.088
Skewness	-.871		-2.229		-.422
Kurtosis	-.395		4.975		-2.879
Count	32		32		32
p value	.000		.002		.001

 Source: Primary data, 2012

The findings reveal that, the p value is significant in case of potential future bad debts, provision for bad debts an indicator that the Microfinance institutions are operating with differing levels of risk appetite. This means that the risk avoidance in MFIs is different

Table 5: Zero order correlation between Management Control, and Financial Performance

	Mean	Std. Deviation	ICS	Budgeting	P.Measurement	Financial Performance
ICS	3.20	.28	1
Budgeting	3.23	.36	.323**	1
P.Measurement	3.21	.33	.499**	.131*	1
Financial Performance	3.10	.25	.388**	.249**	.183**	1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level(2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level(2-tailed)

Source: Primary data

It is evident that there is a positive significant correlation between Budgeting and Internal control system (r= .323^**p< 0.05). This finding means that Efficiency in budgeting is associated with greater structural control systems. Furthermore, the findings reveal that there is a positive and significant relationship between Internal control system and performance measurement exists (r=.499^**, p< 0.05). From correlation matrix the results indicate that the relationship between budgeting and performance measurement is not significant (r= .131^*, p > 0.05).

Table 6: Correlation of MCS variable and Financial Performance

		ICS	Budgeting	Performance m	Financial performance
ICS	Pearson Correlation	1	.323**	.499**	.388**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.000	.000	.000
Budgeting	Pearson Correlation	.323**	1	.131*	.249**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000		.014	.000
P.Measurement	Pearson Correlation	.499**	.131*	1	.183**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.014		.001
Financial performance	Pearson Correlation	.388**	.249**	.183**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.000	.001
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Source: Primary

The findings revealed that appositive and significant relationship between internal control system and financial performance exist in Microfinance Institutions(r= .388^** p(.000)< 0.01.  This shows that a maintaining strong and efficient internal control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions. In a related case, the relationship between budgeting and financial performance is significant(r= .249^**, p(.000)< 0.01). This implies that efficient budgeting systems are associated with higher performance levels in Microfinance Institutions. This is because the budget systems, and processes, in an institution can influence the institution’s level of efficiency and effectiveness, which are important to every institution’s success. The findings, posit that there is a significant and positive effect of budgeting on financial performance

It is further evident that there is a significant and positive correlation between performance measurement and financial performance (r= .183^**, p (.001)< 0.01). This is a sign that a strong relationship exists between performance measurement and financial performance. This signifies that a higher Microfinance Institution’s performance measurement is associated with high performance levels. 

Table 7: Management control system & Financial Performance

	Mean	Std. Deviation	Management Control System	Financial Performance
Management Control System	3.21	.25	1
Financial Performance	3.10	.25	335**	1
	** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Source: Primary data

Results show a positive and significant relationship between management control system and financial performance. The findings further revealed that there is a strong significant relationship between the level of management control system and the degree of financial performance r = .335^{** ,}sig = 0.000 indicating a strong positive co-relation (r > 0) which indeed was big since its sig  value =0.000 < α=0.01 leading to acceptance of the hypothesis to the effect that the  level of management control system has a strong relationship with the degree of financial performance of microfinance institutions in Central region Uganda 

Model estimates 

The hypothesis was structured to ascertain the extent to which management control system can influence financial performance. This was expressed as:

      Y=a+bx 

      FPM= f(MCS)

      Y=α_o+β₁ICS₁+β₂BDGT₂+β₃PFM₃+ ₄  +µ_{…. …………}

       Where

      Y = Financial performance (proxied by Profitability, portifolio quality, financial viability)

 Key predictor of Management control system is given as 

      ICS₁ = Internal control System, BDGT₂ = Budgeting, PFM₃ = Performance Measurement

Table 8: Model Summary and estimates of the Variables

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.524a	.275	.269	.17763
a. Predictors: (Constant), P.Measurement, Budgeting, Internal control system

Table 9:Hierarchical regression with Management control system elements on financial performance

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.499a	.249	.247	.18025
2	.522b	.272	.268	.17771
3	.524c	.275	.269	.17763
a. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System
b. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System, Budgeting
c. Predictors: (Constant), Internal Control System, Budgeting, Performance  measurement

In the Model, the findings revealed that, internal control system accounted for 24.9 % of variance in financial performance that caused a statistically-significant standardized coefficient (B =0.381, P <0.01); In Model 2, the introduction of budgeting in the equation yielded 27% to the explanatory power of the model. This implies that budgeting accounted for an additional 2% of the variance in financial performance and caused a statistically-significant coefficient (B =0.095, p<0.01) the inclusion of performance measurement, yielded an insignificant additional 0.3% to the explanatory power of the model. This finding means that performance measurement accounted for only 0.3% of the variance in financial performance and caused a statistically insignificant coefficient (B =0.045, p >0.05)This led to the development of structural equation model and a modified frame work respectively 

Figure 2: Structural equation model

Figure 

Financial Performance

Management Control System

3: Modified Conceptual model

Profitability

Portfolio Quality

Financial Viability

ICS

Budgeting

Source: Developed by the Author-New Knowledge Generated        

The study findings revealed that performance measurement was dropped from the modified frame work, since it caused a statistically insignificant contribution on Financial Performance of Microfinance Institutions, with coefficient (B =0.045, p >0.0

The findings indicate that microfinance institutions in central region Uganda are efficient in preparing budgets and receive budget targets,and it was revealed that budgeting provides basis for control and performance evaluation because budgets act as a benchmark against which the performance of microfinance institutions is measured. The findings further revealed that the purposes of the budget are not always communicated to the stake holders of the institution and yet itis necessary in an efficient organization that all people be informed about the objectives, policies, programs, performance and expectations of the organization. This is always made possible through their participation in budgeting process

It was further revealed that those microfinance institutions in central region Uganda are efficient in performance measurement in a way that, the microfinance institutions are very efficient in resource utilization, however it was discovered that much as good performance is always received on good performance, exceptional performance is not always recognized by the microfinance institutions in central region Uganda. 

The findings further revealed that the microfinance institutions have a good and strong internal control system in that the institutions are very efficient in proper authorization for acquisitions. it was further discovered that much as most microfinance institutions in Uganda maintain debtors ledgers control accounts, they are sometimes not independently checked on a regular basis. Due to the high levels of management control system. This exhibited the existence of management control systems among the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda

The findings revealed that the microfinance institutions in Uganda have a weakness in charging interest on delinquent loans and yet loans and interest income are among the highest yielding assets of microfinance institutions because they provide the largest portion of operating revenue for most microfinance institutions in Uganda.

In terms of financial viability and portfolio quality, the findings revealed that the microfinance institutions have the ability to reach significant number of people in durable and stable manner and this shows that the microfinance institutions were highly successful in ensuring repayments although the delivery systems for loan recovery are not efficient and it was further revealed that still have challenge of not holding sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress.  

Most microfinance institutions in Uganda have and apply management control systems. However Low levels of management controls were established in Microfinance Institutions. The weak and ineffective control system is attributed to lack of implementation and close monitoring of the system. Since performance measurement is at the center of all the controls, Its weak position, has equally affected the two adversely internal control system and Budgeting

It can be seen that since the three management control elements complement each other, their combination has translated into a weak overall management control system, which has, in turn, led to adverse effects in MFIs’ financial performance in Uganda.

Since the three management control system elements complement each other, their combination has translated into a weak overall system, which has, in turn, led to adverse effects in MFIs’ financial performance. The adverse effect of weak management control system is manifested in increased operational inefficiencies that have resulted into increased operating costs and loan loss write-offs. More so, weak management control system has weakened the MFIs credit policy, which has, in turn, led to increased non-performing loans and portfolio at risk (PAR). Microfinance Institutions’ poor performance is explained by weak performance measurement that has, in turn, affected internal control system and budgeting. 

The study has addressed matters that have not been covered in the literature, more especially in the microfinance industry. The study has attempted to verify and affirm whether the theoretical assumptions are empirically supported in Microfinance Institutions. Consequently, the study has contributed to the management control debate in the field of microfinance industry in Uganda.

Though many researchers and scholars have different views on management control system elements, this study has ascertained that it is a multi-dimensional predictor encompassing management control system, budgeting and performance measurement. However, internal control system is crucial in enhancing the strength of other management control system elements. The study has, therefore, brought to light the true composition of management control system in Uganda’s Microfinance Industry.

This study further established that management control system dimensions operate in a synergic way to affect financial performance in Microfinance Institutions in Uganda. However, internal control system is the most important predictor among the three management control system dimensions in explaining performance variance. Thus, the mixed results on the contribution of individual management control system elements to financial performance have been looked at in this study.

This study has introduced a clearer understanding of the extent to which management control system influence performance in Microfinance Institutions. This can promote management efforts of Microfinance Institutions to improve performance, which can be facilitated through the appropriate management systems of leading elements of management control system combination that can foster performance in Uganda’s Microfinance Industry.

Finally, the empirical studies on the management control system in MFIs context are few in number, making this research area of special interest for exploration. 

On the basis of the study findings, and reviewed literature, the following recommendations are pertinent to the success of Ugandan microfinance institutions. MFIs should enhance controls that will ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. And this will enhance the levels of management control system

MFIs should put a lot of emphasis on internal control system since it’s a high contributor of financial performance. MFIs should hold sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress 

Managers MFIs in Uganda have to continuously re-evaluate and try different new methods of measuring performance to manage performance better. These performance measurement practices require time to succeed and the institutions need to continually re-examine the system alignment, tracking and monitoring effectiveness and modifying the system to accommodate the changing needs 

Microfinance institutions set and establish   effective control systems:  all of the financial, operational and other control systems which are carried out by internal controllers and which involve monitoring, independent evaluation and timely reporting to management levels systematically in order to ensure that all the institutions activities are performed by management levels in accordance with current policies, methods, instructions and limit 

MFIs should pay more attention to the internal effects of performance measurement systems. These effects are namely directly affected through performance measurement and drive the organizations to external effects. MFIs, should establish portfolio monitoring and control system to improve and monitor the portfolio quality and this will  improve financial performance. MFIs should find ways to reduce costs, increasing the number or size of loans disbursed, without compromising the loan portfolio, or reducing default rates

The Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Bank of Uganda, Microfinance support centre should provide a favorable platform for microfinance institutions to access financing that can enable them to set Interest rates that will not have a negative effect on the customer base. MFIs in Uganda charge relatively high interest rates this has led to lower repayment rates that negatively impacts on the institutions portfolio quality and profitability

The MFIs have to allocate more of their assets in to productive uses such as loans rather than current assets or fixed assets. MFIs should have a depth of outreach with clear market segmentation in order to improve on the sustainability the portfolio quality and the related loan loss provision. MFIs should enhance controls that will ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. MFIs should put a lot of emphasis on internal control system since it’s a high contributor of financial performance. MFIs should hold sufficient liquid assets to protect the institutions from liquidity distress 

References

Adams, D. W. (1990):Funded Rural Finance Activities in Latin America and        the       Carribbean,   1942- 1990: A Strategy for the 1990s”, AID, Washington, DC

Adongo, J., & Christopher,S. (2005). Factors Influencing Sustainability of Selected          MicrofinanceInstitutions in Namibia. The Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit         –           Research Report

Amin, M. (2005). Social Sciences Research: Conception, Methodology and Analysis.

