what is an NFT?

NFTs are tokens that may be used to indicate ownership of one-of-a-kind goods. They allowed us to tokenize items such as art, valuables, and even real estate. They can only have one official owner at a time and are protected by the Ethereum blockchain — no one can change the record of ownership or create a new NFT.

NFT is an abbreviation for non-fungible token. Non-fungible is an economical word that can be used to items such as your furniture, a song file, or your computer. Because of their distinct features, some goods cannot be substituted with others.

On the other hand, Fungible goods may be swapped since their worth, rather than their unique features, identifies them. NFTs and Ethereum address some of the issues that plague the internet today. As everything becomes increasingly digital, there is a greater need to imitate physical attributes such as scarcity, uniqueness, and evidence of ownership. Not to add that digital objects frequently only function inside the context of their offering.

Characteristics of NFTs

• NFTs are digitally unique; no two NFTs are the same.
• Every NFT must have an owner and this is of public record and easy for anyone to verify.
• NFTs are compatible with anything built using Ethereum. An NFT ticket for an event can be traded on every Ethereum marketplace, for an entirely different NFT. You could trade a piece of art for a ticket!
• Content creators can sell their work anywhere and can access a global market.
• Creators can retain ownership rights over their own work and directly claim resale royalties.

Examples of NFT

The realm of NFT is still in its infancy. In principle, NFTs can cover everything that is unique and requires verifiable ownership. Here are some current examples of NFTs to help you grasp the idea:

• An original piece of digital art
• A one-of-a-kind shoe from a limited-edition fashion brand
• An item in the game
• A paper

How do NFTs function?

NFTs vary from ERC-20 tokens such as DAI or LINK in that each token is totally unique and cannot be divided. NFTs enable the assignment or claim of ownership of any unique piece of digital data, which may be tracked using Ethereum’s blockchain as a public ledger. An NFT is a digital item that is minted as a representation of digital or non-digital assets. An NFT might, for example, represent:

• GIFs and Collectibles: Digital Art
• Music \videos
• Items from the Real World:
• Tickets to a real-world event Deeds to an automobile
• Invoices with tokens
• Documents of legal significance
• Signatures

At any one moment, an NFT can only have one owner. They are not convertible with other tokens on a 1:1 basis. For example, one ETH is the same as another ETH. This is not true of NFTs. Each token has a unique owner, which is easily verified. They are Ethereum-based and may be purchased and traded on any Ethereum-based NFT exchange.

To put it another way, if you own an NFT:

You can simply demonstrate that you own it. Establishing ownership of an NFT is quite similar to proving ownership of ETH in your account. Assume you buy an NFT, and ownership of the one-of-a-kind token is transferred to your wallet through your public address. The token verifies that your digital file copy is the original. Your private key is proof that you possess the original.

The public key of the content producer serves as a certificate of authenticity for that specific digital artefact.

The public key of the originator is basically a permanent part of the token’s history. The creator’s public key can prove that the token you own was generated by a certain person, adding to its market value (vs a counterfeit).

Another technique to demonstrate ownership of the NFT is to sign messages to demonstrate ownership of the private key underlying the address.

As previously stated, your private key serves as proof of ownership of the original. A signed message may be used to prove that you control your private keys without disclosing them to anyone, as well as that you own the NFT! It cannot be manipulated in any manner. You can sell it, and in some situations, the original inventor will get resale royalties. Alternatively, you can keep it indefinitely, confident in the knowledge that your asset is protected by your Ethereum wallet. In addition, if you build an NFT:

• You may simply demonstrate that you are the creator.
• Scarcity is determined by you.
• You can earn royalties on each sale.
• You may sell it on any NFT or peer-to-peer market. You’re not tied to any platform, and you don’t require someone to act as an intermediary.
• Scarcity
• The creator of an NFT has the authority to determine the scarcity of their asset.

Consider purchasing a ticket to a sporting event. The author of an NFT can pick how many replicas exist, much as an event producer can choose how many tickets to sell. These are sometimes exact copies, such as 5000 General Admission tickets. Occasionally, numerous tickets that are extremely similar but somewhat different are minted, such as a ticket with an allocated seat. In another example, the designer may choose to make an NFT of which only one is minted as a very rare collectable. In these instances, each NFT would still have a unique identity (similar to a bar code on a typical “ticket”) and would be owned by a single person. The desired scarcity of the NFT is important and is entirely up to the designer. A developer may seek to make each NFT fully unique in order to promote scarcity, or he or she may have motives to build thousands of clones. Keep in mind that all of this information is available to the public.

Royalties

When some NFTs are sold, they will automatically pay royalties to their inventors. This is a new notion, yet it is one of the most powerful. Every time an Euler Beats Original is sold, the original owner earns an 8% royalty. Furthermore, certain sites, such as Foundation and Zora, provide royalties for its artists. This is entirely automated, allowing authors to just sit back and receive royalties as their work is sold from person to person. Currently, calculating royalties is difficult. At the moment, calculating royalties is highly laborious and inaccurate — many creators are not paid what they deserve. You’ll never miss out if your NFT has a royalty built in. At the moment, calculating royalties is highly laborious and inaccurate — many creators are not paid what they deserve. You’ll never miss out if your NFT has a royalty built in. What is the purpose of NFTs?

Here’s additional information on some of the more established use-cases and ideas for Ethereum-based NFTs.

• Items of digital gaming content
• Names of domains
• Items of physical nature
• Capital and collateral
• Earnings maximisation for creators

The most common use of NFTs nowadays is in the world of digital material. This is because the industry is now broken. Platforms are consuming content providers’ income and earning potential. An artist who publishes work on a social network generates revenue for the podium, which sells advertisements to the artist’s fans. They receive exposure in exchange, but exposure does not pay the bills. NFTs enable a new creative economy in which producers do not give up control of their material to the platforms that publicise it. Ownership is embedded in the material. Ethereum’s carbon footprint will be 99.95% lower once enhanced, making it more energy-efficient than many existing businesses.

To clarify further, we’ll have to get a bit more technical, so please bear with us…

Don’t blame the NFTs.

Because Ethereum is decentralised and safe, the whole NFT ecosystem functions. Decentralized means that you and everyone else can both confirm that you own anything. All without relying on or providing custody to a third party who may impose their own regulations whenever they choose. It also means that your NFT is adaptable to a wide range of products and markets. Secure means that no one can copy/paste or steal your NFT. Because of Ethereum’s characteristics, it is feasible to digitally own unique goods and receive a fair price for your content. When they sell their stuff, the money goes straight to them. If the new owner then sells the NFT, the original developer may be entitled to royalties. Because the creator’s address is part of the token’s information — metadata that cannot be changed – this is ensured every time it is sold.

NFTs’ environmental effect

NFTs are becoming more popular, which means they are being scrutinized more closely, particularly in terms of their carbon footprint.

To be clear on a couple of points:

NFTs have no direct impact on Ethereum’s carbon footprint. Ethereum’s present method of securing your cash and assets is energy-intensive, but it is going to change. But it comes at a price. Blockchains like Bitcoin and Ethereum are energy heavy since it requires a lot of energy to maintain these properties. If it were simple to modify Ethereum’s past in order to steal NFTs or money, the system would collapse.

The labour involved in minting your NFT

A couple things must happen when you mint an NFT:

• It must be verified as an asset on the blockchain.
• The owner’s account balance must be adjusted to reflect the addition of that asset. This enables it to be exchanged or verifiably “owned” in the future.
• The above-mentioned transactions must be added to a block and “immortalized” on the chain.
• As a result, the block must be verified by everyone in the network.

On April 26, 1986, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine (then part of the Soviet Union) erupted, resulting in what many believe to be the world’s greatest nuclear accident.

Even after many years of scientific inquiry and government investigation, many issues surrounding the Chernobyl disaster remain unresolved, particularly about the long-term health effects of the large radioactive release on people who were exposed.

WHERE IS CHERNOBYL?

According to the World Nuclear Association, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is located about 81 miles (130 kilometres) north of the Ukrainian capital, Kyiv, and about 12 miles (20 kilometres) south of the border with Belarus.

 It is composed of four reactors that were planned and constructed in the 1970s and 1980s. To provide cooling water for the reactor, a man-made reservoir around 8.5 square miles (22 square kilometres) in size and supplied by the Pripyat River was built.

Pripyat, created in 1970, was the closest town to the power plant, located little under 2 miles (3 kilometres) distant, and contained about 50,000 people in 1986. Chernobyl, a smaller and older town with a population of roughly 12,000 people, located about 9 miles (15 km) distant. The rest of the area was mostly farmland and forest.

Chernobyl vs. Fukushima Nuclear Disaster

The Chernobyl facility employed four Soviet-designed RBMK-1000 nuclear reactors, a design that is now widely acknowledged to be fundamentally defective. According to the World Nuclear Association, RBMK reactors were pressure tube designs that used enriched U-235 uranium dioxide fuel to heat water, generating steam that powers the reactors’ turbines and generates electricity.

According to the World Nuclear Association, water is also utilised in most nuclear reactors as a coolant and to regulate the reactivity of the nuclear core by eliminating excess heat and steam. The RBMK-1000, on the other hand, employed graphite to regulate the core’s reactivity and maintain a continuous nuclear reaction in the core.

As the nuclear core heated and created more steam bubbles, the core grew more reactive, not less, resulting in a positive-feedback loop known as a “positive-void coefficient” by engineers.

WHAT TOOK PLACE DURING THE NUCLEAR EXPLOSION?

According to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, the explosion happened on April 26, 1986, during a regular maintenance inspection (UNSCEAR). Operators intended to test the electrical systems when they shut off critical control systems, violating safety requirements. As a result, the reactor’s power and stability became dangerously unstable.

According to the Nuclear Energy Agency, Reactor 4 was shut down the day before to complete maintenance checks on safety systems during anticipated power shortages (NEA). While the exact origin of the explosions is still debated, it is widely assumed that the first was caused by an excess of steam and the second was impacted by hydrogen. The excess steam was produced by a drop in cooling water, which allowed steam to build up in the cooling pipes — the positive-void coefficient — resulting in an immense power surge that the operators were unable to shut down.

According to the NEA, the explosions happened at 1:23 a.m. on April 26, demolishing reactor 4 and igniting a raging fire. Radioactive fuel and nuclear components rained down on the region, and a fire spread from the building holding reactor 4 to surrounding structures. The blowing wind transported toxic fumes and dust, as well as fission products and the noble gas inventory of naturally occurring odourless and colourless gases.

FALLOUT FROM RADIOACTIVES

The blasts killed two workers at the company, the first of numerous who died within hours of the catastrophe. As rescue crews worked furiously to put out the fires and radiation leaks, the death toll increased as plant workers succumbed to severe radiation illness over the next few days.

The original fire was put out by 5 a.m., but the subsequent graphite-fueled fire took 10 days and 250 firemen to put out, according to the NEA. Toxic pollutants, however, continued to be blasted into the atmosphere for an extra ten days. The majority of the radiation emitted by the failed nuclear reactor came from fission products such as iodine-131, cesium-134, and cesium-137. According to UNSCEAR, iodine-131 has a relatively short half-life of eight days, but it is rapidly inhaled through the air and tends to localise in the thyroid gland. Cesium isotopes have longer half-lives (cesium-137 has a half-life of 30 years) and pose a risk to the environment for many years after they are released into the environment.

Evacuations in Pripyat began on April 27, around 36 hours after the tragedy. Many residents were already complaining of vomiting, headaches, and other symptoms of radiation illness at the time. By May 14, officials had blocked off an 18-mile (30-kilometer) radius surrounding the facility, evacuating a further 116,000 people. . According to the World Nuclear Association, 220,000 more households will be urged to relocate to less hazardous places during the following few years.

