The Formulation of Farm Bills

The rationale behind formulation of the recent Farm Bills is the need of the time outgrowing the APMC system of sale of agricultural produce. APMC, the Agricultural Produce Market Committee, is a system under the State Government. The mandatory system of APMC currently used in the distribution and sale of agricultural produce sets a chain of middlemen for transfer of the produce from farmers to the consumers in the market. Every State has their separate APMC and the State only divides the ‘mandis’ according to the area and each area has a specific ‘mandi’. Only those traders who have license for a particular ‘mandi’ can buy from them, who later supply them to the consumers. Even the farmer of a particular area can only sell their produce in the ‘mandi’ of their area. Auction is done by government to set prices for the produce in the market. Minimum Support Price (MSP) at which government buys agricultural produce are set for only 22 crops, the value for rest of the crop are decided throu price discovery (market demand and supply.  This model was prepared by Government of India back in 1938 and applied by the States during 1960s. The rationale behind introducing APMC ( and MSP was to safeguard the interest of the farmers against the exploitation by money lenders and zamindars. Also, since it was before the Green Revolution, it gave a great motivation to farmers to remain engaged in agriculture which was important at the time because self-sufficiency in food supply was yet to be achieved.

But in all these years, the current situation has outgrown this system and it is doing more harm than protection. It has monopolized the sale of agricultural produce and is resulting in explotation. During these stages, commission is charged at every stage, thereby increasing the price of the produce. So, the produce sold at Rs. 5-7 is sold to consumers at Rs.50-70 but the benefit does not reach the producers but rather the State in name of commission and taxes, given that we assume that there is no corruption at the bureaucratic level. Also, in cases, the traders form a cartel and decide to not buy produce at price more than MSP. Since MSP is set low so as to inculcate all taxes and keep the final price from inflating too much, this coerce the farmers to sell their produce of perishable nature at price far lower than they can get if they directly sell in the consumer market. Also, MSP is decided at country level inspite of the cost of produce being different at regional level. This leads to unequal profit for the same produce, which further leads to disparities between States.

During the 1991 reform, one of the critics has been that no heed was paid to the agricultural sector and the policies focused on secondary and tertiary sector. Through the recent farm bills, government is trying to reduce its control over farming and agricultural industry and allowing to access to free market so that farmers can take direct benefit from it.

One of the major causes of protest against farm bills by State governments has been the reduction in State revenues as the taxes and commission will be removed. The distress among farmers, particularly from areas like Punjab and Haryana, is because the farmers here produce mostly wheat and paddy, in huge surplus They expect the price to fall if MSP is removed. Also, only 6% of farmers actually sell their crops at MSP. If trade is allowed tax free outside ‘mandis’ the government support might be retracted and that will take away the stability from the few farmers actually using MSP.

The farm bills has surely cased a stretched unrest, has been one of the reasons of during the monsoon session of parliament. But it is not a rash decision neither is it first time implementation. Agriculture is a State List agenda and several States allow trade outside of APMC. These bills have the potential to help more percentage of the price paid by the final consumer to reach the farmers and financially and economically stabalise more farmers.

Human Resource and Rural development:

Rural economic development needs a wide range of human resource development. The promotion of economic reforms in rural areas will only be valid when the rural human resources are developed enough to adapt them. Otherwise this will be a waste of resources as there won’t be specific data driven results.

Economic development rationally provides financial and equipped background support to Human resources.

Rural Human resource development needs to reach out to 4 objectives:

 As rural development and progress human resource plays a very decisive role for economic growth.

Rural human resource development needs to reach the four objectives:

1.Control the population size through enhancing family planning. This contributes to sustainable development of human resource.

2. Achieve optimal allocation and fully employment of human resources through adjusting irrational distribution of human resources in regions, employment and knowledge structure.

3. Enhance cultural quality, moral quality, professional skills and management Skills of rural human resource, meet rural construction need and drive economic development through strengthening technical education, adult education and basic education.

4. More effectively carry out human resource development without any worry through establishing rural guarantee system.

Benefits of human resource development:-

1. Resources are utilized in an optimum manner.

2.  Makes people more competent, it develops new skills, knowledge and attitude of the people.

3.Increases the awareness of the importance of change management

4. Helps in developing a sense of belongingness among the employees

5. Human resources development policies promote openness in the overall growth of employees.

Human resource basically work to make the best out of the skills of a person.