Anthony, R.N. and Govindarajan, V. (2004), “Management Control Systems”, McGraw-  Hill,New York, NY.

B.K. Sebbowa Bamweyana, (2009), the role of internal audit function in    organizations

Baguma, D.T. (2007). Association of Microfinance Magazine: Addressing thePoverty       challenge.

Baguma, D.T (2008).Uganda Microfinance Industry Assessment: Association of

            Microfinance Institutions of Uganda

Bald.J. (2000). Liquidity Management: A Toolkit for Microfinance Institutions.

Bank of Uganda (1999): BOU Policy Statement on Micro- Finance            Regulation,     Ban

Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage, Journal of

            Management, 17(1), 99 -120.

Bategeka, L. (1999): Uganda’s Achiefments and Callenges in the Financial           Sector:            Whose Interests Count In: „The Ugandan Banker“, Vol. 7, No. 4,           Uganda           Institute of bankers

Beck, T., Cull, R. and Jerome, A. (2005). Bank privatization and performance: empirical evidence          from Nigeria. Journal of Banking and Finance, 29:2355-79. 

Bisbe, J. “The Effects of the Interactive Use of Management            Control            Systems on      Product Innovation,” Accounting, Organization             and      Society, Vol. 29, No. 8,          2004,   pp. 709-737.

CGAP (2016). Consultative Group to assist the poorest, available at: http://www.cgap.org

Chandan, J.S. ( 2004). Mangement: Theories and Practices. New Delhi

Chenhall R (2003). Management control systems design within its organizationalcontext:            findings from contingency-based       research and directions for the future. Acc Org      Soc     28: 127–168.

Chenhall, R.H., (2003). Management control systemsdesign within its       organizational context: findings from contingency-based research   and             directions for the         future.Accounting,    Organizations and       Society 28, 127–168

Chow, C.W., Shields, M.D., & Wu, A. (1999). The importance of national culture in the design of and preference for management     controls for multi-national operations.      Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 24, 561-582.

Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003). Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate          and      Postgraduate Students, 2nd Edition, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd Edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 

Creswell, J. W. and Plano Clark, V. L. (2007). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods            Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Cull, R., Demirgüc-Kunt, A and Morduch, J. (2007). Financial performance and outreach: a         global analysis of leading microbanks, Economic Journal, 117:F107-F133.

Davis, J.H., Schoorman, F.D., and Donaldson, L. (1997). Toward a Stewardship Theory of           Management.

Field, A. (2006). Discovering Statistics using SPSS (2nd Ed.). Sage, London.

Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Boston: Pitman.

Gerrit Sarens and Mohammad J. Abdolmohammadi (2010), Monitoring     Effects of the Internal            Audit Function: Agency Theory versus other Explanatory Variables. International   Journal ofAuditing. Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Gibbons, D.S. & Meehan, J.W. (2000), The Micro credit summit’s challenge: working     towards           institutional financial self-sufficiency while maintaining a commitment       to serving the poorest families, Journal of micro finance, 1(1), 131 – 191.

Haning A (2002).Microfinance in Uganda: Lessons from FNCA clients    Analysis          Kampala, United Press Ltd.

Hulme .  (1996): Finance Against Poverty, Volumes 1 and 2, Routledge, London.

Hulme, D. (2000): “Impact Assessment Methodologies for Microfinance    Theory,            Experience and Better Practice”, University of             Manchester, Manchester, UK.

Jensen M., and Meckling, W. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs     and Ownership Structure. Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 3, No. 4: pp. 305-360.

Johnson, R. B. and Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: a research paradigm      whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33 (7), 14-26.

Kalyango,D.L.(2005). Uganda’s Experience with Tiered Banking Regulation, Bank of

            Uganda, Seminar Paper.

Karlan, D. and Goldberg, N. (2007) The Impact of Microfinance: A Review of Keat, R. and         Urry, J. (1982). Social Theory as Science, 2nd Edition, London: Routledge & Kegan            Paul.

Ledgerwood et al (1999). Microfinance Handbook: An Institutional and     Financial       Perspective.    Sustainable Banking with the Poor, World             Bank,   1818 H St.,      Washington

Lee. K. (2005). KMPI: Measuring Knowledge          Management   Performance,”            Information & Lessons from Selected African Countries.‟ International Monetary           Fund    Limited, England.

Logotri (2006) „Building Sustainable Microfinance System: A Growth Catalyst

            Makerere University Printery, Kampala.

Malmi T (1997) Towards explaining activity-based costing failure: accounting and control in       a          decentralized organization. Management Accounting Research 8: 459−480.

McMahon RGP (2001) Business growth and performance and the financial reporting practices     of Australian manufacturing SMEs. Journal of Small Business Management39(2):152−164.

Merchant, K et al. (2007). Management Control       Systems – Performance, Measurement,          Merchant, K. A,(2007). A review of the literature on control       and      accountabilityHandbook of Management Accounting          Research, (Ed.) C.      S. Chapman, A. G.      Hopwood, and M. D. Shields,      785-804, Amsterdam:             Elsevier Press.

Merchant KA (1997) Modern Management Control Systems: texts and cases. Prentice

            Hall, New Jersey, US.

Meyer, R. J. (2002) „Track Record of Financial Institutions in Assessing the Poor in         Asia.‟ ADB Institute Research Paper, No. 49. 

Meyer, R. L. (2002). “Track Record of Financial Institutions in Assisting the         Poor    in         Asia” ADB Institute Research Paper, No 49. 2nd ed., Essex: Prentice Hall.

Michael A. Hitt, Robert E. Hoskisson, Richard A. Johnson, Douglas D.      Moesel. (1996).           The      Market for Corporate Control and Firm             Innovation

MicroBanking Bulletin. (1998), Issue No. 2. Calmeadow, 733 15th St. NW, Suite 700      Microfinance Information eXchange (MIX).

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (2000): „Draft Final   Report on        the District Resource Endowment Profile Survey             (DREPS)“,Vol.II, Survey of   Microfinance Institutions, The Republic of Uganda,             Kampala

Mitchell, R.K., Agle, B.R., and Wood, D.J. (1997). Toward a Theory of Stakeholder         Identification and        Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really            Counts.            Academy of Management       Review, Vol.   22, No. 4: pp. 853–886.

Nannyonjo, S. & Nsubuga,D. (2004). Bank of Uganda Working Paper, WP04

Navajas. S. M.et al. (2000), “Micro credit and the Poorest of the Poor: Theory and Evidence       from   Bolivia”, World Development, Vol. 28,             No. 2, pp 333- 346,     Elsevier          Science Ltd

Obwona, M. B.; Ddumba-Ssentamu, J. (1998): „Household Savings in       Developing      Economies: Evidence from Microdata from Uganda“, Makerere University, Uganda

Office of the Prime Minister (2000): „Basic Facts about rural Microfinance          support            Projekt (RMSP)“, The Republic of Uganda, Kampala

Opiokello, D. (2000): Role Of The Central Bank In Developing Rural         Financial Markets:    The Case Of Uganda. In: „After the Reforms:             Which Way Forward for Central        Banks in Rural Finance“, Afraca        Rural Finance Series, Vol.1, African Rural and        Agricultural             Credit Association, Nairobi

Otero, M. and E. Rhyne (1994), The New World of Micro enterprise Finance,        Hartford,         Kumarian Press Outreach and Financial Performance of Microfinance Institutions in Africa.

Pablos, P. (2004), “The nature of knowledge-based resources through the design of an      architecture of human resource management systems: implications for strategic        management”,International Journal of Technology Management, Vol. 27 No.6/7,             pp.23-45.

Pamela,  M.P.(2001). Management:  Performance in Spanish Banking”.    Journal of Banking     and Finance,18

Performance monitoring tool (PMT) (2006|09) for Microfinance Institutions.

            Accessed at www.mixmarket.com.

Reid, K. & Ashelby, D. (2002). The Swansea Internal Quality Audit           Processes Quality       Assurance in Education.Vol. 10,Research Unit – Research Report 39.

Rutherford, S. (1997) Informal Financial Services in Dhaka‟s Slums. In: Wood et al

Rutherford, S. (1999): „Savings and the Poor the Methods, use and impact of        savings by       the poor of East Africa“, Micro Save-Africa, Kampala

Sandra, M.S.C., Miguel.A.M & Tomas,L-G., (2007). Organizational culture and

            Saroj Rijal (2006) Application of Management Control System in Nepalese

Saunders, M. and Lewis, P. (2003). Research Methods for Business Students, Essex, Pearson       Education

Saunders, M., Lewis,P & Thornhill,A.(2006). Research Methods for Business

Saunders, M., Lewis,P & Thornhill,A.(2006). Research Methods for Business

Saunders. A. et al .(2000). “The Determinants of Bank         Interest            Rate Margins: An       International  Study,”Journal of             International   Money and Finance 19, 813-832

Schilling, M.A. (2000). Decades Ahead of Her Time; Advancing Stakeholder Theory Through    the       Ideas of Mary Parker Follett. Journal of Management History, Vol. 6, No. 5: pp.       224-     242.

Schreiner, M. (2000) „Ways Donors Can Help the Evolution of Sustainable Science Journal,        43, 471-477.

Selected Microfinance Institutions in Namibia. The Namibian Economic Selection Model.‟        The      Economic Journal, 110, 632-643.Series No. 17, Boston, MA: Harvard            Business          School.

Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting Qualitative Data – Methods for Analysing Talking, Text          and      Interaction,2nd Edition, London: Sage Publications

Simons, R., (1995). Levers of Control, How Managers Use Innovative       Control Systems to      Drive Strategic Renewal. Harvard Business             School Press, Boston, MA

Slater, S.F., & Narver, J.C., (2007). Market orientation and the learning organization,

            Journal of Marketing, 59(7), 63 – 74.

Smith, A.,(2001): “Perceptions of Stress at Work,” Human Resource          Management   Journal,           Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 74-86  

Snell, S. A.,(1992) “Control Theory in Strategic Human Resource Management: the         Mediating Effect of Administrative Information,” Academy of Management Journal,     Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 292–

Tashakkori, A. and Creswell, J. W. (2007). Exploring the nature of research questions in mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1 (3), 207-211. 

Ticehurst, G.W. and Veal, A.J. (1999). Business Research Methods: A Managerial Approach,      Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Limited.

Waterfield, C. (1998). Handbook for Management Information Systems for Microfinance Institutions. Technical Tool Series No.1. ConsultativeGroup to Assist the Poorest    (CGAP), 1818  H St. NW, Washington, D.C

Watts, H. (1999). A Conceptual Framework to Financial Reports and Internal Audits. Vol.          20,Pp. 753-778.