EFFECTS ON HEALTH

According to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 28 Chernobyl employees perished in the first four months after the catastrophe, including several courageous workers who knew they were exposing themselves to lethal amounts of radiation in order to protect the site against additional radioactive breaches. Because the predominant winds were from the south and east at the time of the disaster, much of the radioactive plume drifted northwest toward Belarus. Nonetheless, Soviet officials were sluggish to communicate information to the outside world about the magnitude of the calamity. However, when radiation levels raised concerns in Sweden three days later, experts were able to determine the approximate site of the nuclear accident based on radiation levels and wind directions, prompting Soviet officials to expose the entire nature of the situation, according to the UN.

According to the NRC, 31 persons died as a result of radiation exposure or other direct repercussions of the Chernobyl catastrophe within three months of the event. According to a 2018 UNSCEAR study, as many as 20,000 instances of thyroid cancer were discovered in individuals under the age of 18 in 1986 between 1991 and 2015. While there may be additional cancer cases among emergency responders, evacuees, and residents over the course of their lives, the known total incidence of cancer deaths and other health problems directly connected to Chernobyl’s radioactive release is lower than was previously predicted. According to an NRC report, “the bulk of the five million individuals residing in polluted regions… got relatively tiny radiation doses equivalent to natural background levels (0.1 rem per year).” “As of now, the data does not firmly link the event to radiation-induced increases in leukaemia or solid cancers other than thyroid cancer.”

According to some analysts, the unfounded fear of radiation exposure caused more pain than the real calamity. According to the World Nuclear Association, many doctors throughout Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union advised pregnant women to have abortions in order to avoid having children with birth defects or other disorders, even though the actual level of radiation exposure these women experienced was likely too low to cause any problems. According to the head of UNSCEAR, the United Nations produced a study on the impacts of the Chernobyl disaster in 2000 that was “full of baseless allegations that have no validity in scientific evaluations,” and was subsequently ignored by most authorities.

IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

The trees in the adjacent forests were destroyed by significant amounts of radioactivity shortly after the Chernobyl radiation releases occurred. Because the dead trees developed a vivid ginger hue, this area became known as the “Red Forest.” According to the National Science Research Laboratory at Texas Tech University, the trees were finally destroyed and buried in ditches. According to the NRC, the damaged reactor was quickly enclosed in a concrete sarcophagus meant to confine the leftover radiation. However, there is ongoing scientific dispute over how effective this sarcophagus has been and will be in the future. After stabilising the old sarcophagus, development on the New Safe Confinement structure began in late 2006. According to World Nuclear News, the new building is 843 feet (257 metres) broad, 531 feet (162 metres) long, and 356 feet (108 metres) tall, and is planned to totally contain reactor 4 and its surrounding sarcophagus for at least the next 100 years.

According to World Nuclear News, despite the pollution of the site and the inherent hazards of running a reactor with significant design defects, the Chernobyl nuclear facility continued to operate to supply Ukraine’s electricity demands until its final reactor, reactor 3, was shut down in December 2000. Reactors 1 and 2 were decommissioned in 1991 and 1996, respectively. The site’s deactivation is planned to be finished by 2028.

The plant, the abandoned towns of Pripyat and Chernobyl, and the surrounding countryside form a 1,000-square-mile (2600-square-kilometer) “exclusion zone” that is off-limits to almost everyone save scientists and government officials. Despite the hazards, numerous residents returned to their houses soon after the accident, with some sharing their experiences with news organisations such as the BBC, CNN, and The Guardian. In 2011, Ukraine opened the region to tourists who wanted to view the disaster’s aftermath firsthand.

Our country’s space research operations began in the early 1960s, when satellite applications were still in the experimental phases even in the United States. With the live broadcast of the Tokyo Olympic Games across the Pacific by the American satellite ‘Syncom-3,’ Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the founding father of India’s space programme, instantly saw the possibilities of space technology for India.

The Genesis – St. Mary Magdelene Church in Thiruvanathapuram’s fishing town of Thumba

Dr. Sarabhai was convinced and envisioned that the resources in space had the capacity to answer man’s and society’s actual issues. As Director of the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad, Dr. Sarabhai assembled an army of capable and talented scientists, anthropologists, communicators, and engineers.. The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established in 1962 under the Department of Atomic Energy to drive space research operations. In August 1969, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was founded in place of INCOSPAR. In June 1972, the Government of India formed the Space Commission and the Department of Space (DOS), and in September 1972, ISRO was transferred to DOS.

Since its start, India’s space programme has been well-coordinated, with three different elements: communication and remote sensing satellites, a space transportation system, and application programmes. The first ‘Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station (ESCES)’ was operationalized in Ahmedabad in 1967, and it also served as a teaching facility for Indian and international scientists and engineers. ISRO was clear that it did not need to wait for its own satellites to begin application development, and that foreign satellites may be utilised in the early phases to demonstrate that a satellite system can contribute to national development. However, before embarking on a full-fledged satellite system, it was determined that certain controlled experiments to demonstrate the usefulness of television as a medium for national development were required. As a result, the TV show ‘Krishi Darshan’ on agricultural information for farmers was launched, and it had a positive reaction.

The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), dubbed “the greatest social experiment in the world” during 1975-76, was the next logical step. This initiative benefitted over 200,000 people by covering 2400 communities across six states and transmitting development-oriented programmes via the American Technology Satellite (ATS-6). SITE is credited with teaching 50,000 primary school science teachers in a single year.

The Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Effort (STEP), a cooperative project of ISRO and the Post and Telegraphs Department (P&T) in 1977-79, used the Franco-German Symphonie satellite. STEP was conceived as a follow-up to SITE, which concentrated on television experimentation. STEP’s goal was to provide a system test of using geosynchronous satellites for domestic communications, to improve capabilities and experience in the design, manufacture, installation, operation, and maintenance of various ground segment facilities, and to build the necessary indigenous competence for the country’s proposed operational domestic satellite system, INSAT.  SITE was followed by the ‘Kheda Communications Project (KCP),’ which served as a field laboratory for need-based and location-specific programme transmission in Gujarat State’s Kheda area. In 1984, the KCP received the UNESCO-IPDC (International Programme for the Development of Communication) award for rural communication efficiency.

During this time, the first Indian spacecraft, ‘Aryabhata,’ was built and launched with the help of a Soviet launcher. Another significant milestone was the creation of the first launch vehicle, the SLV-3, which could place 40 kg in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and made its first successful flight in 1980.  Competence was developed for overall vehicle design, mission design, material, hardware manufacturing, solid propulsion technologies, control power plants, avionics, vehicle integration checkout, and launch operations during the SLV-3 programme. The development of multistage rocket vehicles with sufficient control and guidance systems to orbit a satellite was a significant milestone in our space programme.

During the experimental phase in the 1980s, end-to-end capability demonstration in the design, development, and in-orbit management of space systems, as well as the accompanying ground systems for users, was performed. The Bhaskara-I and II missions were pioneering advances in remote sensing, whilst the ‘Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE)’ served as a predecessor for future communication satellite systems. The sophisticated Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) development also exhibited innovative technology such as the utilisation of strap-on, bulbous heat shield, closed loop guidance, and digital autopilot. This paved the door for understanding numerous aspects of launch vehicle design for complicated missions, eventually leading to the realisation of operational launch vehicles like the PSLV and GSLV.

During the operational period in the 1990s, important space infrastructure was built in two categories: one for communication, broadcasting, and meteorology via a multi-purpose Indian National Satellite system (INSAT), and the other for Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS). During this period, important milestones were the development and operationalization of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the development of the Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

 It wasn’t until 1992 that the ASLV was successfully launched for the first time. At this point, the launch vehicle, which could only transport extremely modest payloads into orbit, had completed its mission. By 1993, the PSLV’s maiden flight had arrived. The initial launch was a failure. The first operational launch occurred in 1994, and since then, the PSLV has been a workhorse launch vehicle, putting in orbit both remote sensing and communications satellites, building the world’s biggest cluster, and providing unique data to Indian industry and agriculture. Since then, continuous performance enhancements have significantly increased the rocket’s payload power. Glavkosmos, under duress, prohibited the relocation of associated manufacturing and design technology to India. Until then, ISRO has been free of technology transfer restraints thanks to Sarabhai’s strategic acumen in indigenizing technology. However, in preparation for the Russian contract, ISRO management abandoned domestic cryogenic programmes. Instead of terminating the deal, Russia chose to send fully completed engines, and India began constructing an indigenous cryogenic engine to replace them in the GSLV-II.

There is also substantial controversy concerning the acquisition of cryogenic engines, with many citing the choice to abandon indigenous initiatives as a major blunder: if indigenous manufacture had commenced from the start, India would almost certainly have had a truly indigenous engine functioning. Despite this one unusual hiccup in an otherwise extremely successful programme, and the decade-long absence of future payload capabilities that followed as a result, ISRO persisted.

The most powerful Indian launch vehicle currently in use; the maiden GSLV production flight took place in 2001. The program’s gains were evaluated as a result of recurrent payload reductions and delays. The indigenous cryogenic engine was tested for the GSLV’s upper stage in 2007. ISRO reassessed the GSLV’s usefulness for the 2000-2010 decade and began work on an indigenous and new GSLV III heavy launch vehicle. The latter is unrelated to the GSLV-I/II and will use the tried-and-true configuration of two solid strap-on boosters and liquid main stages. It will be similar to the Ariane 5 and other contemporary launchers, with plenty of manned spaceflight payload capacity. The maiden flight is scheduled for 2008.

Chandrayaan 2008: ISRO intends to launch a tiny robotic spacecraft into lunar orbit atop a modified PSLV. It will examine the moon’s surface in more detail than ever before in order to discover tools. Countries including as the United States have indicated an interest in attaching the mission to their payloads. ISRO and NASA have agreed to send two NASA probes as payload.

AVATAR Scramjet: This is a long-term project aiming at developing a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) for satellite launches. In theory, AVATAR will be a low-cost small-satellite launch vehicle and, as a result, an economically feasible launch system. A scaled-down demonstration of the technology is scheduled for around 2008. ISRO recently successfully tested a scramjet air-breathing engine capable of reaching Mach 6 for seven seconds. ISRO will commence research on the usage of scramjets in RLVs after 2010.

ISRO has joined the competitive market for launching payloads with other nations. The Israel Space Agency, the TecSAR espionage satellite, and the Israeli Tauvex-II satellite module were all launched. CARTOSAT-2, which launched in July 2006, carried a 56 kilogramme Indonesian payload.

ISRO cooperated with Tata engines to produce a prototype hydrogen passenger vehicle for the Indian market, which is slated to hit the road by the end of 2008. ISRO used its cryogenic technology expertise to design hydrogen fuel cells for hydrogen storage and management.

On November 15, 2007, ISRO scored a significant milestone with the successful test of the indigenously constructed Cryogenic Stage, which would serve as the top stage of India’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). The test was conducted on November 15, 2007, at the Liquid Propulsion test site in Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu, for a total flight time of 720 seconds. This test has completely trained the indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage on the ground. The flying stage is being prepared for the next GSLV (GSLV-D3) launch in 2008.

On April 28, 2008, ISRO successfully launched ten satellites in a single mission, enhancing its space capacity. This includes the 690 kg CARTOSTAT-2 and another 83 kg Indian mini satellite, IMS-1, as well as eight other university-based nanosatellites and research and development institutions in Canada and Germany that were provided at a reduced cost as part of the Indian Department of Space’s goodwill gesture

Anna University Satellite (ANUSAT) (20th April 2009) (Death Date: April 18, 2012): It was conceived, manufactured, and integrated by Aerospace Engineering at Madras Institute of Technology (MIT), Chromepet, Anna University. Performs amateur radio and electronics demonstration testing

GSAT-8 / INSAT-4G (May 21st, 2011): An Indian communication satellite. GAGAN’s first payload carrier satellite. Satellite for Indian communication.