Rural men women and even children are very efficient at manual labour and cam be used as a great asset in manual work in machinery sectors. The women can become a great asset to the cooking industry as well as home based works. They can also be made known about the internet and how they can use technology to get their best potential.

Imported products have replaced a lot of Made in India products since a lot of time. But these rural people who need more opportunities and better living can always be trusted with home made brands as well as good work when given the right information.

Even a farmer requires the knowledge of the crop to be a good farmer.

Accumulation of human resource capital will become an economic growth point of rural areas

Digitalization of rural areas

According to a survey with more than 600 million internets users ,india is one of the largets and fastest growing digital markets in the world for digital consumers. however most of the users are from urban area hence we can say that urban india is the reason behind this substantial growth.
But with government’s push towards financial inclusion rural india have also started embracing digital economy.

It is estimated that about 66% of India’s population is rural which contributes 46 percent of the total income of the nation.
As per the recent TRAI reports internet user account of rural india has increased from 32 percent in 2017 to 38 percent in 2020.
Despite the growing number of users ,there is still a wide Digital gap between urban and rural area.
This gap mainly stems from two factors –

1. Lack of infrastructure
2. Lack of awareness

To reduce the gap between urban and rural india and to improve digital infrastructure in country especially in rural india “Digital India” programme was launched by the indian government.
Under this programme many initiatives were taken to boost rural digital infrastructure.some of them are listed as follows :-

1.Bharatnet :-
Aims to provide broadband acces to iver 250,000 gram panchayat with help of a network of optical fibre

2.Common Service Centres :-
Centres through which e- governance and other related services will be made available in villages

3.Universal access to mobile :-
Aims to provide mobile coverage to more than 55600 villages which do not have network coverage

4. Digitization of post offices :-
   As the name suggests it aims to digitise poat office along with setting up of network centres, networking of all post offices and enabling digital payments

Steps taken to spread awareness :-

Under the ” digital india ” , ” Pradhan mantri gramin digital saksharta abhiyan ” was launced to spread digital awareness among the rural people.

The main aim of this abhiyan was to make 6 crores of people residing in rural villages digitally literate.These steps are supposed to have a positive impact on the society.

With digitization many sectors started developing and earning more profits.two of the sectors which were stated to benefit from digitization are
1.Agriculture sector
2.Financial sector

Agriculture sector :- Being one of the major sectors of this nation, agriculture accounts for almost 50 percent of the tital workforce and 18 percent of the GDP.Despite significant contribution ,indian agriculture is mostly dependent on human labour and rainfall unlike developed countries that rely on highly mechanized farming techniques.
Realising the need of the hour,Indian government has launched the ‘Kisan Suvidha’ app whichassists farmers with relevant information on the weather of the current day and next five days, market prices, dealers, agro advisories, and plant protection.
Start-ups like SatSure, CropIn, Niruthi, AgRisk etcetra aling with the digital government programmes help the farmers in sowing and crop monitoring, capturing and analyzing various data points, including crop, soil, and weather data which assist in decision making and easy acces to crop insurance other facilities.

Financial sector :-
Just like the agriculture sector ,the rural financial sector is also on the cusp of digital revolution.over last few years many financial initiatives have been rolled out.
Few of them are :-

1. Aadhaar :-
   A unique biometric identification
2. Jan dhan savings bank accounts

3.direct transfer of social benefit payments

4.BHIM :-
the digital payment infrastructure

These initiatives taken by the indian government has resulted in increase of banking penetration from 54 percent in 2014 to 80 percent in 2018.

Increase in banking penetration presents a significant opportunity for the start-ups , financial product space etc.
For Example,Start-ups like Jai Kisan and FIA technology are bridging the digital gap in rural India by offering financial products and services.
These initiatives by the government and the effort from the private sector l

Necessity of Communication :

“If at the time of purported acceptance , the offeror has changed his mind ,no meeting of the minds is possible and the formation of the contract cannot take place . This indeed was the theory of an english case of 1790 Cooke v Oxley in which D offered to sell some tobacco at a certain price should P accept the proposal before 4’o clock the same day. P gave D a notice of acceptance before the deadline but D having changed his mind regused to enter the transaction. It was therefore held that no contract was made .