Widener, S. (2007). An empirical analysis of the levers of control   framework.      Accounting,    Organizations and Society 32, 757-788.

Woller, G. (2000) „Reassessing the Financial Viability of Village Banking: Past    Performance    and Future Prospects.‟ Micro-Banking Bulletin, Microfinance

Woolf, E. (1992). Auditing Today (3rd ed.).Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd.work       study,50           (5), 179 – 189. Working Paper Series No. 51

Dr Arthur Sunday, Dr Abanis Turyahebwa, Dr Derick Ssekajugo, Dr Mabonga Eric

Abstract

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion. Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability and not on internal control system and lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions. Failure by MFIs to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda. The study analyzed the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda and it was hypothesized that internal control system positively influences   financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. MFIs have come under spotlight for cases of poor financial performance. Lack of empirical studies to assess the impact of internal control system on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda is the motivation behind this study. Therefore, this study is important not only because it fills the gap, but also it set out to address this evident knowledge gap. The study adopted positive-phenomenological, epistemology and quantitative-qualitative methodology dimension with cross sectional and correlation designs, the unit of analysis was Microfinance Institutions registered with Association of Microfinance Institutions, and employees were the units of inquiry. Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were used to for statistical modeling

Besides, Hierarchical regression was used to test the predictive power of the variables and indicate precisely what happens to the model as different predictor variables are introduced in the model fit. This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that internal control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance. And internal control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance.  The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient internal control systems. These models can then used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda .Regardless of the existence of control systems in MFI, the results revealed that internal control systems were less efficient due to lack of close monitoring. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals  Policy makers, AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy

Key Words : Internal Control System, Financial Performance, microfinance, Institution

Introduction

Microfinance has evolved by providing micro credits to respond to the furthermost financial and non-financial needs of the citizens, to eradicate poverty and increase financial inclusion .The microfinance movement has received enthusiasm as a poverty alleviation tool that has eventually become a self-sustaining industry. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) worldwide have been seen and identified as vital institution to nations’ quest for solutions to the development challenge (CGAP, 2002). Most microfinance institutions have embraced a more business-oriented outlook and maintained their target groups of economically-active poor, in order to achieve financial sustainability (Kalyango, 2004; Baguma, 2008). The micro finance institutions in developing economies are widely growing from time to time. Various studies on different countries on the performance of the MFIs confirm this (Adongo and Stork 2005, Zeller and Meyer 2002, Meyer 2002, Robert cull et al. 2007).

Approaches used by microfinance institutions in Uganda to deliver financial services to the poor are similar to those used in other countries where microfinance institutions operate. The approach used depends on the nature and structure of the respective microfinance institution. The institutions providing microfinance services include: Tier I: formal financial institutions Comercial banks, TierII; credit institutions, Tier III; microfinance deposit taking institutions, Tier IV; Saccos (BOU Policy on MFIs 1999).

Microfinance institutions in Uganda from time and again been faced with high operating costs to provide financial services to the poor people and Small and Medium Enterprises (Micro banking Bulletin, 2002). And as such,  are unable to meet their obligations when they become due usually resulting from poor cash flow planning, failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending and micro loan portfolios  (Srinivasan, 2006 due to unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which are volatile. IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears. An enduring problem facing microfinance institutions, however, is how to attain financial sustainability (Dunford, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Woller 2000; Hollis and Sweetman, 1998; Christen et al, 1995). This problem has attracted attention of numerous researchers in recent decades and, as a result many strategies have been identified to ensure that institutions are sustainable (Randhawa and Gallardo, 2003; Schreiner, 2000; Yaron, 1992). Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of management control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal control systems can alleviate disruptive performance in a business enterprise. Ledgerwood (1999) as cited by Lincolin Arsyad (2005), conceptualizes financial performance as; Financial viability (operational self-sufficiency, financial self-sufficiency) Profitability (return on assets ratio, return on business ratio, return on equity ratio) and Portfolio quality (portfolio at risk, repayment rates).  Financial performance being a critical factor in the success of microfinance Institutions, therefore, this research focused on financial performance and not social performance

Most of the studies on financial performance of microfinance institutions apply and use different methodologies as in the case of Tilahun (2009) , however this study employed a descriptive research design based on quantitative data. The researcher collected and analyzed annual reports using descriptive statistics.  A number of theories have been used to explain what influences the financial performance of the firm but their applications have no terminal point. Theories that have been used to explain firm financial performance include, among others Resource-Based View of the firm (RBV), agency theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976), stakeholder theory (Freeman 1984), and stewardship theory. All these theories provide a detailed account of firm performance using available resources inspite of the limitations in their application. Though there is no agreed theoretical base for research on financial performance of microfinance institutions (Parum, 2005), a review of the literature indicates that the above four main theoretical frameworks have been used to explain and analyse the association between management control system and financial performance of microfinance institutions. 

Poor financial performance marked by deteriorating returns and portfolio quality has taken a center stage and remained unexplained in microfinance Institutions (Performance Monitoring Tool 2006/2009/). Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in traditional financial institutions due to the short-term and unsecured nature of micro lending, micro loan portfolios which tend to be more volatile (Ssewanyana 2009). According to the IMF Report (2001) most MFIs in Uganda had large portfolios in arrears, with overdue loan repayments stretching back into the distant past mainly because lending policies were usually poorly enforced and systems to track and manage arrears hardly existed. Microfinance institutions in Uganda face poor cash flow problems due to changes in market interest rate and failure to monitor portfolio quality closely and take action when necessary and this has threatened the going concern of microfinance industry in Uganda (Bank of Uganda 2010/2011)

Most studies undertaken in the past few years have focused mainly on outreach of MFI’s and their impact on profitability (Migiri, 2002). Lack of clarity on the extent to which internal control system influences financial performance (Narver, 2007) will therefore continue to inhibit common understanding and explanation which might deter performance improvement in Ugandan microfinance institutions.  Though some studies have identified ICS as a possible predictor of financial performance in different industries, there are still gaps as a result of absence of representative empirical studies that would address the issue of financial performance of microfinance institutions as a result of management control systems (PekChen, 2005).More so, theories and models apparently used to explain financial performance in firms have proved to be weak and inadequate in explaining this phenomenon. Empirical studies aimed at assessing the impact of ICS on the financial performance of   microfinance institutions in Uganda are missing. Therefore, this study is important because it fills this gap of knowledge

Literature Review 

Synthesizing existing studies in the broad area of explaining financial performance of MFIs, indicate a clear dearth of studies examining multiplicative effect of various elements the predictor variable ie internal control system(control procedures, risk assessment, control environment, Monitoring and internal audit ) on  financial performance of  MFIs . (see for review

Welsh (2003), Simons (1995), Chow et al (1999), Merchant (2007), appreciate that internal   control systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers that ensure that errors and fraud are detected, safe guard company’s  assets and opine that ICS greatly influences firm performance.

Recent studies draw from the original organizational theorists (Burns & Stalker 1961, Lawrence & Lorsch 1967, Thompson 1967, Perrow 1970, Galbraith1973) to develop arguments that explain how the effectiveness of control systems  (Chenhall 2003).

Bisbe and Otley (2004), findings indicated that the application of control systems has a huge contingency effect on firm performance. However, Bisbe’s research did not discuss the importance of human effect to control system (Snell, 1992; Abernethy and Brownell, 1997; Keller, 2001; Widener, 2004)

Simon (1995), asserted  that internal control systems  have different impacts on organization performance, Abernethy and Brownell (1999) discussed the interactive use of internal control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies, Davila (2000), in his study his study findings indicated that different strategies will need different interactive use of management controls to raise firm performance.

Dexon  (2010), findings revealed that Internal Control Systems have a significant positive effect in achieving Value for Money. All the constructs of Internal Control Systems (Control environment, control activities, risk assessment) have a significant positive relationship with Value for Money in a business entity

Internal control  process reduces uncertainty and improves firm performance, Ivancevich (1976), Steers (1976), Imoisili (1989), Locke & Schweiger (1979), Mia (1989), Ezzamel (1990), Hirst & Lowy (1990) etc. Another study on control process and firm performance relationship by scholars (Merchant, 1980; Peel & Bridge, 1988; Edward, et al., 2001) and empirical results (Merchant, 1980) show that control systems enhance the accuracy the degree of information accuracy. In turn, it results in higher performance in organizations.  The increased use of comprehensive ICS practices can be assumed to result in better improved financial performance among firms (e.g. Chenhall 2003, see also discussions in Gul 1991, Gul & Chia 1994, Hoque & James 2000, Ittner et al. 1998, 1998, Scott & Tiessen 1999)

ICS acts as a driver variable in firm strategy and performance as found in Chong & Chong (1997) and Baines & Langfield-Smith (2003). Report of bank of Uganda (2002), Simon (1995), results showed that there is indeed a positive association between certain internal control practices when are used concurrently with other strategic initiatives and improvement in financial performance.  Abernethy and Brownell (1999) also discussed the interactive use of internal  control systems and their experimental findings indicated that interactive use of internal  control systems can alleviate disruptive performance when a company is changing its strategies

The findings confirm the report findings of Armesh (2010) on the influences of internal control system on organizational performance in Malaysia, which showed that Internal Control System influences the behavior and performance of the organizational to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization s objectives.

On the other hand however, McMahon (2001) did not find any significant relationship between use of internal control practices and firm performance. Donaldson (2001) found no significant associations were between the use of comprehensive Management Control System and measures of growth in net sales and profitability. 

Additionally, McMahon & Davies (1994) and McMahon (2001) have not found any significant relationships between internal control practices and performance of businesses. Thus, the empirical results on the relationship between various dimensions of MCS and performance seem to be rather mixed

Jonathan (2005), study findings revealed that most of the microfinance institutions in Namibia are not yet financially sustainable and it was attributed to the fact that interest rates that Microfinance institutions require to break-even exceed the ceiling imposed. Portfolio quality has deteriorated more rapidly in Microfinance institutions than in financial institutions (Srinivasan, 2006), Studies by Bontis (2002), Chong and Richardson (2006), explained similar performance trends in Portuguese. Study findings revealed that average ROA for MFIs is 3.57%. This concur with study findings of Lafourcade (2005), the findings revealed that, Africa MFIs have the lowest financial performance of ROA of 2% as compared to 7.6%-10% of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The findings are in agreement with Tilahun (2009), study findings on ‘the financial performance and sustainability of microfinance institutions in Ethiopia’; the result of the study indicates that there was a negative shift in the performance indicators particularly in the year 2009  and the gross loan portfolio has declined by 15.73% in the year 2009.

Furthermore, contrary to Chong and Richardson (2006),  study findings, McMahon (2001), did not find any significant relationship between use of control System of Australian business firms and profitability.

Furthermore, Perera et al. (1997) have also reported a respective non significant relationship in manufacturing firms. Malmi et al. (2004) likewise did not find a significant direct relationship between management practices and profitability, even though they reported an interaction effect of the practices and use of other relationship management control systems to be significant in relation to firm performance.