RISAT-1 (Radar Imaging Satellite) (April 26, 2012): An Indian remote sensing satellite. It is India’s heaviest earth observation satellite to date.

SARAL (ARGOS and ALTIKA satellite) (February 25th, 2013): The Satellite of ARGOS and ALTIKA is a joint Indo-French satellite programme (SARAL). It takes altimetric readings to analyse ocean circulation and the level of the water’s surface.

IRNSS-1B (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) was launched on April 4, 2014, to offer routing, monitoring, and mapping services. The satellite is powered by two solar panels that have a ten-year lifetime and can provide up to 1,660 watts of power. Astrosat (September 28, 2015): India’s first multi-wavelength space observatory spacecraft. It uses a single satellite to take multi-wavelength measurements of several celestial objects at the same time.

SathyabamaSat (June 22nd, 2016): The Indian micro experimental satellite was constructed by students and staff at Sathyabama University in Chennai. Launched in order to collect statistics on greenhouse gas emissions.

ISRO Nano Satellite 1A (INS-1A) (15th February 2017): PSLV-launched satellites that will be followed by bigger satellites. The Surface BRDF Radiometer (SBR) and the Distressed Control Single Case were both carried as payloads (SEUM). An Indian nanosatellite produced by ISRO.

HySIS (November 29th, 2018): HysIS is an earth observation spacecraft built on ISRO’s Mini Satellite-2 (IMS-2) bus. It was launched to study the earth’s surface in the visible, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared areas of the electromagnetic spectrum This information will also be available to India’s military forces.

RISAT-2BR1 (11th December 2019): Earth Observation Radar Imaging Satellite. It offers a 0.35-meter resolution improvement.

You all have seen that we almost waste full day doing nothing just scrolling and waste entire day. Just sitting and grabbing the same information or story which we find daily. Our medium of news is also social networking sites. Which give us information which are surrounded us. We don’t watch television, hear radio or read newspaper and it is fine because all the medium is not really a good source of information. Because every information is manipulated and than reach to us. But still we have many other medium except social media who can gave us a good source of information.

I have seen many who just enjoy reals whole day. And see story of other and enjoy. But they don’t know what they are actually doing. And really don’t know what they want in their life. For a time being it’s fine but you can not make your bad habits continue and play with your career. Because when you look down you will see that your whole time which is gone. Which you could have spend it in a better manner. And once the time is gone you could not able to come back and reschedule it. So take your step wisely so that you can manage both the things and do not waste time on the things which doesn’t matter to you. Our goal should not be surfer just because of our laziness and demotivation. We should follow our passion and dreams for which we are actually living for and our life is only on us. The decision maker are only we not others. And even someone interface please listen to your words.

I really think that we are very mature and sensible person who know what is good and bad for them. Our life is lot more than what we think just we need time to explore them. Entertainment is required but making it your life is not the ultimate goal of your life. You have to make yourself capable of Living in the world. Family is not for life. And after them you all be alone. And suffering alone is more difficult than having a support. So today you have time and support. So use it properly and make yourself stand somewhere so that later you do not feel helpless. Rest is your life and your wish what you want to do in life and how your step will take you to the betterment. As i have already discuss in my previous post that every step of your is counted.

Have you ever experienced the same. If yes than you will surely realise that on a first we love the pleasure of metro train but slowly and gradually the craze decrease. Because now you know the fact that how the metro work. And if you are daily passenger than to you don’t feel anything new because it is your daily routine to travel. And when you see others who experience it for the first time. You realise few time back you also feel the same but now nothing excites you. And they will also realise after few time that it is nothing but a normal experience one can ever thought about and only enjoying it for a few span will give a pleasure of metro train. But when you get use too this journey will become so big wide.

Firstly we enjoyed the station we enter with excelator or lift. Than checking happens and we have to take tocken or card to take the train where we want to go. Than the journey begins and we get excited and wanted the journey to don’t end. Too soon because know we actually enjoying every bit of it. This is because all the movement is new for us and we want to enjoy every bit of it. But when the journey become daily than the excitement decrease and we feel bore and want the journey to end as know we are bore with our daily routine nothing excites know which earlier give us a pleasure. As our excitement last for sometime because we as a person want to explore more we cannot stick to one for a longer period of time. It just lasted few times. Than all the craziness go away because than we realise that there is nothing new in this journey it’s normal.

You can socialize and see people around you who are least important to see around. They are more interested in their phones and looking around that they do not give any notice to the person around them. As they are least interested in them. Because everyone enjoys their company or they already have someone with them who is giving them the pleasure to stick to the journey and enjoying their company and they don’t give a dam to others. Some are staring as they get the chance to awkward the girl sitting in front of them. Some are reading. And the journey is different for different person. Because their time pass should be there it can be anything as the metro journey is much longer when we think.

I feel, we have to give importance to this section too. Our life is just surrounded by our work and family. But we forget that there is lot more than that.And that is our friends, happiness and enjoyment. You have to gave time to that also. You cannot miss that fun. Because we gets very less time to spend our day like this. These morning comes after a long time. When we actually need our Buddies who will take us far from the things which are making us bounded with. We go to lounge, club, terece and resorts for fun .

But the important thing is that we need our friends who make the party more interesting and fun for us. The craze of party is only come from the friend. We are the one when we are with friends. The journey started with the calls and meeting each other where we decided to meet. Passing comments and teasing each other on the dress or coming late after all the chit chat we decided to go inside . The fun part here is we all have given the responsibility of the entry to only one person who is most responsible one. When the tables are book. Than the menu is decided. But before that hukka and daru is must with a pack of cigarettes. After all this dance to banta hai. Than everyone knows how to dance even a non dancer. With all the drama we need to go back. But our faces are not that cool that we can able to make a eye contact with our parents. This is true and than what we need is the help of someone.

And this situation we think we have to do a night stay. And all we are staying together and helping each other and sleeping wherever we find space. And next morning we realise what actually happened last night. And trying to remember what we were doing and laughing out loud. This is true we got good and sober friends who actually help us save us and make our life easy and experience there part of party. And the non sober one is experiencing another level of joy in the party . But we all our enjoying. We just need to enjoy it doesn’t matter we are sober or non sobber if you happy than its cool. we can enjoy anywhere. Party is for you to relax and enjoy the moment which are giving you joy and happiness. So life should be interesting too. where you can get a experience of lovely people who matters alot in your life. And creating some memorable moments with them make you feel overwhelming and nice. You should love every bit of life as this is mixer of both sweet and sour. And every element plays an important role. So love your life as it is very precious.

Yes, job helps you to grow as an individual you learn many things in a single medium. You cannot imagined that every field has so many things to experience. You can choose any field as your career. And can experience the depth and use of that thing. Basic are just to clear you with elements but when you perform you realise that there is lot more than we thought in this career. Jobs are not at all bad or making you control by others. You are a decission maker and you are the commander. But we don’t know how to use ourselves as a individual that the reason we could not able to sell ourselves in front of our buyers. Here you are a person who are giving your skills and your boss is taking your skill for his work.

You should know the give and take policy. How your skills are very much powerful and expensive. You do not need to bargain or make yourself down with the small offer. Where your skill just used by others. You have to make yourself that much confident and impactful that everyone will take you on the level you want. Because they know that they need you more than you need them. When you will understand this than you easily get the chance to showcase yourself in a better way. It’s not about money but you should know your value at what stage you are. For a beginner who is not skilled or not have any experience than you might get less money or even you are unpaid. But one thing you will definitely get that is experience and learning. Even you are doing for free but you gain alot as a person.

So value yourself. When you will value your abilities other will definitely impressed with you and will gave a require amount for your skills. You should not see jobs as a burden or you are not getting any output from it. If you think so than use yourself there where you can showcase yourself in a better way. Business is not everyone Cup of tea. But job are also not everyone Cup of tea. So your confidence, skills and experience. Gave you that Chance to grow and learn from each and every step you take. And people around you who can actually gave you a great knowledgeable experience in your field and also a lifetime lesson.

Which you grab from the opportunity you get from your work. And even business will not gave you that variation than in job you will become a personality. Where you know how can you showcase. And become a star. It doesn’t matter if you are worker or boss. Your way of talking will easily make others impressed if you have that quality you easily get name fame and success too. Because all we need is recognition. And it doesn’t matter you are small or big all the things are in your hand how to take it too that level. You will get everything if you know how to use it.

INTRODUCTION

What is a contract? According to section 2(h) of the Indian contract, the definition of a contract is as follows- “An agreement enforceable by law is a contract” Now as students of law, we have all heard this statement several times, but what does it imply? We can break it down into two things: first, there should be an agreement in the first place, and second, it should be enforceable by law. Another assertion that can be made from this definition of a contract is the result of an agreement. Since an agreement has to be enforceable by law to be a contract, all agreements are not contracts as they are not enforceable by law. Still, all contracts are agreements as contracts have come into existence as they are enforceable by law, or we could say that the word “contract” itself means that it has been a result of an agreement that was enforceable by law. For example, an agreement to sell a car may be a contract, but an agreement to go out for dinner is just an agreement and not enforceable by law. So we have a simple equation or a formula for a contract – contract = agreement + enforceability at law.

Agreement and enforceability by law

But what is an agreement in the first place? The answer to that is found In section 2(e) of the Act, which defines an agreement as ‘every promise and every set of promises forming the consideration for each other is an agreement’[1] In an agreement there is a consideration from both sides for example A promises to sell his bike to B and B promises to pay a certain sum in return. The promise is the result of offer or proposal by one party to its acceptance by the other. so having discussed what an agreement means Here both are promised something is return, a contract is essentially like a symbiotic or interdependent relation where one cannot exist without the other and they are mutually benefitted by each other[2]. consideration is an essential element of a contract, it is defined in section 2(d); “when at the desire of the promisor, the promise or any other person has done something or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing or promises to do or to abstain from doing something, such act or abstinence or promise is called consideration for the promise.”[3] Thus we can say that agreement = offer + consideration + acceptance. Now let us look at enforceability by law. It implies that the consenting parties must be entitled to uphold their contractual rights or seek remedy in case of breach of contract; if the agreement wasn’t necessitated to be enforceable by law, it could have been enforced by illegal means like coercion, extortion, or battery, Now for an agreement to be enforceable it has to meet certain essential conditions which have been defined in section 10 of the Indian contract act in the following words, “All agreements are contracts, which are made by the free consent of the parties, competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object and not expressly declared to be void”,

The conditions are

1. The agreement, i.e., offer and acceptance
2. Capacity or competent to contract
3. Free consent
4. Lawful object and consideration
5. Not expressly declared to be void

Offer and acceptance

Offer or proposal and its acceptance is the preliminary and most fundamental step to forming a contract; An offerer has to make an offer to the concerned party where he talks about his willingness to perform something or abstain from doing something to obtain the offeree’s consent. The exact definition of the term offer is given in section 2(a) of the Act- “when a person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing something, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other person to such act or abstinence, he is said to propose.” [4]The offer must be communicated in a clear and specific manner, i.e., there shouldn’t be any ambiguity or vagueness in the offer. It may for example, be done by words or by mouth, writing or conduct. This covers not only their acts but also their omissions[5]. It is also essential to distinguish between a offer and an invitation to make an offer, invitation to offer is a  step before the actual offer itself, like advertisements in the newspapers; here, it is not an offer yet; it is up to the seller to accept or not to accept, it can also be drawn from this that offers are of two types, specific and general as the name suggests a particular offer is one which is made to a particular person or party, whereas an available offer is something which is made to the public at large.