Problems Of Revocation:

Formation of a contract lies within giving the power of acceptance to the offreerather than in a meeting of the minds, A different principle has been definitely established . Admittedly even today Freedom of contracting and making the offers permits the offeror to reserve for himself the possibility of revoking his offer without any notice. Thus in Tartoria v Mankoa real estate broker having a listing of Ds property was held to be entitled to his comissionwhen he procured a customer after the property had been sold since the seller had concealed the sale from the broker.”

Today revocation is generally so strictly connected with the offerees notice  about it has also been defined as the communication of change in the offererspurpose. Its justified that communication is essential for revocation purpose.

Revocation of Public Offers:

On this point the restatement lays down the following rule:

An offer made by advertisement in a newspaper or by a feneral notification to public or to a no. Of persons whole identity is known to the offerer, is revoked by an advertisement or general notice given publicity equal to that given to an offer before a contract has been created by acceptance of offer.

Direct notice of Revocation:

As revocation is ineffective soo long as the offeree does not know about it the best method of revoking is to dirr3ctly notify the offereethat the offerer has changed his mind in the course of dealings between the two parties. As to there are formal requirements as to making of certain types of contracts , there are no similar requirements as to the validity of a revocation. Any means of communicating with the offeree is acceptable. The rule is expressed in section 41 of  Restatement of contracts entitled “Revocation by commucationfrom offererrecieved by offree”.

Revocation of Acceptance:

According to english law an acceptance once made is irrevocable. In the words of Anson : “Acceptance is to offer what a lighted match is to a train obviously confined in its operation only to postal acceptance. It is suggested in Anson that in other cases “an acceptance can be revoked any time before acceptance is complete provided of the course that the revocation itself is communicated before the acceptance arrives. In india on the other hand acceptance is generally revocable. An acceptoe may cancel his acceptance by a speedier mode of communication which will reach earlier than the acceptance itself. Section 5 is the relant provisio

Revocation generally in terms mean to withdraw something. It can be anything of a good , offer, task, deal anything. It may also stand for cancellation. So revocation in the law of contracts can be defines as a remedy given to buyers if not satisfied with goods of the sellers. The buyers here are termed as offerers and revocation must be communicated to offree before acceptance. This is also the general common rule on revocation.

 Section 2(e) says that an agreement is defined as a set of promises. This happens when an offer is placed by the offererand accepted by the offree. Revocation can only be done before the acceptance of a particular agreement.According to section 2e All agreements are not contracts but all contracts are agreements.

What is Acceptance:“Section 2(b) defines accpetances as :When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent there to the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.Thus acceptance is the assent given to a proposal and it has the effect of covering the proposal into promise. 

Communication of Acceptance: One of the good examples of actof acceptance is when the hammer falls in an auction. According to the words of Shah J  An agreement does not result from a mere state of mind :intent to accept an offer or even a mental ressolveto accept an offer does not give rise to a contract.

An illustration of acceptance by consuct is the decisionof the House of Lords in Brogden v Metropolitan Railway Co. Facts: B had been supplying coal to a railway company without any formal agreement. B suggested that a formal agreement should be drawn up. The agents of both the parties met and drew up a draft agreement. It had some blanks when it was sent to B for his approval. He filled up the blanks including the name of an arbitrator and then returned it to the company. The agent of the company put the draft in his drawer and it remained there without final approval having been signified. B kept up his supply of coals but on the new terms and also recieved payment on the new terms. A dispute having risen B refused to be bound by the agreement.”

Tehmina Durrani, born in Lahore, Pakistan, debuted with her autobiography, ‘My Feudal Lord’. Her mother was a light-skinned beauty and a dominant person who controlled everything and everyone in her household without even raising a hand. She faced a lot of discrimination from her mother during her childhood because she was darker than her other siblings. The stigma in society at that time regarding dark complexion and her mother’s behavior towards her rendered her with inferiority complex. She only received love from her father and maternal grandmother who loved her dearly and did not discriminate her from other siblings.