Both theoretical and empirical studies show that strong and efficient systems that maintain high levels of capital adequacy are important in determining financial institutions profitability. Sufian and Habibullah (2009), found out that good systems have a positive impact on bank profitability in China. This confirms Athanasoglou, et al. (2008, 2006) and Kosmidou (2008) who also finds a positive and significant effect of strong control system on bank profitability, reflecting the sound financial condition of banks.

This shows that maintaining strong and efficient internal control system is highly associated with high financial performance in Microfinance Institutions (Gramling et al. 2004; Hermanson & Rittenberg 2003; 2004

First, Reid & Smith (2000) found out those developing control  systems, especially in the areas of management and accounting applications, lead to high firm performance, Reid & Smith (2002) , Reid & Smith (2000, 2002) holds that high performers  firms  use and apply internal control systems for daily financial monitoring and for identifying important trends in key variables for their further survival.  On the other hand, Reid & Smith (2002), argue that static performers at satisfactory financial levels tend not to value control systems as much as the others. Consequently, the relationship between internal control system and firm performance seem to be U-shaped

The foregoing reviews reveal that the application of internal control system elements in any organization differ and different interactive use of internal  controls to raise firm performance. 

The level, application and interactive use of internal control system in Ugandan microfinance industry is elusive. This, therefore, caused the need for a scientific investigation on the use internal control system elements influences financial performance in Uganda’s microfinance industry. This necessitated the study to evaluate the relationship between internal control system and financial performance of the selected microfinance institutions in central region Uganda

Methodology 

The study adopted a positivist quantitative paradigm with cross sectional and correlation designs. Correlation design was used to establish relationships between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs. Logical positivism quantitative designs were applied in data collection, analysis and presentation which also helped to test hypothetical deductive generalizations. The study population consisted of 36 MFIs in central region Uganda registered with AMFIU from where the sample size of 33 MFIs were determined comprising a sample of 356 which was consistent with the sample size guidelines of Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006). Ntoumanis (2001) and Field (2006), multistage, simple rondom sampling and purposive tequniques were used. Primary and secondary data sources were used in the study.Structural Equations Modeling with Analysis of Moment Structures were also used to for statistical modeling.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the instruments and the instruments were found to be reliable at 0.78. Content  validity of  the  two  instruments was ensured  through use of  valid  concepts  which  measure  the  study  variables .  Content  validity  was  used  to  ensure  that  the questionnaire  was  content  valid. The content validity results were obtained and for all the constructs were above 0.7 as recommended by Sakaran (2000). The study used Means and standard deviations in order to summarize the results. The means were used because they show a summary of data and standard deviation clearly shows how well the means represent the data (Field, 2009). Hierarchical regression was used to estimate the predictive power of the predictor variable on the criterion variable in the model fit.

Findings and Discussion 

Descriptive Statistics of the Predictor Variable and Criterion Variable
	N	Range	Minimum	Maximum	Mean		Std. Deviation	Variance
C. Procedure	356	2.67	1.24	3.90	3.2002	.01436	.27098	.073
C. Environment	355	3.18	.82	4.00	3.2101	.01757	.33106	.110
R. Assessment	356	2.70	1.30	4.00	3.1967	.01465	.27644	.076
Monitoring	356	2.11	1.50	3.61	2.9259	.01350	.25466	.065
I. Audit	356	2.25	1.75	4.00	3.2342	.01894	.35735	.128
F.Performance	356	2.89	.91	3.81	3.0993	.01325	.25005	.063

Source: Primary Data 2017

Results showed that internal control system among MFIs is defined in terms of the five observed variables, control procedures, control environment, risk assessment, and monitoring and internal audit. And financial performance was conceptualised in terms of Return on Assets, return on Equity, profit margin and portfolio quality. The findings indicate small and minimal standard deviations compared to mean values; it is evident that the data points are close to the means and hence calculated means highly represent the observed data. The findings revealed that standardized regression weights for the predictor variable(Internal control system), in explaining financial performance  were significant(p<0.001) signifying a strong relationship between internal control system  and financial performance  of MFIs in  central region Uganda and Zero order correlation  was applied to determine the correlation  between internal control system  and financial performance  of MFIs

Zero order correlation between internal control system and financial performance of MFIs

Variables	a	B	C	D	E	f
C. Procedure     (a)	1	1
C. Environment(b)	.131*
R. Assessment  (c)	.310**	.499**	1
Monitoring       (d)	.259**	.151**	.264**	1
I.Audit              (e)	.133*	.131*	.323**	.127*	1
F.Performance  (f)	.650**	.183**	.388**	.638**	.249**	1

	*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
	**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Hypothesis		Supported/not supported
H1: There is a positive and significant relationship between control procedure and Financial performance of MFIs          (r= 0.650, p< 0.05).		supported
H2: There is a positive and significant relationship between control environment and Financial performance of MFIs      (r= 0.183, p< 0.05).		supported
H3: There is a positive and significant relationship between risk assessment and Financial performance of MFIs                             (r= 0.388, p< 0.05).		supported
H4: There is a positive and significant relationship between monitoring and Financial performance of MFIs                                  (r= 0.638, p< 0.05).		supported
H5: There is a positive and significant relationship between internal audit and Financial performance of MFIs                           (r= 0.249, p< 0.05).		supported
H5: There is a positive and significant relationship between internal control system and Financial performance of MFIs              (r= 0.355, p< 0.05).		supported

To test the predictive power of the study variables, from the hypothesized model 

Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+ β₅X₅+e

Where Y is the Dependent Variable – Financial Performance

α = Constant

X = representing the constructs of the predictor Variable- ICS

X₁  = Control Procedure 

X₂  = Risk assessment 

X₃  = Control Environment

X₄  = Monitoring

X₅  = Internal Auditing

ß₁–₅ = Coefficients of beta 

e = error term in ascertaining the influence of individual element on Financial       performance, all the models as indicated the model fit 

Model1:          Y = α+β₁X₁+e 

Y = 1.154+0.607X₁

(t =14.201), (t=7.830), R²= 0.431, F = 83.26, DW = 1.366

Model2:          Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+e

Y = 1.470+0.536X₁+0. 250X₂

(t =13.011), (t=5.190), (t= 6.693) R²= 0.491, F = 76.07, DW = 1.366

Model 3           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+e

Y = 1.427+0.535X₁+0.264X₂+0.022X₃

(t =12.102), (t=4.6513), (t= 5.353) (t=1.671) R²= 0.492, F = 42.08, DW = 1.366

Model 4           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+e

Y = 1.474+0.452X₁+0.160X₂+0.026X₃+0.457X₄

(t =10.261), (t=3.544), (t= 4.773) (t=1.482) (t =1.875) R²= .683, F = 39.28, 

DW = 1.366

Model 5           Y = α+β₁X₁+β₂X₂+β₃X₃+β₄X₄+ β₅X₅+e

Y = 1.295+0.450X₁+0.131X₂+0.023X₃+0.455X₄+0.061X₅

(t =9.371), (t=3.623), (t= 4.897) (t=1.495) (t =1.910), (t = 2.130) R²= .690, F = 33.66, DW = 1.366

In Model 1, Control Procedure accounts for 43.2% of variance in financial performance of MFIs (F =  83.26, P < .005) and caused a statistically-significant non-standardized coefficient (B =0. 607, P <0.05).

In Model 2, the introduction of Risk Assessment in the equation yielded an extra effect 6% to the explanatory power of the model. This clearly implies that Risk Assessment accounts for an additional 6% of the variance in financial performance. This means that a unit change in Risk Assessment leads to 6% increase in financial performance (F=76.07, p < 0.05), and caused a statistically-significant coefficient (B =0. 250, p <0.05); 

Results for Model 3 indicate that the introduction of Control Environment in the equation yielded a low significant effect of 0.1% to the explanatory power of the model. This means that Control Environment explained an additional 0.1% of the variance in financial performance (F = 42.08, P < 0.05), and caused statistically very low significant coefficient (B =0.022, p<0.05); these results indicate that Control Environment influence financial performance of MFIs but with minimal effect. 

In Model 4, the introduction of Monitoring in the equation also yielded a less significant 19.1% to the explanatory power of the model. Thus monitoring account for additional 19.1% of the variance in financial performance (F =39.28, p<0.05) and lead to statistically significant contribution in coefficient (B = 0.457, p<0.05). 

In Model 5, after the internal audit was included, a less significant additional 0.7% was yielded and added to the explanatory power of the model. These results indicate Internal audit account for only 0.7% of the variance in financial performance (F= 33.66, p < 0.05), and caused a statistically less significant coefficient (B =0.061, p <0.05). However, model 5 shows the overall explanatory power of the model to be 69%.  This clearly shows that internal control system predicts 69 % of the variance in the financial performance of MFIs in central region Uganda. Considering, the unstandardized coefficients, control procedures has the highest beta followed by monitoring and then risk assessment, internal audit and finally control environment. 

This study revealed that two of the predictor variables are strong predictors of financial performance of MFIs. The study further revealed that internal control system was found to be strongly and positively correlated with financial performance leading to the acceptance of the hypothesis that internal control systems are positively related with financial performance among the MFIs in central region Uganda.. And internal control system elements were found to be positive predictors of financial performance. 

The present study supported a multi-theoretic approach in explaining financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. The study supports the stewardship theory in explaining the controls system together with stakeholder and resource based view as the theories that help in explaining financial performance of MFIs. The study confirmed that efficient control system factor structure of observed variables and the latent variables. As a result, the study provided models for efficient internal control systems. These models can then used to provide a trajectory for improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda. It recommended that MFIs should enhance controls to ensure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals 

Policy makers, BOU, MOFEP AMFIU, PSFU and MFIs may use these findings as a way of improving financial performance of MFIs in Uganda since the MFIs are great contributors to the Ugandan economy.  

References

Adams, D. W. (1990): Funded Rural Finance Activities in Latin America and        the       Carribbean,    1942- 1990: A Strategy for the 1990s”, AID, Washington, DC

Adongo, J., & Christopher,S. (2005). Factors Influencing Sustainability of Selected          Microfinance Institutions in Namibia. The Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit         –           Research Report

Amin, M. (2005). Social Sciences Research: Conception, Methodology and Analysis.

Anthony, R.N. and Govindarajan, V. (2004), “Management Control Systems”, McGraw-  Hill,New York, NY.

B.K. Sebbowa Bamweyana, (2009), the role of internal audit function in    organizations

Baguma, D.T. (2007). Association of Microfinance Magazine: Addressing thePoverty       challenge.

Baguma, D.T (2008).Uganda Microfinance Industry Assessment: Association of

            Microfinance Institutions of Uganda

Bald.J. (2000). Liquidity Management: A Toolkit for Microfinance Institutions.

Bank of Uganda (1999): BOU Policy Statement on Micro- Finance            Regulation,     Ban

Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage, Journal of

            Management, 17(1), 99 -120.