Contractual intention

Another critical factor that exists while making an offer is an intention to contract; this means that the two parties entering into a contract must have the legal choice to do so. The intent of the parties is to be naturally ascertained from the terms of the agreement and the surrounding circumstances. To test contractual intention, the courts use an objective method in which they judge the situation based on reasonable prudence or, to put it simply, what a person with good judgment and common sense would have done. Generally, in the case of social agreements, it is understood that the two parties have no intention of entering into a contract, and it is merely s social obligation. On the other hand, the parties almost always have a legal intention to contract in business matters[6].

Acceptance

Acceptance is the step following a proposal; acceptance has been defined in section 2(b) in the following words “when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted”[7]. An accepted proposal becomes a contract. For an acceptance to be valid, it must fulfill certain conditions.

 It must be absolute and unqualified, meaning the offeree has to accept the terms as they are and not change them or come up with a counteroffer, as a counteroffer doesn’t give rise to the contractual binding.

The offeree should make communication of acceptance to the offeror. The offeror has to know whether his offer has been accepted or rejected. However, this is not necessary every time as in certain cases merely acting on the terms of the offer acts as an acceptance to the same. For examples an announcement to pay a reward for finding a dog is an example of this, here the person who decided to act on the offer and find the dog doesn’t have to communicate to the offeror his acceptance explicitly. Acceptance should be made in the manner the offeror prescribes, and if it remains unspecified, it must be made reasonably. Approval must also be made within the stipulated time frame or in reasonable time, it also draws from common sense that acceptance of the offer should be communicated before the bid is revoked, as once the offer is withdrawn, the approval becomes nullified.

Consideration

We have looked at how consideration is defined in section 2(d) of the Indian contract act earlier but let us dissect it further. The first sentence of this definition gives rise to a key element of consideration: it is done at the desire of the promisor.  As established earlier, consideration is like an interdependent relationship, where there is something in return for both parties, so here it moves at the desire of the promisor. For example, if A says to B; I will pay you ₹500 for this t-shirt, so in this case, the consideration for A was the shirt. Since the promisor is making the offer, he will decide what he wants in return; if B had given him a pair of socks in this scenario, the proposal wouldn’t stand since that is not what A or the promisor wanted.

The second element is that consideration can come from the promise or any other person. An excellent example of this is when we shop online from sites like Amazon and Flipkart. A buys a Samsung phone from Amazon, but the phone delivered to him is not by Amazon itself but through the third party seller here, Samsung. This element was laid down in the landmark judgment of Chinnaya vs. Ramaya.[8] It was held that although the plaintiff was a stranger to the consideration since he was a party to the contract, he could enforce the promise to the promisor.

Consideration must be real

Some other essential elements are that consideration must be real and not illusionary; for example, a promise to make the sunrise from the west for ₹ one crore is illusionary and not feasible. It need not be adequate; for example, A contracts to sell his car to B for just ₹ 10,000, and B accepts it now. This price is grossly low and disproportionate for a car, but this is a valid consideration as long as the consent of the promisor is freely given.

Consideration can be past, present, or future

Another key aspect is that consideration includes both Act and omission, and it involves past, present and future, making it very vast and all-encompassing.

When the promisor has done or abstained from doing something, this is past consideration. For example, A finds B’s purse and returns it to him. B later promises to give A ₹ 50, here the promisor has done something in the past and later is rewarded for it.

Does or abstain from doing something, the consideration is in the present, and consideration can also be for the future. Consideration must be of some value: it should be quantifiable and actionable. Something which has value in the eyes of the law shouldn’t be immoral or opposed to public policy.

CAPACITY TO CONTRACT

The next element is free consent. The definition of “capacity to contract” is given in section 11and interpreting it can be concluded that there are three categories of people who are not competent to contract.

1. A person who has not attained the age of majority.
2. A person of unsound mind.
3. A person who has been prohibited or disqualified from contracting by some law.[9]

FREE CONSENT

Consent is a crucial element in forming a contract. The parties must freely consent to the agreement, i.e., it must be devoid of coercion, fraud, undue influence, misrepresentation, and mistake.

Lawful object and consideration

The consideration in an agreement is lawful unless

1. It is forbidden by law
2. It is of such nature that, if permitted, would defeat the provisions of law
3. Is fraudulent
4. Involves or implies injury to the person or property
5. The court regards it as immoral or opposed to public policy

For example, if A promises to drop a prosecution, he has instituted against B for robber, and B promises to restore the value of the things taken. The agreement is void as the object here is unlawful.

Section 2(h) of the Act make an excellent attempt to define the word contract, to when we go on to fully understand it we see that each word has been comprehensively covered in the other sections of the Act. From agreement to enforceability by law to what constitutes an agreement, Offer and acceptance, free consent, competency to contract, and lawful consideration, all of which is clearly laid out, here every possible scenario is considered for example, what if acceptance is communicated in a manner not specified by the offeror; the solution to that can also be found in the Act itself which says that when an acceptance is communicated to the offeror in the manner not prescribed by them, then the duty is cast on the offeror to reject such acceptance in a reasonable time. And if he fails to do so, the contract becomes binding. This is an example of how holistic and well-drafted the Act is as it considers and provides a solution for every possibility. Another example of this is how silence doesn’t amount to fraud. A sells, by auction, to B, a horse that A knows to be unsound. A says nothing to B about the horses’ unsoundness. This is not fraud; but it does give room to certain circumstances where silence does amount to fraud cases where the promisor must speak, say in the above example, if the promisor and promise had been related B is A’s daughter and has just come of age. Here, the relation between the parties would make it A’s duty to tell B if the horse is unsound. this proves that the various sections of the act are in perfect harmony and cater to everything

[1] Avtar Singh. Law of Contract (a Study of the Contract Act, 1872) and Specific Relief. 12th ed. Lucknow: Eastern Book Co., 2008

[2] Fazaladdin Mandal vs. Panchanan Das, AIR 1957 Cal 92

[3] Avtar Singh. Law of Contract (a Study of the Contract Act, 1872) and Specific Relief. 12th ed. Lucknow: Eastern Book Co., 2008.

[4] Avtar Singh. Law of Contract (a Study of the Contract Act, 1872) and Specific Relief. 12th ed. Lucknow: Eastern Book Co., 2008

[5] Coffee Board v. Commr. of Commercial Taxes, (1988) 3 SCC 263

[6] Rose and Frank Co v JR Crompton & Bros Ltd, [1925] AC 445, [1924] All ER Rep 245, 132 LT 641

[7] Avtar Singh. Law of Contract (a Study of the Contract Act, 1872) and Specific Relief. 12th ed. Lucknow: Eastern Book Co., 2008

[8] L. Chinnayya vs K. Ramanna on 10 March, (1915) ILR 38 Mad 203

[9] Avtar Singh. Law of Contract (a Study of the Contract Act, 1872) and Specific Relief. 12th ed. Lucknow: Eastern Book Co., 2008

Yes know you can watch you favourite movie on theatre with your family and friends. But Still we have to follow some norms like Mask and sanitizer are to be there for your safety. You have maintain a distance between each other. And enjoy the day. We see movie in theaters so that we get a chance to eat popcorn and drink cold drink. Because movie is incomplete without all these things. We get a amazing experience to watch movies on a big screen. As television and phone could not provide that experience even we switch off lights and try to make our home as a theatre. But we fail because we could not able to match the screen which a theatre gave us. With all the effects which we cannot see in our home. The quality is more amazing than any other medium.

Not only this we get a outdoor experience and socialize with people and get a chance to see movie with so many people around us. We get a airconditioner or heaters. Which make us more comfortable to watch the movie. The service boy who bring the things to us. We do not have to left our place and can easily watch our movie and order anything we like. We got a interval between the movie so that we can fresh ourselves. That gap help us to do what we want to do before our movie start because when we watch movie we want to see every element of it. We really experience a happy and joy experience. More than movie we discuss movie. What we will happen next and if we know than we want to reveal the suspense.

I personally enjoy movie on theatre because all our expression can be noted when we watching the movie. And others can enjoyed it and make fun. Some are feeling bored so they disturb other. Or they move their chair or move their body and see others and enjoy. Few just chat on mobile with others. Some are recording the movie. And putting story is must and make other jealous or make others excited to watch the movie in theaters. Some can feel sad also because they don’t get a chance to watch on theatre. But they must have seen on their phones or television. The craze of movie has been less because of webseries. But still we miss the big screen which actually stick us till the end of the movie. We have made us edict to phones but few things we only love to watch on theatres. So book your tickets know and enjoy your movie. At first day first show. The craze of seeing movie on same day is more fun and exciting.

Fish is among the healthiest foods on the planet.

It’s loaded with important nutrients, such as protein and vitamin D.

Fish is also a great source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are incredibly important for your body and brain.

1. High in important nutrients

Fish is packed with many nutrients that most people are lacking.

This includes high-quality protein, iodine, and various vitamins and minerals.

Fatty species are sometimes considered the healthiest. That’s because fatty fish, including salmon, trout, sardines, tuna, and mackerel, are higher in fat-based nutrients.

This includes vitamin D, a fat-soluble nutrient that many people are lacking.

Fatty fish also boast omega-3 fatty acids, which are crucial for optimal body and brain function and strongly linked to a reduced risk of many diseases

To meet your omega-3 requirements, eating fatty fish at least once or twice a week is recommended. If you are a vegan, opt for omega-3 supplements made from microalgae

“If I could tell you what it meant, then there would be no point in dancing it” – Isadora Duncan.

IN 1800’s,Contemporary dance was the world of new dancers who sought to discover the area of revolutionary unorthodox movements gathered from all the styles of the world, instead of following rigorous classical ballet and lyrical forms of dance. a Contemporary dance, thus do not use fixed moves but instead try to develop completely new forms and dynamics like fast oppositional moving, changing alignments, raw expressions of emotions, systemic respiration, performed dancing movements in non-standing positions (e.g., lying on the ground) and usually seeking the absolute limits of our human form and physics.

Martha Graham was a dancer who introduced and popularised contemporary dance to the world public (1894 – 1991). Her contemporary dance and choreography has won the renown of her seven decades of experience in comparison with life’s work by great art enthusiasts such as Picasso, Stravinski and Frank Lloyd Wright.

Mercice Cunningham enhanced his own improvement, choreography and avant-garde dance approaches, created by his partner Martha Graham.He has been one of the largest creative forces in American dance during his long career, educating scores of world-famous dancers, and thousands of professionals who have maintained his style until now.

Lester Horton was a great visionary of contemporary dance and was schooled in his dance ways by many well known modern dancers who incorporated the native American dance and modern jazz genres.

We have learn lessons from are childhood. But life lessons are never ever taught they can only be learn from your mistakes. Because our life lessons cannot be explained by others. Even if you want to you can’t as it is your own experience. Even you share with others but they will not connect that much with it. As your life lessons are different from each and every person has a journey and way of watching things. so similarly hear also no one can teach us these life lessons you have to learn and follow them when you realise it.

We all have experience these lessons in the day to day life. And also improve them and try to change our ways. But we still get trouble. Because sometimes we take a right decision but sometimes we faile to choose a correct thing for us. Your maturity is also depends on your life experience. If you think you are mature and knows everything. They are mostly unknown with the world. And those who just stick to themselves and just improve the way they want these type of people knows what is good or bad for them. And also very mature and sensible. And these people had seen more difficult phase of life. And they become strong bring themselves in front of people. As a good speakers.