When she was in school, she fell in love with Anees Khan. Anees wrote letter to her which she found to be really affectionate. She tried to convince her mother for marriage as well as Anees’ mother came with a marriage proposal several times but her mother was reluctant to it because Anees did not come from an influencial or high class family. The reason behind her agreeing for the marriage was when she talked to her friend, got suggested that she should get Tehmina married because, of her dark complexion, it will be difficult to find a man for her and it is good if a man is ready to marry her, just do away with her before it’s late. Her family was finally convinced but few days before marriage, she got cold feet and tried to stop it saying that she was in love with the idea of love and didn’t really loved Anees. Her father and Anees, calling this a sign of stress due to preparation of marriage and grief of leaving her home, brushed away this argument of hers and she married Anees knowing she didn’t love him. Two and a half years later, her marriage reached a saturation point birth of her daughter, Tanya, was a breath of fresh air for her. She dearly loved and cared about her and devoted her life to her because the marriage she had with anees held nothing else for her. Inspite of this, she was bewildered and puzzled at having become a mother, understanding little of the woman into which she was developing. Initially, she was hopelessly immature.

Tehmina leaving Anees for Mustafa Khar inspite of having a child with him is a controversial and debatable topic.

We can argue that Tehmina was right in leaving her husband and kid for Mustafa because, initially, the image of Mustafa that she had in her mind was that of a misunderstood gentleman. She thought she can see the real Mustafa beneath the strong front he puts. She believed Anees to be a nice and kind man who trusted and loved her greatly but it wasn’t the case for her. She did not love him. When she saw Mustafa, she realized what was it that she was missing. She had legacy of her mother without even realizing it and Anees feel short of it. Anees was inconsequential and she did not hold any faith in his abilities or respect for his intellect. She did not wanted a marriage like his parents in which her mother dominated every decision of her father’s.She wanted a strong man. Not only for her personal self but she also thought that her mother’s eyes that screamed how inadequate she was would then be more acceptable of her or rather, not affect her because she was with a strong man like Mustafa.

But her leaving of her husband and child for another man, a married man, invite a lot of criticism on a lot of aspects. She claimed to be a loving mother, yet she was ready to let her child go through something as disturbing as divorce just because, as she claimed, she was falling into an abyss called Mustafa Khar. At a number of places, she even blames Anees for not being a vigilant husband and stop the advances of Mustafa and lead her back to a virtuous life and thoughts that did not point to her infidelity. She says at one part in the book that, “Common sense vanished along with caution, morality and decency: my emotions overwhelmed me”. She herself was very aware of her act being indecent and how immoral it was to pry and want a married man. She did not care for her child, she did not care for the emotions of a fellow woman and instead blamed her for not being understanding of Mustafa. She did not care for her loving husband and supportive in-laws who gave her a family environment that wasn’t toxic and dominating on her. She left the place she was respected at, cherished at, blinded by emotion, inflicting pain and hurt to numerous person in the wake of it. She was at that time young and immature, but the way she handled her situation is still too much too be covered up by that.

Vijay Tendulkar was a famous Indian playwright of contemporary times, during the third phase of threatre. He could be called a complete playwright in tradition of Shakespeare because how he reflected on the society in his plays and the way her brought the characters to life.

Not many playwrights can claim such an achievement. He took on themes that were not spoken on in those times, various taboo themes of sexuality, violence within the family and outside, treatment of women in the Indian society.

One such play he wrote that brought him to spotlight was ‘Silence! The Court Is In Session’. The play takes on the plight of a single Indian woman, the stigma attached to her in the society at that times and how she held more accountable for wanting to live her life her way, unlike a man ever would be. A play within a play, it centers around the mock trial aimed at showing the Samant what a court proceeding looks like and prosecuted the protagonist, Ms. Benare, for a fake crime that was turned into a contempt against her and her personal life and she felt as if she was on a real trial for her “crime” – Being an unwed mother.

Ms. Leela Benare, the protagonist, is written as a modern young woman in the middle class society today she is cheerful, lively and seeks to live life on her own terms. She is a dedicated and devoted teacher and believes that one should live their life to the fullest. He character suffers in the play because the way she lived her life defied the established social norms and her private life was dissected for the evil pleasure of the males of the group and to satisfy the jealous of the only woman present there apart from Ms. Benare.