Bategeka, L. (1999): Uganda’s Achiefments and Callenges in the Financial           Sector:             Whose Interests Count In: „The Ugandan Banker“, Vol. 7, No. 4,           Uganda            Institute of bankers

Beck, T., Cull, R. and Jerome, A. (2005). Bank privatization and performance: empirical evidence          from Nigeria. Journal of Banking and Finance, 29:2355-79. 

Bisbe, J. “The Effects of the Interactive Use of Management            Control            Systems on      Product Innovation,” Accounting, Organization             and      Society, Vol. 29, No. 8,          2004,   pp. 709-737.

CGAP (2000). Consultative Group to assist the poorest, available at: http://www.cgap.org

Chandan, J.S. ( 2004). Mangement: Theories and Practices. New Delhi

Chenhall R (2003). Management control systems design within its organizationalcontext:            findings from contingency-based       research and directions for the future. Acc Org      Soc      28: 127–168.

Chenhall, R.H., (2003). Management control systems design within its       organizational context: findings from contingency-based research   and             directions for the         future. Accounting,    Organizations and       Society 28, 127–168

Chow, C.W., Shields, M.D., & Wu, A. (1999). The importance of national culture in the design of and preference for management     controls for multi-national operations.      Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 24, 561-582.

Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003). Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate          and      Postgraduate Students, 2nd Edition, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd Edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 

Creswell, J. W. and Plano Clark, V. L. (2007). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods            Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Cull, R., Demirgüc-Kunt, A and Morduch, J. (2007). Financial performance and outreach: a         global analysis of leading microbanks, Economic Journal, 117:F107-F133.

Davis, J.H., Schoorman, F.D., and Donaldson, L. (1997). Toward a Stewardship Theory of           Management.

Field, A. (2006). Discovering Statistics using SPSS (2nd Ed.). Sage, London.

Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Boston: Pitman.

Gerrit Sarens and Mohammad J. Abdolmohammadi (2010), Monitoring     Effects of the Internal            Audit Function: Agency Theory versus other Explanatory Variables. International   Journal of Auditing. Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Gibbons, D.S. & Meehan, J.W. (2000), The Micro credit summit’s challenge: working     towards           institutional financial self-sufficiency while maintaining a commitment       to serving the poorest families, Journal of micro finance, 1(1), 131 – 191.

Haning A (2002). Microfinance in Uganda: Lessons from FNCA clients    Analysis          Kampala, United Press Ltd.

Hulme .  (1996): Finance Against Poverty, Volumes 1 and 2, Routledge, London.

Hulme, D. (2000): “Impact Assessment Methodologies for Microfinance    Theory,            Experience and Better Practice”, University of             Manchester, Manchester, UK.

Jensen M., and Meckling, W. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs     and Ownership Structure. Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 3, No. 4: pp. 305-360.

Johnson, R. B. and Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: a research paradigm      whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33 (7), 14-26.

Kalyango,D.L.(2005). Uganda’s Experience with Tiered Banking Regulation, Bank of

            Uganda, Seminar Paper.

Karlan, D. and Goldberg, N. (2007) The Impact of Microfinance: A Review of Keat, R. and         Urry, J. (1982). Social Theory as Science, 2nd Edition, London: Routledge & Kegan            Paul.

Ledgerwood et al (1999). Microfinance Handbook: An Institutional and     Financial        Perspective.    Sustainable Banking with the Poor, World             Bank,   1818 H St.,      Washington

Lee. K. (2005). KMPI: Measuring Knowledge          Management   Performance,”            Information & Lessons from Selected African Countries.‟ International Monetary           Fund    Limited, England.

LOGOTRI (2006) „Building Sustainable Microfinance System: A Growth Catalyst

            Makerere University Printery, Kampala.

Malmi T (1997) Towards explaining activity-based costing failure: accounting and control in       a          decentralized organization. Management Accounting Research 8: 459−480.

McMahon RGP (2001) Business growth and performance and the financial reporting practices     of Australian manufacturing SMEs. Journal of Small Business Management 39(2):152−164.

Merchant, K et al. (2007). Management Control       Systems – Performance, Measurement,          Merchant, K. A,(2007). A review of the literature on control       and      accountability Handbook of Management Accounting          Research, (Ed.) C.      S. Chapman, A. G.      Hopwood, and M. D. Shields,      785-804, Amsterdam:             Elsevier Press.

Merchant KA (1997) Modern Management Control Systems: texts and cases. Prentice

            Hall, New Jersey, US.

Meyer, R. J. (2002) „Track Record of Financial Institutions in Assessing the Poor in         Asia.‟ ADB Institute Research Paper, No. 49. 

Meyer, R. L. (2002). “Track Record of Financial Institutions in Assisting the         Poor    in         Asia” ADB Institute Research Paper, No 49. 2nd ed., Essex: Prentice Hall.

Michael A. Hitt, Robert E. Hoskisson, Richard A. Johnson, Douglas D.      Moesel. (1996).           The      Market for Corporate Control and Firm             Innovation

MicroBanking Bulletin. (1998), Issue No. 2. Calmeadow, 733 15th St. NW, Suite 700      Microfinance Information eXchange (MIX).

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (2000): „Draft Final   Report on        the District Resource Endowment Profile Survey             (DREPS)“,Vol.II, Survey of   Microfinance Institutions, The Republic of Uganda,             Kampala

Mitchell, R.K., Agle, B.R., and Wood, D.J. (1997). Toward a Theory of Stakeholder         Identification and        Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really            Counts.            Academy of Management       Review, Vol.   22, No. 4: pp. 853–886.

Nannyonjo, S. & Nsubuga,D. (2004). Bank of Uganda Working Paper, WP04

Navajas. S. M.et al. (2000), “Micro credit and the Poorest of the Poor: Theory and Evidence       from    Bolivia”, World Development, Vol. 28,             No. 2, pp 333- 346,     Elsevier           Science Ltd

Obwona, M. B.; Ddumba-Ssentamu, J. (1998): „Household Savings in       Developing      Economies: Evidence from Microdata from Uganda“, Makerere University, Uganda

Office of the Prime Minister (2000): „Basic Facts about rural Microfinance          support            Projekt (RMSP)“, The Republic of Uganda, Kampala

Opiokello, D. (2000): Role Of The Central Bank In Developing Rural         Financial Markets:     The Case Of Uganda. In: „After the Reforms:             Which Way Forward for Central        Banks in Rural Finance“, Afraca        Rural Finance Series, Vol.1, African Rural and        Agricultural             Credit Association, Nairobi

Otero, M. and E. Rhyne (1994), The New World of Micro enterprise Finance,        Hartford,         Kumarian Press Outreach and Financial Performance of Microfinance Institutions in Africa.

Pablos, P. (2004), “The nature of knowledge-based resources through the design of an      architecture of human resource management systems: implications for strategic        management”, International Journal of Technology Management, Vol. 27 No.6/7,             pp.23-45.

Pamela,  M.P.(2001). Management:  Performance in Spanish Banking”.    Journal of Banking     and Finance,18

Performance monitoring tool (PMT) (2006|09) for Microfinance Institutions.

            Accessed at www.mixmarket.com.

Rutherford, S. (1997) Informal Financial Services in Dhaka‟s Slums. In: Wood et al

Rutherford, S. (1999): „Savings and the Poor the Methods, use and impact of        savings by       the poor of East Africa“, Micro Save-Africa, Kampala

Saunders, M. and Lewis, P. (2003). Research Methods for Business Students, Essex, Pearson       Education

Saunders, M., Lewis,P & Thornhill,A.(2006). Research Methods for Business

Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting Qualitative Data – Methods for Analysing Talking, Text          and      Interaction, 2nd Edition, London: Sage Publications

Slater, S.F., & Narver, J.C., (2007). Market orientation and the learning organization,

            Journal of Marketing, 59(7), 63 – 74.

Snell, S. A.,(1992) “Control Theory in Strategic Human Resource Management: the         Mediating Effect of Administrative Information,” Academy of Management Journal, 

Tashakkori, A. and Creswell, J. W. (2007). Exploring the nature of research questions in mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1 (3), 207-211. 

Ticehurst, G.W. and Veal, A.J. (1999). Business Research Methods: A Managerial Approach,      Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Limited.

Waterfield, C. (1998). Handbook for Management Information Systems for Microfinance Institutions. Technical Tool Series No.1. Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest    (CGAP), 1818  H St. NW, Washington, D.C

Watts, H. (1999). A Conceptual Framework to Financial Reports and Internal Audits. Vol.          20,Pp. 753-778.

Widener, S. (2007). An empirical analysis of the levers of control   framework.      Accounting,    Organizations and Society 32, 757-788.

Woller, G. (2000) „Reassessing the Financial Viability of Village Banking: Past    Performance    and Future Prospects.‟ Micro-Banking Bulletin, Microfinance

Woolf, E. (1992). Auditing Today (3rd ed.).Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd.work       study,50           (5), 179 – 189. Working Paper Series No. 51

–Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Agricultural marketing is a critical component of the agricultural sector that involves various activities, processes, and systems that facilitate the movement of agricultural products from producers to consumers. It encompasses the planning, execution, and monitoring of the production, transportation, storage, and distribution of agricultural goods. Efficient agricultural marketing is essential for the growth and sustainability of the agricultural industry, as it ensures fair returns to farmers, availability of goods to consumers, and stability in prices.

Importance of Agricultural Marketing

Agricultural marketing plays a pivotal role in the agricultural value chain. Here are some of its key significance:

1. Economic Growth:

Efficient agricultural marketing contributes to the overall economic development of a country by promoting increased agricultural production and generating income for farmers and stakeholders. When farmers receive fair prices for their produce, they are incentivized to invest in better farming practices, leading to higher productivity.

2. Price Stabilization:

By balancing demand and supply, agricultural marketing helps in stabilizing the prices of agricultural products. This is achieved through effective storage, distribution, and market intelligence, which enables market players to anticipate changes in demand and supply and make informed decisions.

3. Market Access:

Agricultural marketing facilitates access to markets for farmers, allowing them to sell their produce beyond local markets. This increases market reach and creates opportunities for farmers to engage with larger markets, both domestic and international, thereby expanding their customer base.

4. Reduction of Wastage:

Efficient marketing reduces post-harvest losses by ensuring that produce reaches consumers in a timely manner. Proper storage and transportation facilities are vital components of this, minimizing spoilage and wastage of agricultural goods.

5. Consumer Satisfaction:

Agricultural marketing ensures that consumers have access to a variety of high-quality agricultural products at reasonable prices. This results in enhanced consumer satisfaction and promotes a healthier population.

Components of Agricultural Marketing

Agricultural marketing comprises several key components that work in conjunction to facilitate the smooth movement of agricultural goods in the market:

1. Market Research and Information:

This component involves the collection and analysis of data related to agricultural production, demand, prices, and consumer preferences. Accurate market information helps farmers and other stakeholders make informed decisions regarding production, pricing, and market entry.

2. Storage and Warehousing:

Proper storage and warehousing facilities are crucial for preserving the quality and value of agricultural products. Storage facilities help in reducing post-harvest losses and ensuring a continuous supply of products in the market.