All are trouble with many situations. And they sometimes know or don’t know the lessons of life. But you get to experience something different from previous. I don’t know but people still behave like a kid. Even though they know the fact that you cannot be like this you have to look mature and sensible.but everyone cannot do the same. Their challenge is different towards life. We have to fight for ourselves. Even as individuals you have to prepare for the challenges this make ourselves ready to fight for us. We all do mistake as there no single man in this world who do not make mistakes. It’s just that we hide from others.but it is of no use that you hide it you have to be clear and Loud so that you can understand and than perform accordingly. I have seen many people who do not learn anything from the lessons and just roaming around here and there. The person should be self independent so that they can easily get a life lessons for basic comman sense. We don’t use it most of the time that why we lie.

We can say that the classes are back to offline and children and students are going and trying to settle in the scenarioes. Schools has changed theirs functioning. Students are back with their naughtiness. It is not completely the way we want but still from past 2 year we are bounded at homes.so it is better that schools are open and know children can get a good time to spend on studies. I was so much stuck in the house that I could not able to go out. But know we ca easily go out and enjoy a little bit. Things are changing but one thing which not change is mask and sanitizer. We have to use them even we don’t wish to use. We cannot ignore such things as the danger is still there for kids.

I feel we are very lucky that we all have come out and still fighting from the virus. Because we believe that it is very important to be motivated and positive in this situation. Kids are also understanding and following the protocol. We are trying our best to keep distance but as we got a chance to meet our friends and teachers than in the excitement we are forgetting about the COVID. It is still their cases are increasing. We have to make sure that if we are getting the opportunity to go out. Than we should also follow the rules as well. So that we could not come in this situation again. We already have done online work, classes everything was all shifted to home. That was creating more problem than the offline one. We have seen worse. And know we are over with online one we all want to do it offline only.

I really feel good after so many days. I can see that everyone get a chance to interact with each other. And healthy environment is taking place. Not only in school, college but also work space we are involved in the group and the projects. That for a moment i forget that something like this has ever happened as we are all working similarly as we use too. We personally loss someone on our hand. This COVID take away our love ones. But people moving slowly and gradually. And everything is coming back to normal. As we have to deal with time and things. We cannot stop here we have to move on and try to find ways and involved us. We should do activities which can take us away from them. We had learn from this situation at a greater level. As every incident in our life gave us opportunity to learn something out of it. COVID had also realise the importance of family and friends. And what life and death is all about. We all were scared like anything that people got so negative. But thankfully know the situation is light.

INTRODUCTION

The painless killing of any person suffering from an incurable and painful disease or an irreversible coma can be defined as Euthanasia. Different practices fall under the label of “Euthanasia,” mercy killing, assisted suicide fall under the same. Here are some distinctions demarcating different versions:

Active Euthanasia: This means killing a person by active means, such as injecting a lethal drug dose. It is also known as “Aggressive Euthanasia.” Today, this practice is illegal in most countries, including India.

Passive Euthanasia: It is letting the person die by intention. It includes the removal of artificial life support. This type of Euthanasia has been declared legal in India.

Euthanasia can also be classified as:

 Voluntary Euthanasia: It means giving Euthanasia with the consent of the patient. ‘Living will’ is a written statement provided by the patient before the treatment starts to provide direction for future events they might not express. Many other times, when a person is in an inadequate space and wants to end their life, they ask for Euthanasia. 

Non-voluntary Euthanasia: It means giving Euthanasia without knowing the wishes of the person. In this situation, the decision is taken by the patient’s family. They have to sign a written contract with the hospital, and after fulfilling other formalities, Euthanasia is granted.

There can be different combinations of the types as mentioned above. This type of Euthanasia may sound morally wrong, but it is provided to end the long ordeal that the person is going through. ^[1]

In the early 1940s, Adolf Hitler carried out a program about exterminating children with disabilities to reduce the cost of society and improve the Aryan “race.” It is known as involuntary Euthanasia, which is performed against the will of a person.

CONTENTS

In ethics, ‘consequentialism’ is the doctrine that says actions should be judged as right or wrong based on their consequences. According to consequentialism, it is not necessary to focus on actions every time. It focuses more on the outcomes. The simplest form of consequentialism is old-style utilitarianism, which affirms that an activity is right or wrong as indicated by whether it maximizes the net equilibrium of joy over torment in the universe.

The consequentialism of G.E. Moore, known as “ideal utilitarianism,” recognizes beauty and friendship, as well as pleasure, as intrinsic goods that one’s action should aim to maximize. As indicated by the “preference utilitarianism” of R.M. Hare, activities are correct if they maximize the fulfillment of inclinations or wants, regardless of the preferences they may be for. Consequentialists, likewise, vary about whether every individual action ought to be decided based on its results or irrespective of whether rather general principles of lead ought to be agreed along these lines and individual actions judged simply by whether they accord with a general rule. The former groups are known as “act-utilitarians” and the latter as “rule-utilitarians.”^[2] Bentham’s utilitarianism theory focuses on which actions most likely make people happy; he also developed a calculator to determine which activities were better or worse, known as the ‘felicific calculus.

‘When we look at Euthanasia in the context of consequentialism, there are two aspects to it. This is because consequentialism is a result-based ethical theory. The first aspect is from the patient’s point of view. Giving Euthanasia will hold good as it maximizes the net pleasure, the patient is relieved from all the prolonged suffering and agony; The second aspect is from the patient’s family. They have lost a loved one. It is an irreplaceable loss. Consequentialism, on this side, would hold Euthanasia as a way of relief but entangled with sadness.

Physician-assisted suicide or PAS is another type of Euthanasia where a person is assisted in committing suicide by a medical practitioner with certain drugs or appropriate medication on the person’s demand. One of the most landmark case laws relating to suicide is ‘Gian Kaur vs. the State of Punjab, ‘ where Gian Kaur and her husband, Harband Singh^[3], were convicted for abetment to suicide. Here, the previous ruling of P. Rantinam’s case, which dealt with section 309 of the IPC, was overruled, and it said that the right to life does not include the right to death. The Court further defended the sanctity of life, stating that the unnatural taking of life can never be justified. Constitutionalizing both Section 309 and 306 of the IPC, although attempt to commit suicide and abetment to it, is criminalized. Still, under the Mental Healthcare Act 2017, several restrictions have been put on section 306, essentially decriminalizing it.^[4]

Mercy killing, i.e., Euthanasia though seems to be justified morally and is practiced in many countries like the Netherlands, Belgium, Australia, etc., because the suffering and pain of a patient due to illness is given priority over the patient’s life.^[5] Still, no law can indeed provide a guarantee over the abuse concerning the lives of critically ill patients who do not desire to end their lives. 

In the Common Cause vs. Union of India^[6]  the Supreme Court of India ruled that any individual has a right to die with dignity as a part of their right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution^[7]. This ruling,^[8] thus, permits the removal of life-support systems for the terminally ill or those suffering from incurable comas, thus proving the concept of consequentialism. The Court further allowed individuals to decide against artificial life support and recognized the need for creating a living will.

In this particular case, the Court further laid down certain propositions regarding the procedure for execution of Advance Directives and provided the guidelines thereof to effect passive Euthanasia. This verdict added on and made clarifications on the 2011 verdict of the ‘Aruna Shanbaug vs. Union of India^[9]‘ case where passive Euthanasia was legalized in two cases: 1) where the patient was in a permanent vegetative state and 2) where the said patient was brain dead, and so they can be let off the ventilator, also giving the concept of next friend. According to this concept, if any family member is absent, a third person close to the patient can be the next friend. In this case, the king’s Edward memorial hospital nurse, who had attended to her after she had gone into a coma, took the position of next friend and performed the duties.^[10] Appling consequentialism here, we conclude that since Aruna Shanbaug was in a coma for 42 years, it was ethically correct to relieve her of all her sufferings prolonging the life of a person who is not capable of being conscious is not only painful for the individual but for their family and close ones as well, as they are watching a loved one in such pain.^[11] So, isn’t ending her life the correct thing as the consequence of this would maximize happiness for everyone? “Aruna’s prolonged existence violates her right to live with dignity.” This later expanded to include the right to die with dignity. Although Aruna died of natural death, this case clarified the issues revolving around Euthanasia in India and laid down guidelines concerning passive Euthanasia. 

Conclusion

“Tube fed for almost a year, feels like a dog with a leash,” said an elderly man suffering from cancer in Belgium. Belgium is one of the countries which are very liberal regarding Euthanasia. It is considered that pain is the ultimate reason that urges a patient to ask for Euthanasia, but only 1/3 times the cause is pain. Terminally ill people can have their quality of life severely damaged. There can be physical conditions such as incontinence, nausea, paralysis, and difficulty in swallowing. “I don’t want to die in a place which smells like piss,” another lady said. People don’t want the disease to take charge of when they would die; they want to take the decision by themselves.

The intention is never to put someone on the machine and run it forever. It is life support, not prevention of death^[12]. We support life because we think one day it will recover and be ALIVE. But, what is to be done when life is not manifested by the body? When consequentialism comes in, how to handle this type of situations cannot be given as it is, because there are individual sensitivities. There is no particular way to act. But all we can do is let all the doors be open, judge the consequences, and take a decision accordingly. Because as Rajesh Khanna said, “Prolong life is not what matters, but the quality of life does.”  

^[1]Medicine.missouri.eduhttps://medicine.missouri.edu/user/login?destination=/centers-institutes-labs/health-ethics/faq/euthanasia, (October 20, 2021)

^[2]  britannica.com://www.britannica.com/topic/consequentialism ( October 18, 2021)

^[3] Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab, (1996) 2 SCC 648

^[4] Legalservicesindia.comhttps://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-4135-the-status-of-euthanasia-under-the-light-of-aruna-ramchandra-shanbaug-vs-union-of-india-ors-.html( October 19, 2021)

^[5]bnblegal.comhttps://bnblegal.com/article/right-to-die-with-dignity-euthanasia/](october20 2021)

^[6] Common Cause (A Registered Society) v. Union of India, (1996) 2 SCC 752

^[7]nhrc.nic.inhttps://nhrc.nic.in/press-release/important-judgment-supreme-court-india-1#:~:text=215%20of%202005%20%2D%20Common%20Cause,execute%20an%20advance%20medical%20directive.&text=The%20judgment%20has%20paved%20the,under%20a%20%22living%20will%22. ( October 20, 2021)

^[8] Vini Singh,on advance directives and attorney authorisations – an analysis of the judgment of the supreme court in common cause (a regd. society) v. union of India, CALQ Vol. 4.2,(2018),http://docs.manupatra.in/newsline/articles/Upload/E4A68ACB-DCC1-4003-88DC-F41D7AA65A59.pdf

^[9] Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug v. Union of India, (2011) 15 SCC 480

^[10]Economictimes.indiatimes.com thttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/the-aruna-shanbaug-case-which-changed-euthanasia-laws-in-india/a-landmark-verdict/slideshow/63231071.cms  (October 19, 2021)

^[11]Thehindu.comhttps://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/should-euthanasia-be-allowed/article22524514.ece(october17,2021)

^[12]Legalservicesindia.comhttps://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-3563-euthanasia-right-to-die-with-dignity.html    (October 21, 2021) 

Nutrition and hydration are essential. People who consume a well-balanced diet have stronger immune systems and are less likely to get chronic illnesses and infectious diseases. To acquire the vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, protein, and antioxidants your body need, you should consume a variety of fresh and unprocessed foods every day. Drink plenty of water. Reduce your risk of obesity, heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and certain types of cancer by avoiding sugar, fat, and salt.

Every day, eat fresh, unprocessed meals.