The highlighted character represents a modern day free-minded women who are out there in the field doing what they love and living the life on their own terms. The times have changed since the play was first written but the plight of such women still exists and is in effect more than we would like it to be. A woman, even today is questioned for the clothes she wear, working late night, hanging out with male friends and having fun and living their life. The stigma still continues that a woman needs to be reserved, should marry as soon as possible and live her life as far as the permission of her husband allows. And this is the top most layer of it all. The things turn worse if a woman is romantically involved with a man she is not married. She becomes an object of scrutiny for the entire society n the pall-bearers of the “purity of society” treat them as an anomaly and possible threat to the “sancity” of the society. For some reason, the affair of a married man is not as big an issue for the people as a romantic involvement of a woman is. A man can follow his desires, even sexual, run away from his responsibility of upholding the sanctity of society and still live his life in peace. The private life of a man never comes in question when his professional competency is concerned unless it’s something as grave as committing a crime, which still form a crucial part for professional area, the background of an employee. A woman on the other hand, needs to maintain a “society-approved” speckless record of personal life to prove her professional competency.

All this gets far much worse if you are an unmarried single woman who’s pregnant or a divorcee. Male divorcees are still treated with more pity than a female divorcee. In the case of the play, how Miss Benare was treated for having a flirtatious nature and living a life full of fun and enthusiasm won’t come as big surprise for the readers. Also, how Prof. Damle was not at all held at contempt, neither was her maternal uncle, for getting involved with her. But Ms. Benare alone faced the blunt of it all, because she’s a woman who wanted nothing more than love from a man and was betrayed. In the game, skeletons tumbled out of the closet and her suicidal tendencies as well as seducing every male member in the troupe and proposal of marriage to everyone is revealed. The institution of a inquiry in her school for her moral conduct which will dismiss her from service (her sole means of sustenance) was also ordered. The hypocrite society calls motherhood divine, higher than heaven and infanticide a great sin will not take any kind of motherhood other than the what they suppose is correct, which is, a married woman. Other elements such as inter-caste marriage is not included in the play but that as well decides the level of divinity of one’s mother hood

She does not want to abandon his child as she has enjoyed some blissful moment. She talks about her genuine love for her maternal uncle and Prof. Damle and how she left her both the time. Even in the current time, a woman will be treated with quite a bit of harsh contempt for her romantic and , especially, sexual involvement with any person she is not married to. Whereas men and their love for only the flesh of a person, their lust, will always be justified or overlooked, or both. Society might have changed, women a more free than they ever were before, but shaking off of a long set stigma and the utter lack of respect for the personal life of a woman will take a long long time.

Government of India believes that the twin objectives of ‘accelerating industrial growth and creating additional productive employment potential in rural and backward areas’ can be fulfilled with the help of MSME and rural industrialisation. One of the best examples of the above strategy in action is the Great Leap Forward (GLP) campaign in China started in year 1958. It aimed at industrializing the country on a massive scale by encouraging people to set up industries in their backyards. In fact in rural areas, the Commune system was applied, covering almost all the farm population, and these units were divided into production brigade and production units.

Policies were made to facilitate with rural development and growth of MSME in rural areas. Spread in Rural Crediting and institutional structures such as NABARD, regional banks and micro-crediting by SHGs provides better lending options and fill the gap due to lack of the formal credit system. Few acts, policies and scheme to help MSMEs in rural area are:

• The Micro, Small and Meduim Enterprises Development Act, 2006 (MSMED, Act 2006)

It is single comprehensive act for development and regulation of small enterprises act and provide for facilitating the promotion and development and enhancing the competitiveness of micro, small and medium enterprises.

• The State Agricultural Credit Corporations Act, 1968

It is an Act to provide for the establishment in the States and Union territories of Agricultural Credit Corporation. Here, the meaning of agriculture activities means not only growing crops, but also animal husbandry, horticulture, pisciculture etc.. It aims at granting of loans and advances, repayable within a period, not exceeding five years, to agriculturists, agricultural marketing societies, agricultural processing societies, Central Co- operative Banks, co- operative farming societies or primary agricultural credit societies for agricultural operations or for such other operations connected therewith.

• Pradhan Mantri Credit Scheme

This scheme for Powerloom Weavers provides financial assistance (Margin Money Subsidy) and interest reimbursement to the decentralized powerloom units / weavers. Margin Money Subsidy as against the credit facilities (Term Loan) availed under Stand-up India Scheme by the SC, ST and Women Entrepreneur of the decentralized  powerloom units / weavers to meet their credit requirements such as for investment needs (Term Loan) and for working capital etc

• Rural India Skill

It is a scheme under the Skill India Campaign initiated in 2015 and is managed by the National Skills Development Corporation of India

• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (2016 – 2020)

It is a Skill Training Scheme of the Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE) which aims to train 10 million youths by 2020 pan India both in Rural and Urban areas.