3. Transportation:

Efficient transportation systems are essential for the timely and cost-effective movement of agricultural products from production centers to consumption areas. Well-maintained transportation networks, including roads, railways, and ports, are vital for the success of agricultural marketing.

4. Processing and Value Addition:

Processing and value addition involve converting raw agricultural products into more marketable and valuable forms. This adds value to the produce and creates new market opportunities, encouraging a higher price realization for farmers.

5. Market Infrastructure:

Market infrastructure includes physical facilities such as market yards, wholesale markets, cold storage facilities, and packaging centers. These infrastructures provide a platform for buyers and sellers to interact and conduct transactions efficiently.

Challenges in Agricultural Marketing

Despite its importance, agricultural marketing faces various challenges that hinder its efficiency and growth:

1. Lack of Infrastructure:

Inadequate market infrastructure, including storage facilities, transportation networks, and processing units, can limit the smooth flow of agricultural goods and increase post-harvest losses.

2. Information Asymmetry:

Uneven access to market information and lack of transparency in pricing mechanisms often result in farmers not receiving fair prices for their produce.

3. Fragmented Markets:

Fragmented markets and a lack of a unified market approach can lead to inefficient pricing and distribution, impacting both farmers and consumers.

4. Policy and Regulatory Barriers:

Complex regulations and policies can hinder market access and growth, particularly for small-scale farmers and new market entrants.

Future Prospects

To overcome these challenges and enhance agricultural marketing, various stakeholders including governments, farmers, private sector entities, and development organizations need to work collaboratively. Investing in modern infrastructure, promoting digital technologies for market information dissemination, encouraging farmer cooperatives, and reforming policies can significantly improve agricultural marketing efficiency.

Efforts should be directed towards creating an integrated and well-organized agricultural marketing system that not only benefits farmers but also ensures food security, stable prices, and economic development. By addressing the existing challenges and fostering a conducive environment for agricultural marketing, we can unlock the true potential of the agricultural sector and contribute to sustainable growth and development.

References

Agarwal, Sarika, and Shashikant Nishant Sharma. “Universal Design to Ensure Equitable Society.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 1.

Ayuba, Dauda. “Understanding the Urban Development Dynamics.” Think India Journal 26.3 (2023): 13-17.

Bhan, Suraj, and U. K. Behera. “Conservation agriculture in India–Problems, prospects and policy issues.” International Soil and Water Conservation Research 2.4 (2014): 1-12.

Dhawan, Vibha. “Water and agriculture in India.” Background paper for the South Asia expert panel during the Global Forum for Food and Agriculture. Vol. 28. 2017.

Deshpande, Tanvi. “State of agriculture in India.” PRS Legislative Research 53.8 (2017): 6-7.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, Shankar Chatterjee, and Kavita Dehalwar. “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Challenges and Opportunities.” Think India Journal 26.1 (2023): 7-15.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Sustainable development strategies and approaches.” International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) 2 (2013).

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Introduction to Sociology.” New Perspectives in Sociology and Allied Fields (2016): 1.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant. “Review of most used urban growth models.” International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET) 10.3 (2019): 397-405.

Sharma, Shashikant Nishant, ed. New perspectives in sociology and allied fields. EduPedia Publications (P) Ltd, 2016.

¹Glenn I. Arbis  ²Reymon R. Dumale  ³Michel D. Galavia  ⁴Mark Kevin C. Marbani, ⁵Michelle M. Navarro, ⁶Veverlyn A. Salvador, ⁷Jet Seth Mae A. Segura

^{1 2 3 4 5 6 7}Faculty, St. Paul University Surigao

¹ ORCID: 0000-0002-8644-0298

² ORCID: 0000-0003-1159-8936

³ ORCID: 0000-0001-7368-5408

⁴ORCID: 0000-0002-8777-2577

⁵ ORCID: 0000-0003-4620-9072

⁶ ORCID: 0000-0001-5043-7313

      ⁷ORCID: 0000-0001-5817-0043    

Abstract – This study investigated the learning gaps in English 9 of the Junior high school students at St. Paul University Surigao. In this study, quantitative quasi-experimental research using a pretest-posttest design was employed. The results showed that the pre-test/post-test design is more effective in achieving the learners’ mastery of the competency given than post-test- only design. While the interventions given by the teacher for the First Quarter are effective in mastering the competencies, a significant difference is found, especially for those with low mastery levels. This indicates the need for targeted interventions to bridge the learning gaps and further develop students’ understanding of the aspects of language arts that are essential for comprehension, expression, and effective communication. The study recommends that Grade 9 students execute targeted interventions that address the identified learning gaps. These interventions should consist of more modified teaching methods and resources, effective communication between educators, administrators, parents, and communities, and continual formative assessment. By implementing these suggestions, educators can significantly improve their students’ academic performance and competency in English.  

Keywords: Learning gap, Learning gap assessment, English 9, Mastery, Performance

I. Introduction

            In modern educational systems, the assessment of learning gaps plays a vital role in identifying areas where students may require additional support and intervention. The concept of learning gaps refers to the disparities between what students have learned and what they are expected to know at a particular grade level or academic milestone. These gaps can hinder their progress and overall academic achievement if left unaddressed.

            Moreover, Integrated English 9 serves as a pivotal year in secondary education, as it builds upon the foundation laid in earlier grades and prepares students for advanced studies. It encompasses various aspects of language arts, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening, which are essential for comprehension, expression, and effective communication. 

            Understanding the root causes of these learning gaps is crucial for educators to develop targeted interventions and support systems that address the unique needs of individual students. By identifying the factors contributing to these disparities, educators can implement evidence-based strategies to minimize learning gaps and create a more inclusive and equitable learning environment.

            In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has widened the learning gap in English proficiency among students, as online learning platforms may not adequately address the needs of diverse learners (Smith, 2021). According to a study by Johnson and Brown (2022), the disruption caused by the pandemic has led to significant setbacks in English language acquisition, particularly for students from low-income backgrounds.

            In connection with this, diagnostic tests were administered at the start of each quarter at the Basic Education Department of St. Paul University Surigao. Assessments of learning gaps give teachers the ability to precisely identify students’ gaps in English knowledge. By evaluating students’ comprehension and conceptual understanding, teachers gain knowledge of the areas in which students’ struggle. The use of this data assists in the development of instructional strategies and materials that are specifically tailored to the needs of particular students or groups. Without such assessment, students with knowledge gaps might struggle and regress in comparison to their peers, preventing them from moving forward generally in English education.

             By utilizing efficient learning gap evaluation methodologies, a more inclusive and effective learning environment may be created where students can develop a solid foundation in English topics and reach their full potential. This study evaluated first-quarter students from St. Paul University Surigao’s identified learning gaps in English 9.

II. Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to determine the learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the identified learning gaps in English 9?
2. What is the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9?
3. Is there a significant difference in the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9?
4. What interventions may be proposed?

III. Hypothesis

            At 0.05 level of significance, it is hypothesized that there is no significant difference in the pre- and post-test performance of the learners for the First Quarter in English 9.

IV. Methodology

In this study, the researchers used a quasi-experimental research method, employing a pretest and posttest design. In this design, the dependent variable is measured once before and once after the intervention or treatment in the test is administered. The participants involved in the research study were the Grade 9 students at St. Paul University Surigao- Basic Education Department during the First Quarter of the School Year 2022-2023, the resumption of face-to-face classes after the global crisis brought by COVID-19 pandemic. Utilizing a validated test-questionnaire, the test was administered to 32 students out of 33, which comprised 97% population of the total number of participants. The test-questionnaire encompassed the learning competencies indicated for the first quarter in the English 9 level, thus, concreting and measuring the desired level of competency for each specified criterion. The participants were given intervention as specified in their least learned competencies before employing the posttest. The administration of pretest and posttest was done during the synchronous face-to-face classes of the English subject.

Pertinent to the declaration of policy enshrined in the Data Privacy Act of 2012, the researchers ensured that the data gathered should be placed with utmost confidentiality. Hence, students were informed of the essential purpose of the undertakings and its benefits. Further, the researchers’ questionnaires undergone rigorous review and validation to ensure its reliability, validity and purposefully achieve consistency of the desired outcomes.

To achieve the primary objective of having the most reliable and accurate results and findings on the learning gap analysis of the Grade 9 students in English, the researchers made use of the following statistical tools to treat and analyze the data:

Paired t-test. It is used to test the difference between a set of paired samples.

Frequency Count and Percentage Computation. These were used to determine the distribution of the correct responses of the respondents.

The collected data provided would play a crucial role in the study. In this regard, the researchers established an unbiased manner of providing the test questionnaire without having the participants know the questions to be administered to prevent inconsistencies that would have risked the data retrieved. Hence, under no circumstances should the researchers influence the participants’ answer by inappropriate interventions or disclosure of answers prior to the implementation of the pretest and posttest examinations.

V. Results and Discussions

Identified learning gaps in English 9

            Table 1 presents the identified learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023.

Table 1. Identified learning gaps in English 9

Learning Competencies	Pre-Test		Post-Test
	%	Interpretation	%	Interpretation
The learner…
EC: Identifies the use of modals in expressing permission, obligation, and prohibition	75.00%	Moving Towards Mastery	68.75%	Moving Towards Mastery
PPre-requisites:DDetermines the use of conditionals in expressing argumentsEC: uses conditionals in expressing arguments EN9G-IIe-20	31.25%	Low Mastery	57.29%	Average Mastery
EEmploys the appropriate communicative styles for various situations (intimate, casual, conversational, consultative, frozen) EN9OL-Ic	60.42%	Average Mastery	76.04%	Moving Towards Mastery

As presented in the table, this provides information on the learning competencies of a learner before and after a learning intervention. Firstly, the enabling competency identifying the use of modals in expressing permission, obligation, and prohibition got 75.00% in the pre-test and 68.75% in the post-test, both interpreted as Moving Towards Mastery. The percentage of correct responses in the post-test had a slight decrease of 6.25% compared to the pre-test. Nevertheless, the responses of the students in the competency remain as Moving Towards Mastery. 

Secondly, the pre-requisite competency determining the use of conditionals in expressing arguments and enabling competency uses conditionals in expressing arguments EN9G-IIe-20, got 31.25% in the pre-test, interpreted as Low Mastery. This was supported by the study of Jusuf et. al., 2021, states that one factor affecting the student’s performance is lack of exposure to English language. However, 57.29% in the post-test, interpreted as Average Mastery. This indicates that there is an improvement on the performance of the students.

Lastly, the competency employing the appropriate communicative styles for various situations (intimate, casual, conversational, consultative, frozen) got 60.42% in the pre-test, interpreted as Average Mastery and 76.04% in the Post-Test, interpreted as Moving Towards Mastery. This implies that there is an improvement in the percentage of correct responses of students after the intervention was conducted. 

On the whole, the learner’s performance has shown improvement in two out of the three learning competencies. They have made progress in identifying the use of modals and employing appropriate communicative styles. However, their performance in using conditionals to express arguments still needs improvement, although they have made some progress.