Consume fruits, vegetables, legumes (e.g. lentils, beans), nuts, and whole grains (e.g. unprocessed maize, millet, oats, wheat, brown rice, or starchy tubers or roots like potato, yam, taro, or cassava), as well as animal-derived foods (e.g. meat, fish, eggs and milk).

2 cups fruit (4 servings), 2.5 cups vegetables (5 servings), 180 g grains, and 160 g meat and beans (red meat 12 times per week, poultry 23 times per week) should be consumed on a daily basis.

Snack on raw vegetables and fresh fruit rather than high-sugar, high-fat, or high-salt items.

Overcooking vegetables and fruit can result in the loss of essential vitamins.

Choose canned or dried veggies and fruit that haven’t been salted or sugared.

Every day, drink plenty of water.

Water is required for survival. It distributes nutrients and chemicals through the bloodstream, controls body temperature, eliminates waste, and lubricates and cushions joints.

Every day, drink 8–10 cups of water.

Water is the best option, but other liquids, fruits, and vegetables that contain water, such as lemon juice (diluted in water and unsweetened), tea, and coffee, are also acceptable. However, excessive caffeine use should be avoided, as should sweetened fruit juices, syrups, fruit juice concentrates, fizzy and still drinks, which all contain sugar.

Consume fat and oil in moderation.

*Instead of saturated fats, consume unsaturated fats (such as those found in fish, avocado, almonds, olive oil, soy, canola, sunflower, and maize oils) (e.g. found in fatty meat, butter, coconut oil, cream, cheese, ghee and lard).

*Rather to red meat, choose white meat (e.g. poultry) and fish, which are often low in fat.

*Avoid processed meats due to their high fat and salt content.

*Select low-fat or reduced-fat milk and dairy products whenever possible.

*Avoid trans fats made in a factory. Processed foods, fast food, snack foods, fried foods, frozen pizza, pies, cookies, margarines, and spreads are all common sources.

Reduce your salt and sugar intake.

*Use less salt and high-sodium condiments while cooking and preparing food (e.g. soy sauce and fish sauce).

*Use iodized salt and limit your daily salt intake to less than 5 g (about 1 teaspoon).

*Salty and sugary foods (such as snacks) should be avoided.

*Reduce your sugar intake by avoiding soft drinks, sodas, and other sugary beverages (e.g. fruit juices, fruit juice concentrates and syrups, flavoured milks and yoghurt drinks).

*Sweet snacks such as cookies, cakes, and chocolate should be replaced with fresh fruits.

Eat at home as much as possible.

Reduce your interaction with other individuals and your chances of contracting COVID-19 by eating at home. Maintain a 1 metre gap between yourself and someone who is coughing or sneezing. In crowded social environments such as restaurants and cafes, this is not always practicable. Droplets from sick persons may land on surfaces and people’s hands (e.g., customers and employees), and with so many people coming and going, it’s impossible to detect if hands are being washed frequently enough, and surfaces are being cleaned and disinfected quickly enough.

The value of FM radio is Still in the form because many people source of information is only radio. The medium is very strong and reliable. The accuracy is good enough for listeners. I love to listen radio. Because it has every type of elements which a medium should have and we often see entertainment, education , information, interaction, content etc. These are comercial and Still people hear because they impact viewer on a large scale.And all the audience are well educated and sensible. Radio are not just for uneducated or poor or old people. They are for everyone kids to youth everyone love to be a part of the Radio.

People make their own thinking on radio but radio is a great medium for youth. To reach out and express ourselves. Many people are connected to the media. And not only me and you who can put their own voice. We have actually got people who never heard or not interested in the radio. But mostly people prefer to listen commercial channel in the outdoor when they do not have internet connection. They rely on radio for their entertainment. And really you feel relax and happy with the little input you get from that medium. Than you actually realise it’s importance. I know the range can be limited but you can find most of the time radio get the access and specially without any thing other than your phone. Even in the car you play radio. So you can see radio is very powerful. Many people today also go for shows so that their voice can be heard by people. That the impact it has on people.

I personally believe radio has great scope than print and television. Because they are mostly boring and same type. But radio can be both boring and interesting at the same time. You will also feel when you listen to radio. Your feelings will automatically connect with the way radio is playing. Music is also a part to relax you. And take you to a melodious ride. And you can get very great vibes. Today people love to hear vibes which they get from the others. Like a connection builder and I too get that Vibes in radio too. Sometimes it felts like a friend. And it has all solutions of my problem and we can connect easily with it. And people really get a good space to say anything which can connect people more with it. Their are no bondation for people when they connect to people they are free to express themselves.

INTRODUCTION

The only stable state is the one in which all men are equal before the law- Aristotle

Law is fundamental to any society. Since time immemorial, some of the other forms of law have always governed Society. From the Vedic civilization during ancient times to the modern-day legal system and thus it is evident that law interlinks with Society. It is rooted in social institutions and socio-economic networks. In such a dynamic and multicultural society like India, the judiciary has always played a vital role. Particularly in the post-independence era, when the British had left the country in shreds and an immediate and effective set of laws was the need of the hour as several issues such as food shortage and poverty needed redressal.

There are several functions of law. One of its objectives is to keep up stability and afford orderly life in Society. The law is an essential social control tool. The rule of law is the underpinning of democracy in any constitution. It is a tool for social control since it instills a sense of fear and obligation in people, and their behavior in a society is governed by law.  They become aware of their duties and responsibilities as a result of the use of force. Laws are in place to prevent individuals from being exploited. They protect individuals. The Indian Constitution, criminal, civil, and other laws are all geared to achieve this purpose. Laws give a framework and set of rules to assist in the resolution of specific conflicts. Individuals can bring their disputes before an unbiased fact-finder, such as a judge or jury, under the law. Here we will explore why law causes social change and how it does, with the help of several examples and supporting evidence.

ARGUMENTS

Law is responsible for social change as law or the legal framework is progressive, and ahead of its time, there are several instances where laws put in place have changed Society for the better. Let us take examples from when India was under British rule when the abhorrent practice of sati was abolished in 1829. This was one of the first primary social reform legislation^[1].  Law is based on impartiality or being unbiased, and this is another primary reason why law changes Society. As it does not differentiate between anyone regardless of caste, creed, and colour and everyone is equal in its eyes, it changes Society. Since the dawn of civilization, women have been at a disadvantage, having to always depend on men and not having much freedom of their own. They have been subject to harassment, abuse, and moral policing, with society always controlling their lives. However, due to laws such as the equal remuneration act (1976) and the POSH (prevention of sexual harassment in the workplace) Act, women now stand at a much better place. After the advent of the equal remuneration Act,^[2] women have been able to sue for malpractices prevailing in their workplace and get closure. Under the Act, the employer must ensure no bias while hiring, and women are at par with their male counterparts. The Act has bought about significant social change wherein awareness spread, and people realized that sexual harassment at the workplace is wrong.

Another example of this is the dowry prevention act of 1961,^[3] An Act under which Any person who demands dowry, directly or indirectly, from the parents, other relatives, or guardians of an As the case may be, will be punished by imprisonment for a term of not less than six months, but not more than two years, and a fine of not less than ten thousand rupees.

Abortion laws are one of the best examples that prove that law changes Society. The medical termination of pregnancy act 2021^[4] is a landmark and revolutionary step that indicates evolving social norms. The Act came into force on September 24. The Act amends the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (MTP Act) stipulates the conditions under which medical termination of pregnancy can be pursued. The primary amendments extend the upper limit of the gestation from twenty to twenty-four weeks for special categories of women, including survivors of rape, victims of incest, and other vulnerable women (differently-abled women, minors, among others). Another key amendment is the confidentiality clause. The name and other particulars of a woman whose pregnancy has been terminated cannot be revealed except to a person authorized by law. The Amendment reflects the change in definition from “pregnant married woman” to “pregnant woman” and from “her husband” to “her partner,” thereby destigmatizing pregnancies outside of marriage, changing Society for the better.

Law changes Society because it changes or has a direct effect on the lifestyle of people. Laws on pollution, narcotics, and tobacco use are some of them.  The example that comes to light here is the nationwide ban on smoking in public areas under the Prohibition of Smoking in Public Places Rules, 2008 and COTPA^[5], 2003(the Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act) and Anybody who violates this law is charged with a sum of ₹5000. The sale of tobacco products within 100 yards of educational institutions is also prohibited. Hasn’t this law fundamentally caused social change? Before the advent of this law, smoking or tobacco use was highly prevalent. It was even seen as a fashion statement and was deemed “cool” even. The general public often became subjected to or became the victim to smoking and dealt with the indirect severe health risks.

Legislations on pollution are again an example of the law changing lifestyles and causing social change, The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981,^[6] under which the state’s Pollution Control Board (SPCB)have the power to control and regulate emissions from automobiles, industries or for the discharge of any pollutant into the atmosphere. The law also gave states the right to inspect, examine and enforce air quality regulations set by their Pollution Control Boards. By setting these rules and regulations laws change and have a direct impact on our lifestyles. They control the way we go about our day-to-day life.

Laws lead to social change in every sector snd sphere of life. They protect the minority or vulnerable groups from exploitation and also uplift them. The Untouchability (Offences) Act and, prevention of atrocities against the SC-ST^[7] Act are great examples. The caste system or stratification has existed been in existence for more than 2000 years. The present-day scheduled castes and tribes were referred to as the depressed classes and have faced gross discrimination. Ill-treatment Untouchability was the inter-human relationship between Caste Hindus and Scheduled Castes since the latter was polluting them. Such Cast discrimination has existed in our country for centuries, becoming more stratified during the colonial era. Adding on to the protection of the weaker and underprivileged sections of Society, the constituent assembly provided 22.5 %( 15%SC and 7.5%ST) reservation for the Dalits ( earlier called 87mmdepressed classes) and Adivasis or tribals^[8]. The impact of this reservation has been substantial “representation of SCs/ STs has increased in all the Groups viz. A, B, C and D during last six decades.At the dawn of independence representation of SCs/STs in services was very little. As per available information, the representation of SCs in Groups A, B, C and D as on 1.1.1965 was 1.64%, 2.82%, 8.88%, and 17.75%, respectively which has increased to 12.5%, 14.9%, 15.7%, and 19.6% respectively as on 1.1.2008. Likewise while representation of STs as on 1.1.1965 in Group A, B, C and D was 0.27%, 0.34%, 1.14% & 3.39% respectively, it has increased to 4.9%, 5.7%, 7.0% and 6.9% respectively as on 1.1.2008. Total representation of SCs and STs as on 1.1.1965 was 13.17% and 2.25% respectively, which has increased to 17.51% and 6.82% respectively on 1.1.2008.”[9]

The Right to Education Act 2009,^[10] also known as the RTE Act 2009, was enacted by the Parliament of India on August 4 2009. an example where the law has directly changed Society. It describes modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education for children aged between 6-14 years in India under Article 21 (A) of the Constitution of India. This Act came into effect on April 1 2010 and made India one of the 135 countries to have made education a fundamental right for every child; here the law has caused social change by stressing the value of education in children. In addition to making education a fundamental right, another one that follows is the Child labor prohibition and regulation act 1986 under this Act employing children below the age of 14 is declared illegal. Legally, the definition of a child is someone who has not completed the age of fourteen is a child. Adolescents aged between 14-18 can be employed, except in some hazardous occupations defined in the Act such as mining, slaughterhouses, Manufacturing of fireworks or inflammable substances, etc. such acts in place directly prove that laws change Society. The child marriage prevention 1929 act is also a great example of legislation in favour of children. The definition of “child” pertaining to this Act is a male under twenty-one years of age and a female under or has not completed eighteen years of age. Any male above eighteen but under twenty-one who contracts a child marriage will be imprisoned for up to 15 days or a fine up to rupees one thousand or both.