• Start Up India

It is an initiative of the Government of India which was first announced by on 15 August 2015 and it focuses on three areas, i.e. Simplification and Handholding, Funding Support and Incentives, and Industry-Academia Partnership and Incubation.

To sum it up, we can see that MSME plays a very important role in the rural development. Government of India believes it to be a powerful instrument to facilitate rural development and employment. Small scale production units like Village Industries and Cottage industries can become the backbone of the process of financially and economically stabilizing rural areas.

Rural area of India accounts for almost 65.07 % in 2020, according to the World Bank. India’s economic development is dependent on economic and financial well-being of the Rural part of India which accounts for more than half of the total area of the country.

Rural parts of our country are largely involved in the agricultural activities. Even though 42.6 percent of total workforce is involved in agricultural sector (data from 2019), the agricultural activities only contributed 19.9 per cent of the total GDP (data of 2019-20). This is argued to be the result of inadequate infrastructure, lack of alternative employment opportunities, increasing casualisation of employment etc.. Even the Agarian reform that brought forth the Green Revolution in India was unevenly divided increasing the inter-state disparity and still leaving a large part of rural farmers, particularly small and marginal farmers with small plots of land, with an unfulfilled promise of surplus produce increasing the economic divide between the rich and poor farmers. Agricultural sector, which is the main source of livelihood in rural areas, contributes to disguised unemployment.

The major issues regarding and leading to lack of jobs, low earning opportunities and unemployment in rural areas can be solved by promoting the setting up and spread of Small Scale Industries (SSIs) and Micro, Small and Medium Industries (MSMEs).

As per the revised and updated definition by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises,

Micro Scale Enterprises has an investment not more than Rs.1 crore and Annual Turnover not more than Rs.5 crore.

Small Scale Enterprises has an investment not more than Rs.10 crore and Annual Turnover not more than Rs.50 crore.

Medium Scale Enterprises has an investment not more than Rs.50 crore and Annual Turnover not more than Rs.250 crore.

Small businesses play an important role in rural India as it provides multiple source of income, non-agricultural employment opportunities and supports people involved in traditional occupations, such as handicraft industry, and the weaker sections of society, such as widowed women. MSME also contributes to decreasing the rate of rural-urban migration, thereby avoiding overcrowding in urban areas. Vi

The merits of MSMEs are:

• Balanced regional development
• Labour-Intensive
• Use of Conventional and Simple equipments
• Locally available Resources
• Opportunity for generating employment and Entrepreneurship

Rashtriya Gram Swaraj AbhiyanRGSA( rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan) was launched in 2016-17 for strengthening the capacities of panchayati raj institutions for rural local governance to become more effective.this scheme focuses on sustainable development of rural areas with available resources and technologies as a way to find solution to local problems.Principles of SDGs sustainable development goals :-

1. Leaving no one behind

2.Reaching the farthest first and universal coverage

3.Gender equality in design of all capacity building interventionsObjectives :-

A.Promote social harmony

B.Spread awareness about pro poor initiatives of government

C. Reach out to poor households to enroll them as aslo to obtain their feedbacks on different welfare programmesAs a special endeavour during the Gram Swaraj Abhiyan, saturation of eligible households would be made under pro poor programmes. Schemes under Gram Swaraj Abhiyan are as follows :-

1. Pradhan mantri ujjwala yojna :-50 million lpg connections to women of below poverty line families

2. Saubhagya :-Provide energy access to all by last mile connectivity and electricity connections to all remaining un electrified households

3.Ujala scheme :-Also known as DELP (Domestic Efficient Lighting Programme)aims to promote efficient usage if electricity for all4.pradhan mantri jan dhan yojna :-

Financial inclusion program of the government of india open to Indian citizens,that aims to expand affordable access to financial services such as bank accounts,credit,remittances etc.