Pre- and Post-test Performance of the learners 

            Table 2 presents the identified learning gaps in English 9 for the First Quarter of School Year 2022-2023. 

Table 2. Identified learning gaps in English 9

Scores	f (n=32)	%
Pre-Test
Average	2	6.25
Good	18	56.25
Excellent	12	37.50
Post-Test
Good	14	43.75
Excellent	18	56.25

As presented in the table, this provides the scores and percentages of the 32 participants in the pre-test and post-test. In Pre-test, two (2) participants got 6.25%, scored Average. Eighteen (18) participants got 56.25%, scored Good. And twelve (12) got 37.50%, scored Excellent. On the other hand, in the post-test, fourteen (14) participants got 43.75, scored Good and eighteen (18) participants got 56.25%, scored Excellent. 

Overall, in the pre-test, the majority of participants (56.25%) scored Good, followed by 37.50% of participants, scored Excellent, and a small percentage (6.25%) scored Average. In the post-test, the distribution shifted slightly, with 43.75% of participants scored Good and the majority (56.25%), scored Excellent. This indicates an improvement in the overall performance of the participants between the pre-test and post-test, as there was an increase in the percentage of participants in the Excellent range and a decrease in the percentage in the Good range. However, it’s important to note that the exact improvement or change in individual scores cannot be determined from this table alone.

Table 3. Significant Difference of the Identified learning gaps in English 9

Scores	t	df	p-value	Decision
Pre-Test – Post-Test	-2.98	31	0.006	Reject Ho

Findings revealed that at 0.05 level of significance there is a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test results after giving an intervention, especially to those with low mastery levels (t (31)=-2.98, p =0.006). This means that the interventions used by the teacher are effective in mastering the competencies in the First Quarter of English 9 of the school year 2022-2023. 

According to the study by Thompson et al. (2022), the interventions implemented by the teachers were found to be effective in enhancing students’ mastery of competencies. The study reported significant improvements in student performance after the interventions were administered. This could entail a change in how they approach the students’ preferences, new instructional materials, and revised class activities. Additionally, teachers should spend more time on students who are falling behind in class, explain everything in detail, and stick to a structured lesson plan. Every student should have their needs met, and instruction should be given with more fervor, repetition, and regularity. Time should be given for students to consider what they have learned or absorbed. Teachers should implement formative assessments to track students’ performance, assess their progress, and work to close the achievement gap. They must establish standards, devise achievable objectives, be honest with the students regarding their performance, and utilize technology to advance. Furthermore, according to Johnson and Smith (2021), bridging the learning gap requires targeted interventions and instructional strategies tailored to students’ individual needs. Additionally, a study by Roberts et al. (2020) found that implementing personalized learning plans significantly improved academic outcomes for students at risk of falling behind.

                                                VI. Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn;

1. Pre-test/post-test design is more effective in achieving the learners’ mastery of the competency given than post- test- only design.
2. Interventions given by the teachers play a very important role and are efficacious in mastering the competencies of the learners.

VII. Recommendation

From the conclusions drawn, the following recommendations are given;

1. Effective communication between educators, administrators, parents, and communities is among the most crucial elements in bridging the learning gap.
2. Teachers should intensify the use of pre- test/ post-test design, injecting a variety of engagement activities/ intervention to sustain its effectiveness and eventually enhance the academic achievement of the students.
3. Students together with their parents are encouraged to collaborate and cooperate on the use of pre- test/ post- test design implemented by the teachers to track students’ performance, assess their progress, and work to close the achievement gap.

IX. References

Johnson, B., & Brown, C. (2022). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on English language learning: A case study of low-income students. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 40(3), 189-205.

Johnson, R., & Smith, S. (2021). Bridging the learning gap: Targeted interventions and instructional strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(2), 145-162.

Jusuf, S., Fatsah H., Dako, R., 2021 Students’ Performance in Speaking English (A Case Study on Students’ Poor Performance In Speaking English)

Roberts, L., Brown, K., & Davis, M. (2020). Personalized learning plans: A pathway to improved academic outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 321-335.

Smith, A. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on education: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Education and Development, 25(2), 45-60.

Thompson, A., Smith, B., & Johnson, C. (2022). Enhancing students’ mastery of competencies: Effective interventions implemented by teachers. Journal of Education, 45(3), 215-230.

LINK TO DOWNLOAD FULL PAPER

Dr. A. Kusuma

Assistant Professor,

Department Sociology, S.V. University, Tirupati.

Email: drsumasvu20@gmail.com

drsumavsu09@gmail.com

K. Chinna Veeranna

Research Scholar.

Abstract

Child labor remains a pervasive violation of human rights, drawing global attention to the welfare of children. The 20th century marked a significant turning point in the advancement of child welfare, leading to heightened awareness of children’s rights as distinct individuals. This study aims to assess the level of parental awareness regarding government welfare schemes designed to support female child laborers. Our findings reveal that 46.3% of respondents acknowledge that child labor forces children into premature adulthood, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation due to their vulnerability. Furthermore, 33.5% of respondents recognize that a sense of inferiority among child laborers stifles their courage and creativity. The creation of additional employment opportunities for unskilled and unemployed individuals in rural areas can contribute to economic growth. Implementing awareness generation programs focusing on child labor laws and involving various stakeholders such as government departments, youth associations, self-help groups (SHGs), and civil society members is crucial for reducing the prevalence of child labor.

Keywords: Child Labor, Welfare, Female Child Labor, Economic Development, Legislation, Parental Awareness

Introduction

Child labor remains a pressing concern in India, with a pronounced presence in rural areas. Although legislative measures have been introduced worldwide to restrict the employment of children below a certain age and define acceptable conditions for minors working in various professions, the effectiveness of laws designed to protect children from hazardous labor is often lacking. In many instances, children find themselves aiding family members in agricultural endeavors, working as part of contractual family labor arrangements, or participating in plantation work. Rural India witnesses a common practice of school-aged children engaging in agricultural work as part of their family responsibilities. Regrettably, the implementation of Child Labor Laws at the state and district levels has been inadequate.

This study seeks to shed light on the perspectives of parents and employers regarding child labor issues, aiming to enhance their awareness, knowledge, and understanding of the prevalence and conditions of child labor within the study area. The situation of female child laborers is especially distressing due to gender discrimination prevalent in many Indian societies. Agriculture, which contributes three-fourths of the national income and supports over 75 percent of the population for subsistence, is heavily intertwined with child labor. Poverty and the absence of social security remain primary drivers of child labor, trapping children in work that offers limited opportunities for physical, social, and mental development. Both girls and boys are ensnared in the worst forms of child labor, but societal expectations, duties, and responsibilities imposed on girls often render them more susceptible to exploitation. Addressing the issue of female child labor is a complex challenge, compounded by the fact that the labor of female children is often unacknowledged or underrepresented in formal labor statistics. The absence of quality universal education further contributes to children dropping out of school and entering the labor force, making it difficult to accurately detect the true extent of child labor.

Welfare schemes for female child labor are essential in combating this pervasive violation of human rights. Child welfare has garnered global attention, particularly in the 20th century, with growing awareness of children’s rights as independent entities. Article 18 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 emphasizes the need to protect children from economic exploitation and hazardous work that interferes with their education, health, or overall development. The International Labor Organization (ILO) also opposes child labor, particularly in situations where children face educational and social disadvantages or work in exploitative conditions harmful to their well-being.

The Indian Government recognizes child labor because of poverty and has taken steps to address it through legislative measures. In 1986, the 

Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was enacted, replacing the Employment of Children Act of 1938. While the 1986 Act does not completely ban child labor, it focuses on “projecting” working children. The government has established unique schools to rehabilitate children engaged in dangerous or hazardous occupations, offering them education, vocational training, monthly stipends, and nutrition and health services.

The commitment of the Government of India to eradicate child labor is enshrined in the Constitution, which provides for the protection of children from engaging in economic activities unsuitable for their age. The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution reinforce this commitment. The Central Labor Service (CLS), established in 1987, aims to improve industrial relations, labor welfare, and the enforcement of labor laws. Various schemes offering medical, housing, educational, recreational, water supply, and family welfare benefits are implemented for workers as part of the government’s ongoing efforts to safeguard the welfare of children and laborers.

Material and Methodology

Objectives

The present study broadly aims at studying the socio-economic and social participation, employment support and knowledge on welfare schemes available to female child labors. The following are the main objectives of the present study:

• To study the level of knowledge on welfare schemes provided by the Government for girl child labor. 
• To study the level of knowledge on girl child rights
• To examine the economic and social conditions of female child labor in the sample district. 

  Sample design and study area

The researcher has purposively selected the Kurnool district due to its proximity and familiarity. Stratified random sampling method was used in selection of study sample. The study has conducted in six Mandal’s of three revenue divisions of the Kurnool district. Four villages from each Mandal were selected. 20 respondents each were selected at random in 24 villages and the total sample is comprises of 480 female child labor residing in agricultural families in the Kurnool district for the present study.  

 Results

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the respondents

A study of the background characteristics of sampled population is an important task in the study. Several studies have been shown that there is a strong relationship between socio-economic status and Girl Child Labor in Agriculture Families. 

Table No.1: Percentage Distribution of the respondents by their Socio-Demographic Characteristics (N=480)

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the respondents	Frequency	Percent
Age of the Respondent
5-8 Year	47		9.8
9-11 Years	115		24.0
12-14 Years	318		66.2
Religion
Hindu	242		50.4
Muslim	59		12.3
Christian	146		30.4
Others	33		6.9
Education
pre-school	137		28.5
Primary	98		20.4
Upper-Primary	177		36.9
High School	68		14.2
Work Experience (Years)
≤ 2 Years	151		31.5
2- 4Years	223		46.5
≥ 4 Years	106		22.1
Girl Child Income
≤ 5000	16		3.3
5001 and above	464		96.7
Source of Family Income
Agriculture	177		36.9
Allied Labor	155		32.3
Business	45		9.4
Others	103		21.5

  Age plays an important role in measuring the respondent’s perception on their present working condition. Data has been collected on the girls who involved in the agriculture labor to analyze the girl’s working condition in the agriculture field. In the study area nearly two-thirds (66.3 %) of the respondents were in 12-14 years age group. One-fourth (24.0 %) of them were in 9-11 years and the remaining (9.8 %) were in the age group of 5-9 years. One half (50.4 %) of the respondents were Hindus, less than one-third (30.4 %) of them were Christians, 12.3 percent were Muslims and 6.9 percent belong to other religions. It is observed from the above table that more than one third (36.9 %) of the respondents have completed upper-primary education in the study area. More than one-fourth (28.5%) the girls had pre-school education and two-fifth (20.4 %) had primary education and 14.2 percent of the respondents had high school education. More than two-fourth (46.5 %) of the respondents were having ≤ 2 years of experience in the agriculture field, less than one-third (31.5 %) of them were working experience of 2-4 years and more than one-fifth (22.1 %) of them were working 4 years and above in the agriculture field. Almost all (96.7 %) of the respondents were getting a monthly income Rs. 5000 and above the study area. More than one-third (36.9 %) of the respondents’ parents were having agriculture background, followed by allied labor (32.3%) and other types of activities (21.5 %). 