We have looked at several reasons as to why law changes Society. now let us take a different approach and prove how Society doesn’t change the law. Society in the first place exists because of laws. If there were no laws there would be no order and stability. There would be no difference between humans and animals. If laws didn’t exist, we would quite literally lead our lives like animals. People would cause harm to get money, resort to unfair and horrible practices, and be complete chaos. It is next to impossible to change the way people think and see the world. Especially in a country like ours which is deep-rooted in tradition and what has been taught to them, they are reluctant to change. So the argument that a change in people’s mindset and mentality is causing laws to change or develop the law is incorrect. Their thinking and mindset never fundamentally change. For example, let us look at female feticide and infanticide; why do people do this? They do it as they think that a female child is of no use and she will just have to be married off and won’t earn for them, becoming a liability. However, in the present times female infanticide and feticide rates have reduced significantly; why is that? Is it because people have realized that it is wrong to do so? That a daughter can also earn and support them? No. it is not because of a shift in the mentality of the public; it is only because laws have been put in place, the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994^[11], which bans the use of ultrasound, amniocentesis and other such methods to determine the sex of the fetus. The strict implementation of this legislation has led to significant improvement of sex ratios throughout the country. This is just one of the many examples that prove that Society doesn’t change the law, but law does.

Another example is the legislation passed for women in the armed forces. The Supreme Court of India, in a historic moment for the Indian military, on February 17, 2020, allowed women officers in the Army to compete for command positions on equal ground with male officers, proving that the army’s stand was “discriminatory,” “disturbing,” and based on stereotypes.^[12] The Court also stated that all women would be eligible for Permanent Commission regardless of their years of service. This shows how even when Society was backward or narrow-minded in their thinking law intervened and led to significant social change, getting rid of gender-based discrimination in the armed forces. Adding on to this is the very recent order passed by the supreme Court by which females are now allowed to sit for the NDA exams and get admission into the national defense academy. The Bench stated that this policy choice is based on “gender discrimination” and expressed displeasure with a persisting regressive mindset, clearly showing that law changes society and not vice-versa.

CONCLUSION

Laws change Society, it is not immediate, but it is persistent, but even though laws don’t change Society immediately, they at least set preconditions for social change, set a benchmark which is to be reached, for people will not accept laws that are progressive and ahead of their times. But with time, the law will eventually lead to the desired change. The Court has taken up the fight for social justice proactively and zealously, even going so far as to articulate fresh social rights such as banning the use of misogynistic practices such as the instant triple talaq or talaq-e-biddat and decriminalizing homosexuality. The Supreme Court has taken a proactive role in the social development of languishing masses. It has undoubtedly functioned as a catalyst in the process of people’s social development. It is also crucial to understand that India is still a developing country and has a lot to work on in terms of social change. Laws take time for effective enforcement and implementation. Our country is at a stage where the population is still in the process of learning how to obey laws. Given the massive population we have, it is an arduous process. Still, nonetheless, it has undoubtedly functioned as a catalyst in people’s social development, with notable examples including the dilution of caste inequities and protection measures for the weak and vulnerable.

^[1] https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sati

^[2] https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/equal_remuneration_act_1976_0.pdf

^[3] https://wcd.nic.in/act/dowry-prohibition-act-1961

^[4]https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1705381

^[5] https://www.tobaccocontrollaws.org/files/live/India/India%20-%20COTPA%20-%20national.pdf

^[6] https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1981-14.pdf 

^[7]https://clpr.org.in/blog/the-sc-st-prevention-of-atrocities-act-1989-dilution-by-the-courts/#:~:text=

^[8]  1. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS Articles 341 and 342 of the Constitution of India define as to who would be Scheduled Castes and Sc 

[9] https://persmin.gov.in/DOPT/Brochure_Reservation_SCSTBackward/Ch-01_2014.pdf 

^[10] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/igoravsharma/what-is-right-to-education-act-rte-act-32034/

^[11]. http://www.ncpcr.gov.in/view_file.php?fid=434

^[12] https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/permanent-commission-to-women-implement-order-instead-of-seeking-clarifications-says-sc-to-govt-101627929389758.html

DESCRIPTION OF THEME TO BE INVESTIGATED:

Nature has endowed every woman with the beautiful ability to generate life, and every woman treasures the experience of motherhood. However, due to specific physiological abnormalities, some mothers cannot give birth to their children. Alternative alternatives such as Artificial Reproductive Technology (ART) and In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF) are being sought by them. In vitro fertilization (IVF), intrauterine injections (IUI), and other fertility treatments have given hope to many infertile couples. Who wants for a child of their own medical science and technology have progressed to the point, particularly in assisted reproductive technologies, which has seen the introduction of treatments such as donor conception?  Insemination, embryo transfer procedures, and other reproductive technologies transform the reproductive environment.

A surrogate mother is a woman who agrees to have an embryo generated from the sperm of a man who is not her husband, and the oocyte for another woman implanted in her to carry the pregnancy to term and hand over the child to the person or persons for whom she is acting as surrogate; and a surrogate mother is a woman who agrees to have an embryo generated from the sperm of a man who is not her husband, and the oocyte for another woman (s).

Surrogacy has converted a natural biological function of a woman’s body into a business transaction. Surrogacy’s commercialization has sparked suspicions of a criminal market, baby selling and breeding farms, underprivileged women becoming baby producers, and selective breeding for a fee. Surrogacy turns a pregnancy into a service and a child into a commodity. As with any other business transaction, the ‘consumer’ establishes his or her terms before purchasing the items.

Surrogacy has converted a natural biological function of a woman’s body into a business transaction. Surrogacy’s commercialization has sparked suspicions of a criminal market, baby selling and breeding farms, underprivileged women becoming baby producers, and selective breeding for a fee. Surrogacy turns a pregnancy into a service and a child into a commodity. As with any other business transaction, the ‘consumer’ establishes his or her terms before purchasing the items. India is slowly but steadily gaining favour as a surrogacy destination for many wealthy foreigners. India’s inexpensive medical costs, superior reproductive technology, and poor socioeconomic conditions, along with a lack of regulating legislation, have made it a tempting alternative in this regard. In India, the women who perform these duties are mainly from the lower-to-lower middle classes, married, and frequently need money. As a result of competition, childless couples may usually negotiate a better price due to their financial need. The compensation given to a surrogate mother in India may appear minor from a rational standpoint; yet, it may serve as the family’s economic lifeblood, and will be spent on the family’s needs (a house, children’s education, medical treatment). These are the fundamental needs. These basic requirements may appear insignificant to affluent westerners, but they are essential. Even though a rising number of childless couples from abroad are flocking to India, legal experts have expressed reservations. Many people believe that there will be difficulties when the child is born, and that surrogacy should be carefully studied. Given that there are currently a number of clinics that provide similar services – gauged It is simple to choose a product based on the number of advertisements in local media and on the Internet. clinic. However, the true issue emerges once the child is born. In India, , Due to the lack of rules on the subject, immigrants are unable to obtain legal aid to take their children out of the country. The trade is thought to be worth over $500 million, and the number of surrogacy cases is steadily increasing. Typically, women from rural communities are chosen for pregnancy outsourcing.[1] Many couples from India and outside travel to areas like Anand, Surat, Jamnagar, Bhopal, and Indore to realise their yearning for a child. Several American, Russian, and British women have signed up for the surgery at the Akanksha Clinic in Anand and the Bhopal Test Tube Baby Centre.

Statement of problem

Lacunae in The Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2020

1. focuses only on married couples

The Bill restricts surrogacy to married couples and, as a result, excludes members of the LGBTQ community, live-in couples, and single, divorced, or bereaved parents, thus criminalising their right to reproductive choice. The right to equality is guaranteed under Article 14 of the Constitution. The bill limits and conditions surrogacy to married Indian couples exclusively, and disqualifies ot

hers based on nationality, sexual orientation, marital status, and/or age. This fails the Article’s equality requirement as well as the reasonable categorization test

1. infringement of the right to life

While the Bill’s positives are few, its drawbacks are numerous. The right to reproductive autonomy, which includes the freedom to conception and parenthood, is enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution. Interfering with basic rights is not the state’s domain. It is up to the individual to choose the mode of parenthood, i.e., whether to have a kid born naturally or through surrogacy.

1. Lack of awareness and Information Access:

The awareness of a right is the first and most important need for asserting it., general legal knowledge is low, This illustrates the depressing state of legal rights awareness in India, particularly among vulnerable groups such as women. Furthermore, because traditional Indian society requires women to leave their parents’ home to live with their spouse, daughters have little or no access to knowledge about their inheritance and privilege

relevance of the theme:

Surrogacy can be divided into three categories:

1. Surrogacy determined by genetics
2. total surrogacy
3. gestational surrogacy

Surrogacy is traditionally accomplished by artificial insemination, in which the surrogate uses her own egg and another man’s sperm. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is used for gestational surrogacy, in which fertilised eggs from another woman are put into the surrogate’s uterus. deciding which One of the most crucial and early considerations is the path to pursue. a surrogate mother and the intended father parents will have to make some decisions. A child’s commerce is difficult to envision since a child is a sign of love, not of money, and having a child is a perspective away from the notion of marketing activities. Surrogacy, on the other hand, has become a lucrative business in countries like India. Surrogacy’s commercialization has now become a political issue in Indian culture. The surrogacy market is quickly expanding and becoming quite substantial. In a nation like India, there are “N” numbers of potential parents who want to hire other women to birth their kid. Surrogacy has grown from a simple biotic function of a woman’s body into a business contract, and as a result, surrogate services are now widely advertised. Surrogates are being recruited, and the running agencies benefit handsomely. Surrogacy is currently referred to in India as a commercial contract for a woman’s regular biological function. The reason for the burgeoning surrogacy sector in India is because surrogate women are readily accessible in a nation like India, and the whole cost of the surrogacy process is far lower than in other countries Surrogacy instances have increased dramatically in the last few years.

On September 14, 2020, the Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Bill, 2020 was introduced in the Lok Sabha. The bill aims to regulate Assisted Reproductive Technology services throughout the country.[2]

Assisted Reproductive Technology or (ART): The bill defines ART as any process for obtaining a pregnancy by manipulating sperm or oocytes (immature egg cells) outside the human body and transferring the gamete or embryo into a woman’s reproductive system. Gamete (sperm or oocyte) donation, in-vitro fertilisation (fertilising an egg in a lab), and gestational surrogacy are examples of ART services (the child is not biologically related to surrogate mother).[3]

Regulation of ART clinics: ART clinics and banks must be registered with the National Registry of Banks and Clinics of India, according to the bill. The Bill establishes the National Registry, which will serve as a single database containing information on all ART clinics and banks. To make the registration procedure easier, state governments will appoint registration authorities. Clinics and banks will be allowed to register if they meet specific criteria (specialised workforce, physical infrastructure, and diagnostic facilities). The registration will be valid for five years, with the option to renew for another five. If an entity violates the Bill’s terms, its registration may be revoked or suspended.

Gamete donation and supply: its conditions: Only a registered ART bank can screen gamete donors, collect and store semen, and provide oocyte donors. Males between the ages of 21 and 55 can donate semen, while females between 23 and 35 can donate oocytes. An oocyte donor should be a happily married lady with at least one living child (minimum three years of age). A woman can only contribute one oocyte once throughout her life, and she can only have seven oocytes extracted from her. A single donor’s gamete cannot be sent to more than one commissioning couple by a bank (couple seeking services).

On July 15, 2019, the Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2019 was introduced in the Lok Sabha. 