5.Pradhan mantri jeewan bima yojna :-Government backed life insurance scheme launched in india in the year of 2015

6.Mission indradhanush :-Health Scheme launched by india government which seeks 90 percent immunisation coverage of indiaAn important aspect of campaign would also be disclosure of funds provided to panchayat for each scheme and activities to be taken in gram panchayat area.

Human rights and covid pandemicThe world is now confronting one of its most severe health crises,corona virus.

This pandemic has already affected hundreds of millions of lives.During this pandemic many countries took strong measures in order to stop people from roaming around without care.many countries forced an exacting imprisonment to restrict spreading of infection.International law accomodates conditions in which basic freedoms might be limited.Governments can disparage certain common freedom during a public crisis which compromises existence of the country.

Human rights are not something many refer to as extravagance that should be shielded; they are the essential privileges of residents that are given to them. Maintaining these rights could guarantee requirements and executes better compared to some other conditions by abusing their common liberties. Besides, issues with respect to sexual orientation based aggressive behavior at home have additionally expanded. We need to handle the circumstance by deciding on a more improved sort of system.

According to WHO director general,this lockdown has caused a circumstance where the security of society is least particularly for evacuees and the impaired. The outlining of common freedoms went about as a solid column that could fortify the adequacy of worldwide endeavours to address the pandemic of COVID-19.

Conclusions and suggestions :-

The current COVID-19 flare-up has been depicted as a pandemic.The reactions from everywhere the globe have introduced that COVID-19 have arisen unmistakably.States recognize approaches to deal with and address COVID-19, including protecting common liberties and guaranteeing individuals into reactions as it is critical to address such issues during this pandemic all throughout the planet.The World Health Organization announced a novel Covid, Covid-19, a subject of Public Health Emergency of Worldwide Concern on 30th January, 2020. Together we are encountering the most genuine and wellbeing crisis in living memory. The COVID-19 pandemic is the test to all of us, of governments, of networks and people including to our social orders and system.

Some certain rights might be restricted or suspended, the law never is; and a few rights are secured totally.Emergency powers should be utilized for authentic general wellbeing objectives, not utilized as premises to suppress dispute or quiet crafted by common freedoms safeguards or columnists.

Rebirth of talibanTaliban , terrorist organisation which was supposed to be dead suddenly emerged and took over an entire country.

How did they do this.for years taliban did not take any action because of which everyone thought that taliban has been wiped out.but this was not true . they were preparing themselves for a sudden attack.

Resources of taliban :-Taliban’s sudden surge across much of Afghanistan,may have stunned the world but it has been driven in part by extensive fundraising that has given this group access to millions of dollars.Intelligence agencies say its impossible to gauge the exact money taliban has been able to raise, it’s estimated to be around 300 million to 1.5 billion dollars a year.Their major source of income are opium production,drug trafficking, extortion, kidnapping etc.According to UN many non governmental foundations also donates huge amount to taliban.

How did taliban conquered Afghanistan :-

As foreign troops began their final withdrawal from the country in may,washington and kabul thought that afghan millitary will put up a strong fightagainst the Taliban.

Afghan millitary having multi billion dollars of arsenal was undefeated on paper.In reality they were plagued by corruption,poor leadership,lack of proper training.According to reports from The Times of India US government inspectors had long warned that the force was unstable.Faced with smaller but more determined opposition many soldiers even units deserted or surrendered leaving the insurgents to capture city after city.The seeds of collapse were soen last year when washington signed a deal with insurgents to withdraw its troop completely.

For Taliban it was their victory after more than two decades of war,but for many afghans this was betrayal and abandonment.With afghan forces unable to hold off the taliban advances,many of Afghanistan’s famed and notorious leaders rallied their millitia and promised a black eye to Taliban if they attack the cities.Cities fell without a fight.political leaders left the country.some warlords were captured some ran away.From individual soldiers and low level ministers to officials the insurgent pressed for deals with the taliban.Final march to kabul was not bloodshed ,it was government officials and terrorist capturing the city sitting in a couch.Earlier few reports estimated that ut would take around 90 days to capture kabul but once they entered it took less than two weeks.And thus a country was captured by a supposedly dead organisation which resulted in nothing else but destruction of lives of citizen as around 3 lakh people left the country on the ither hand thousand were killed.