The data was collected on parents opinion on child labor, sociological and economical aspects of the girl child labors in agricultural families namely on 1) fulfillment of social obligation 2) prone to habits like smoking, gambling and extravagancy 3) loss of potential intellectuals and thinkers in 4) prone to exploitation 5) violation of human rights 6) enforcement of laws 7) punishment under child labor laws 8) parents knowledge on girl child welfare schemes etc.

Table No. 3: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents opinion on Sociological and economical aspects of female child labor

Sociological aspects		Agree	Disagree	Un-Decided	Total
GCs need proper nurture and nourishment to make them best fits in future life	N	355	71	54	480
	P	74	14.8	11.3	100
CL has no rationale as it is the decision of the parent who are second to none as well wishes of children	N	256	160	64	480
	P	53.3	33.3	13.3	100
CL is not unethical rather fulfillment of social obligation by employers towards poor of whom government fails to take care of	N	199	173	108	480
	P	41.5	36	22.5	100
CL keeps children away from education and breeds illiteracy in a society	N	209	187	84	480
	P	43.5	39	17.5	100
Working children are prone to the habits of smoking, gambling, and extravagancy	N	209	200	71	480
	P	43.5	41.7	14.8	100
Child labor compels children to lead pre-mature adults’ lives	N	222	161	97	480
	P	46.3	33.5	20.2	100
CL has high opportunity cost as it leads to loss of potential intellectuals and thinkers	N	225	188	67	480
	P	46.9	39.2	14	100
Inferiority complex suppresses courage and creativity of children	N	161	95	224	480
	P	33.5	19.8	46.7	100
Children as workers are prone to exploitation by reason of their docility	N	164	157	159	480
	P	34.2	32.7	33.1	100
Child labor is an off school of poverty which is the result of unequal distribution of wealth	N	288	141	51	480
	P	60	29.4	106	100

In the table no.3 shows that 33.5 percent of the respondents agreed that inferiority complex among the children will suppress their courage and creativity. 46.3% of the respondents agreed that child labor compels children to lead premature adults and there is a chance to exploit by reason of their docility. 43.5 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor leads to children keep away from education and breeds illiteracy in society. 46.9 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor is one of the opportunities to forego the potential intellectuals and thinkers of nation. Nearly three-fifth (60 %) of the respondent’s parents opinioned that unequal distribution of wealth is one of the reasons for child labor as it leads to more dropouts. Nearly three-fourth (74 %) of the parents agreed that girl child require proper nurture and nourishment to make them best fits in future life.

Table No 4: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents opinion on Sociological and economical aspects of female child labor 

Knowledge on Legal aspects		Agree	Disagree	Un-Decided	Total
Employing CL is a violation of human rights	N	235	211	34	480
	P	49	44	7.1	100
Employment of children in hazardous work is a crime	N	201	200	79	480
	P	41.9	41.7	16.5	100
Child labor is a moral crime against humanity	N	217	183	80	480
	P	45.2	38.1	16.7	100
Hazardous nature of job coupled with excessive workload and long hours of work are so heinous crime	N	138	226	116	480
	P	28.8	47.1	24.2	100
Child labor is a punishment to tender hands for no fault of theirs	N	111	267	102	480
	P	23.1	55.6	21.3	100
CL laws fail as these are unacceptable to people with unsound financial position	N	148	251	81	480
	P	30.8	52.3	16.9	100
Weak enforcement of laws leads to child labor with impunity	N	141	209	130	480
	P	29.4	43.5	27.1	100
The parents of child workers shall be booked under the relevant laws	N	144	166	170	480
	P	30	34.6	35.4	100
Child labor shall be completely banned in all aspects	N	202	205	73	480
	P	42.1	42.7	15.2	100
The employers of CL shall be dealt with stringent punitive measures	N	136	243	101	480
	P	28.3	50.6	21	100
Enforcement of child labor laws shall be strictly observed	N	155	275	50	480
	P	32.3	57.3	10.4	100
Child labor is subject to punishment under child labor laws.	N	167	112	201	480
	P	34.8	23.3	41.9	100

In this study an attempt is made to assess the parents’ opinion on the sociological and economical aspect of the child labors related aspects. Nearly one-half (49 %) of the respondent’s agreed that working as a child labor is violation of human rights. 45.2 percent of respondents accepted that child labor is moral crime against humanity and 41.9 percent of the respondents agreed that employment of child in hazardous work is crime and 28.8 percent of respondent’s expressed that excessive workload and long hours of work in hazardous Work is heinous crime.  Only one-third (29.4 %) of the parents were having knowledge on child labor laws as they expressed that the Child labor laws are failed in implementation and weak enforcement of law were the causes of child labor.  Nearly one-third (32.3 %) of parents expressed that they have observed strict enforcement of child labor laws. 30% of the respondents were agreed that parents of the child labor should be punished under the child labor laws. More than one-third (34.8 %) of the respondents were aware that child labor is subject punishment under child labor laws. 42.1 percent of the respondents agreed that child labor shall be banned in all aspects. It is interesting to note that more than two-fifth (41.5 %) of the parents agreed that child labor is not an unethical and the employers of the child labor were giving an opportunity to get the financial source for those who are neglected by the governments. 

The findings from the above table shows that majority of the parents were aware of the ill effects of the child labor and the laws and functioning of law enforcement authorities related to child labor. 

Parent’s knowledge on various welfare schemes implemented by the government to avoid Child Labor is presented in the table no. 5. Cent percent of the respondents (100 %) in the study area agreed that free education for girls up to higher education will help to eradicate the child labor.  Higher proportion (85 %) of the respondent’s expressed that Balika Sam Rakshana scheme is very useful to balance sex ratio and prevent gender discrimination and the scheme is also encouraging employment skills, opportunities and creates awareness on health and family life education to girl Child.  More than one-half (51.7 %) of the respondents felt that Apana Beti Apne desh scheme is providing rehabilitation services for those who were rescued from child labor and brothel home. Similar percentage (62.5 %) of the respondents agreed that strict implementation of prenatal diagnostic technique act helps in reducing female feticides and the gender discrimination. The girl child agreed that implementing the constitutional provisions and human rights for girl child reduces gender discrimination (60 %) and welfare measures are sufficient to improve the girl child status provided by the government and non-government organizations (60.2 %). More than one-half (52.5 %) of the respondents agreed that national policy for children and legal enactment facilitates the development of girl child.

     Table No. 5: Percentage distribution of the respondents by Parents knowledge on welfare schemes for female child labor

Parents knowledge on welfare schemes		Agree	Disagree	Total
Free education for girls up to degree level is very beneficial for girl education	N	480	0	480
	P	100	0.0	100.0
Balika samrakshna pathakam is very useful to balance sex ratio and prevent gender discrimination	N	408	72	480
	P	85	15	100
The KB scheme is encouraging employment skills, opportunities, and health awareness of girl children	N	290	190	480
	P	60.4	39.6	100
KB scheme is providing awareness on family life education to girl children	N	290	190	480
	P	60.4	39.6	100.0
ABAD programmer is very useful to rehabilitate the girls who are rescued from CL and brothel home	N	248	232	480
	P	51.7	48.3	100.0
Strict implementation of pre –natal diagnostic technique Act, 1994 helps in reducing female feticides	N	300	180	480
	P	62.5	37.5	100.0
Constitutional provision and human rights for GC reduces gender discrimination	N	288	192	480
	P	60	40	100.0
National policy for children and legal enactments facilitates development of GC	N	252	228	480
	P	52.5	47.5	100.0
The present welfare measures taken by govt; NGOs are sufficient to improve the girl child status	N	289	191	480
	P	60.2	39.8	100.0

Conclusion

Equality of opportunities is the foundation of modern welfare states.  The crucial role that education can play in the reduction of girl child labor and improvement in the economic wellbeing of individuals can go a long way in achieving such ends.  In India, poverty remains the key determinant of children not being sent to school. Most of the parents are not able to afford to send them to school. The path to progress in terms reducing the number of girl child laborer’s by taking into consideration the cultural and economic measures, their future will continue to remain bleak.  The study suggests that promotions of non-agricultural economic activities like micro and small industries and self-employment with the support of SHG groups (Women Groups) are the best alternatives to improve employment and income generation for the rural poor. Creation of more employment opportunities to the unskilled Unemployed will help to economic growth in rural areas. Through awareness generation programmes related to the Child Labor Laws with involvement of convergent departments, youth associations, SHGs, Civil Society members will be helping to   decrease the number of child labors. Educate the parents of girl child on importance of sufficient nutritious food and proper education for the growth of girl child and its impact on future generations.

Reference

1. Asha Bajpai, (2011). Child Rights in India: Law, Policy, and Practice. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
2. B. Jaya Surian and D. Vezhavendan (2018). An Empirical Study on the Status of Child Labor before and after the Implementation of National Child Labor Project Scheme in India. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol: 119, No. 17, 247-267; ISSN: 1314-3395.
3. ILO (2010). Accelerating action against child labor – Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. 
4. Kumar Das and Sarojini Mishra (2005). Economic exploitation of girl child labor in India. Ahfad Journal, Vol. 22, Issue 2, Publisher: Ahfad University for Women
5. M. Swaminathan (1998). “Economic growth and the persistence of child labor: evidence from an Indian city”.  World Development, vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 1513–1528.
6. Pramod Kumar Agarwal, Dr. Anil Chandra Pathak (2015). A Socio – Economic Analysis of Child Labor in India. Lakshya: Journal of Science & Management (LJSM) – Volume -1, Issue-1.
7. Rupinder Singh (2019). Child Labor In India: A Legal Study, International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, Vol: 6, Iss: 1. 
8. Sanjay Mohapatra and Manusmita Desh  (2011). “Child Labor”- A Product of Socio-Economic Problem for India, Findings and Preventives- A Case of Bhubaneswar (A State Capital of India). International Research Journals, (ISSN: 2141-5161) Vol. 2(6) pp. 1199-1209. http://www.interesjournals.org/ER&nbsp;
9. Srikanth Bolla (2010). Child Labor in India. http://web.mit.edu/angles/2010_Srikanth_Bolla.html
10. UNICEF (2021). Child Labor and Exploitation, UNICEF main web page, https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/child-labour-exploitation
11. Vineet J Samuel. (2018) Child Labor & Child Rights in India: Myth or Reality, Economic Justice.  https://www.oxfamindia.org/blog/child-labour-india
12. World Day Against Child Labor (2020). Preventing child labor in agriculture during COVID-19 and beyond. News and Press Release Source FAO, Posted 12 Jun 2020.
13. Y. Janardhana Reddy (2020). An Analytical Study of Child Labor in India. Vol-15-Issue-4.https://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/WCMS_172261/lang-en/index.htm
14. Rupinder Singh (2019). Child Labor in India: A Legal Study. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, Vol: 6, Iss: 1.

LINK TO DOWNLOAD PDF