Regulation of surrogacy: Commercial surrogacy is prohibited under the bill; however altruistic surrogacy is permitted. In an altruistic surrogacy, the surrogate mother receives no monetary compensation other than medical expenses and insurance coverage during the pregnancy. Commercial surrogacy refers to surrogacy or similar operations conducted for a financial benefit or reward (in cash or kind) above minimum medical expenses and insurance coverage.

Why is surrogacy permitted: Surrogacy is legal for the following reasons: Surrogacy is legal if it is used for the following reasons: I intended couples with proven infertility; (ii) altruistic; (iii) not for commercial purposes; (iv) not to produce children for sale, prostitution, or other forms of exploitation; and (v) any condition or disease specified by regulations.

The intended couple must have a ‘certificate of essentiality’ and a ‘certificate of eligibility’ from the competent authority.

Essential conditions for prospective couple: A certificate of essentiality will be issued if the following conditions are met: I a certificate of proven infertility from a District Medical Board for one or both members of the intending couple; (ii) a Magistrate’s court order of parentage and custody of the surrogate child; and (iii) insurance coverage for the surrogate for a period of 16 months covering postpartum delivery complications for the surrogate. The certificate of eligibility is given to the intending couple if they meet the following criteria: I they are Indian citizens and have been married for at least five years; (ii) they are between the ages of 23 and 55 (wife) and 26 to 55 (husband); (iii) they do not have any surviving child (biological, adopted, or surrogate); and (iv) they do not have a child who is mentally or physically challenged or suffers from a life-threatening disorder

Conditions to be met for becoming a surrogate mother: The surrogate mother must be: I a close relative of the intending couple; (ii) a married woman with a child of her own; (iii) 25 to 35 years old; (iv) a surrogate only once in her lifetime; and (v) have a certificate of medical and psychological suitability for surrogacy; and (iv) be a surrogate just once in her life. Surrogate mothers are also unable to donate their own gametes for surrogacy.

Authorities responsible: Within 90 days of the Bill becoming an Act, the federal and state governments must nominate one or more appropriate authorities. The competent authority’s responsibilities include: I issuing, suspending, or cancelling surrogacy clinic registration; (ii) enforcing surrogacy clinic standards; (iii) investigating and taking action against violations of the Bill’s provisions; and (iv) suggesting rule and regulation changes. Surrogacy clinics must be registered with the relevant authority before they can perform surrogacy treatments. Clinics have 60 days from the date of the appropriate authority’s appointment to apply for registration.

National and State Surrogacy Boards: The federal and state governments will create the National Surrogacy Board (NSB) and State Surrogacy Boards (SSB), respectively. I advising the central government on surrogacy policy, (ii) developing a code of conduct for surrogacy clinics, and (iii) regulating the functioning of SSBs are all tasks of the NSB.The federal and state governments will establish the National Surrogacy Board (NSB) and State Surrogacy Boards (SSBs). The NSB’s responsibilities include: I advising the central government on surrogacy policy; (ii) establishing a code of conduct for surrogacy clinics; and (iii) overseeing the operation of SSBs. The SSBs’ responsibilities include I monitoring the Act’s implementation and (ii) examining the activities of the appropriate authorities at the state/union territory level.

Termination of pregnancy of surrogate child: A child born through a surrogacy procedure is considered the biological child of the intended couple. The surrogate mother’s written consent and the authorised authority’s approval are required for the surrogate child’s abortion. In order for this authorization to be valid, the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act of 1971 must be followed. Furthermore, the surrogate mother will have the option to withdraw from surrogacy before the embryo is implanted in her womb.

Punishments and offences:[4]

abandoning or exploiting children born through ART, (ii) selling, purchasing, trading, or importing human embryos or gametes, (iii) obtaining donors through intermediaries, (iv) exploitation of the commissioning couple, woman, or gamete donor in any form, and (v) transferring the human embryo into a male or an animal. The first breach of these offences will result in a punishment of between five and 10 lakh rupees. For repeated infractions, these offences will be punished by imprisonment for a period of eight to twelve years, as well as a fine of ten to twenty lakh rupees. Any clinic or bank that promotes or sells sex-selective ART faces a five- to ten-year jail sentence, a fine of Rs 10 lakh to Rs 25 lakh, or both. The decision to use surrogacy has no bearing on whether or not a child is aborted Abortion of the surrogate child requires the surrogate mother’s written agreement and the approval of the authorised authority. According to the bill, no one can force the surrogate mother to terminate the foetus. The kid is considered the biological child of the intending couple after delivery, and they are responsible for raising the child. Only the surrogate mother’s consent will be required to abort a child born through a surrogacy arrangement if the kid is at risk of physical or mental defects. This is a decision that will be made without the input of the intended couple. Abortion is permitted in such instances under the MTP Act of 2021, with the agreement of the ‘pregnant lady.

Literature review

Every day, around 259,200 children are born. That’s nearly three children per second. For all those concerned, the birth of a new born child is frequently a highly special and interesting occasion. Unfortunately, some couples are unable to have children of their own owing to physiological issues. About one out of every six couples struggles with infertility. This encompasses both people who have been unable to conceive after a year of trying and those who have been unable to carry a pregnancy to term. Infertile marriages have been more common since the 1970s (Winston & Bane, 1993. Social attitudes on medical procedures such as IVF have evolved throughout time. As a result, infertile couples are less hesitant to seek aid.

Infertility impacts many infertile people’s most basic thoughts about who they are and what their position in the family is. It has an impact on one’s own identity. the degree to which a goal has been met as a result, infertility is considered a serious health issue. It’s also explaining why people who are unable to produce children naturally seek for alternative methods to take up the role of a parent In the past, couples who were unable to conceive were expected to pursue adoption as a means of achieving their goals.  Parental aspirations There are several choices available today for infertile couples, as well as singles and single parents who desire to start a family. The desire to be a parent drives people to seek out alternate answers. Artificial Reproductive Technology (ART), In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), and Intrauterine Injections are just a few examples (IUI).

Despite many news articles emerging in both national and international media on commercial surrogacy in India, according to Prof. Amrita Pandey’s[5] book (Who Owns These Nine Months—- 2008), Amrita talks of little attention on the difficult problems that surround this booming sector. Most news headlines, she claims, are about “outsourcing of pregnancy” in impoverished Anand, life tales of poor, illiterate women and their inebriated husbands, and the cost disparities in surrogacy in India and the United States, as well as their win-win endings. Surrogacy is a multibillion-dollar business in India and an ever-growing medical tourism sector, she argues, yet there are no regulations regulating or controlling commercial surrogacy. She wonders why there isn’t a legislation since surrogacy is such a big business. Is it because uncontrolled surrogacy is a lucrative industry because there are no laws? Surrogacy supporters say that the arrangements benefit all parties involved since the needs of two desperate women are satisfied. The phrase “the barren gets a kid, the broke gets a bonus” is commonly used to describe the surrogacy arrangement. Surrogate moms frequently put the money they earn to good use.

Others argue that the right to procreate is a crucial one. In the United States, for example, the Constitution protects this right (Field, 1990). Given their infertility, the couple may use their right in the most feasible way possible. However, according to Cline (2008), this right is not explicitly stated in the constitution. Margaret Jane Radin (1988) claims that if males may contribute sperm and be compensated for it, then surrogacy should be permitted as a similar trade for women.

Some authors make the economic argument that free trade would increase efficiency. When there are parents who want children and women who want to be surrogates, this will happen. However, underground markets will emerge once this transaction in parental rights is forbidden. According to Posner (1987), difficult adoption procedures in many nations cause people to go to other countries to avoid the regulations, resulting in a massive black market. As a result, acknowledging the existence of such a market is preferable to better controlling and optimising it.

Surprisingly, there are strong feminists on both sides of the debate. some claim that feminists who support full legalisation of surrogacy argue that the world isn’t perfect. Men and women are not equal, and women have been restricted to a distinct domain at home, away from the marketplace, for many years. This has rendered women helpless, as the marketplace, which is dominated by males, is the source of power. Men have been liberated as a result of this power. Women, too, desire to attain this. They don’t want guys telling them what will and won’t sell. Whether or whether child sale and surrogacy are ethically reprehensible should be judged by the women themselves. Many feminists utilise this logic to support the legalisation of surrogacy. Other feminists, on the other hand, agree that women have been kept out of the market for a long time, but women have also been perceived (and treated) as baby-producing machines in the past.

Surrogacy, according to Kimbrell (1988), abuses women economically, emotionally, and physically. One key element is that the majority of women who become surrogates do it for financial reasons. Because they are in severe need of funds to keep their family afloat. Furthermore, agents are Contracts of dubious legality are frequently engaged and arranged. The ladies are obligated to do certain tasks under the terms of their contracts go through all of the tribulations of childbirth, and finally have to give the kid away (Kembrell,1988). Surrogate mothers are frequently uninformed of their legal rights and, because to their financial situation, are unable to exercise them. They cannot afford to hire an attorney in this scenario. When the surrogate mother signs the contract They will not be able to flee because of the contract.

[1] Munjal-Shankar, D. (2016). COMMERCIAL SURROGACY IN INDIA: VULNERABILITY CONTEXTUALISED. Journal of the Indian Law Institute, 58(3), 350–366. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45163396

[2] https://indianexpress.com/article/india/cabinet-approval-to-bill-for-regulation-of-reproductive-technology-6276607

[3] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/bills-on-assisted-reproductive-technology-surrogacy-passed/article37904427.ece

[4] THE SURROGACY (REGULATION) BILL, 2020

[5] Pande, A. (2010). Commercial Surrogacy in India: Manufacturing a Perfect Mother‐Worker. Signs, 35(4), 969–992.

On May 28, India’s Supreme Court issued a directive to the government on the protection of children orphaned during the second wave of the Covid-19 outbreak. During the pandemic, days went by with no nourishment for the children. We don’t know how many children were affected during this time period. Orphaned children have long been at risk of sliding between the cracks of society. However, this issue has been largely disregarded, and the Covid crisis has provided us with an opportunity to revisit this issue.

The first issue emerges as a result of the child’s caste and family structure. Many times, after the death of the parents, the child’s relatives refuse to assume care for the child. Even if the child has a family, they may be unable to pay for the child’s education and well-being owing to financial constraints. In situations like these, the youngster may not receive the help and guidance he or she needs to succeed in life.

If a child enrols in an institute and finds a room in the hostel, he or she may not have someone to assist them with their concerns. A hostel could be the first and last resort for an orphaned child with no other family support. Unfortunately, many state governments prohibit children under the age of 18 from staying in a hostel. As a result, when they finish high school or college, they have nowhere to go. Many students have issues with official documents, such as Aadhar cards and Pan cards.

In this state of helplessness, kids frequently choose the wrong path, putting them in dangerous situations. Because the government is legally obligated by the Constitution to ensure the welfare of children, the state governments can be a key source of assistance. The Maharashtra government recently altered the norm, allowing orphaned youngsters to reside in hostels until they are 23 years old. Steps must be done, however, to ensure that future generations are not confronted with the same issues. The government can take the following steps in this regard: A yearly survey of orphan children will be conducted at the district and block levels. 

No child’s identity should be compromised, hence government paperwork should be delivered on time. Many government projects and initiatives that run parallel to the values of liberty, equality, and social justice should be established. A permanent fund should be established by the government and, if possible, local-level NGO’s to ensure that the child is not financially disadvantaged.

Every child has the right to an education and a happy life. The death of a parent or a loved one can have a significant impact on a child.

Because they have no one to talk to and express their grievances with, the child’s mental health may be harmed. All children should have access to counsellors via phone or one-on-one sessions with whom they can openly communicate their feelings.

Children are said to be the country’s future. So, how can we construct a positive future with 30% of children living in poverty? It’s past time to address and fix these challenges so that all children have equal chance to live a fulfilling life and contribute to society.