Many adults function best with around 8 hours of sleep and this varies depending on many variablessuch as your environment, health, age, etc., youth today may be averaging only 6–6.9 hours of sleep as a result of all-nighters, cramming, parties, TV, the internet, and a general overload of activity. In fact, 8 hours of sleep may seem unreasonable for many college students; residence hall life is remarkably noisy, distractions are plentiful, and you may have a job or have a family to care for in addition to school.



■Sleep Deprivation: Symptoms and Consequence



Sleep is an important process which  helps you remember what you learn and prepares you for your next challenge. If you are experiencing any of the following for a period of a few weeks, commonly known as insomnia, you may want to consider asking for help.



▪difficulty falling asleep

▪wake up frequently during the night

▪fall asleep at inappropriate times even after a night of adequate sleep

▪sleeping too much (more than 9 hours)have sudden attacks of uncontrollable sleep or muscle weakness

▪have nightmares or night terrors (the experience of awakening in a terrified state without recollection of a dream) that interrupt your sleep

▪sleep-walking



■Sleep Loss and depression



 Depression is already two times more common in the general population, affecting the youth very badly and it is believed that lack of sleep contributes to this high rate. What people often fail to realize is that sleep problems that persist for more than two weeks can actually be a risk factor for developing depression. Moreover people who suffer from depression also have difficulty sleeping, and if sleep problems persist after depression has subsided, the risk of relapse increases.



■How to Improve Your Sleep?
While 8 hours of sleep may seem unreasonable, you should not underestimate the power of good quality sleep. If you are having trouble sleeping, here are some suggestions to help:



▪Develop sleep rituals or sleep-promoting bedtime routines. Do the same things in the same order before going to bed to cue your body to slow down and relax. Stop studying and don’t get into any stimulating discussions or activities a half hour or hour before bed. Just before going to bed, do something to relax yourself: read a book for leisure (not a text book or a journal article for class), play your guitar, listen to quiet music, write in a journal.

▪Exercise and/or keep physically active during the day. Strenuous exercise (brisk walking, swimming, jogging, squash, etc.) in late afternoon can promote more restful sleep. This is especially important the day after a bad night’s sleep. While regular physical activity is good, exercising just before bedtime may actually make it harder to go to sleep.

▪Create a “to do” list throughout the day and keep a pad and pencil near your bed. If your thoughts are racing as you are trying to sleep and if you think of something you want or need to remember, jot it down. Then let the thought(s) go. There will be no need to lie awake worrying about remembering it.

▪Cut down on alcohol. Alcohol might help you fall asleep, but it often results in shallow and disturbed sleep, abnormal dream periods, and frequent early morning awakening.

▪Avoid large meals three hours before bed. Limit yourself to light snacks when studying late at night.Avoid routine use of sleeping pills or other sleep aids, which reduce sleep quality.

▪Take a short nap (30 minutes or less), as early in the day as possible, if you are tired. While short daytime naps can be refreshing, longer naps can upset your internal clock.

▪Reduce your intake of caffeine and nicotine 4–6 hours before going to sleep. If coffee shops are a common late night study place, try decaffeinated coffee or tea if you crave something warm. Drink decaffeinated pop instead of regular pop. Stimulants interfere with your ability to fall asleep and progress into deep sleep.



 



■When to Seek Help?
If restless or sleepless nights continue for a period of several weeks, think about discussing with a therapist or  with your medical doctor. Sometimes you may have conflicts that you are unaware of which may be preventing you from sleeping peacefully. Treating insomnia often entails treating the condition causing the insomnia (e.g., stress, depression) and relearning healthy sleep habits, and Take a short nap (30 minutes or less), as early in the day as possible, if you are tired. While short daytime naps can be refreshing, longer naps can upset your internal clock. Reduce your intake of caffeine and nicotine 4–6 hours before going to sleep. If coffee shops are a common late night study place, try decaffeinated coffee or tea if you crave something warm. Drink decaffeinated pop instead of regular pop. Stimulants interfere with your ability to fall asleep and progress into deep sleep.



 



When to Seek Help?



If restless or sleepless nights continue for a period of several weeks, think about talking with a therapist or talking with your medical doctor. Sometimes you may have conflicts that you are unaware of which may be preventing you from sleeping peacefully. Treating insomnia often entails treating the condition causing the insomnia (e.g., stress, depression or anxiety) and relearning healthy sleep habits, and a therapist can help you with this. Sleeplessness may also be a result of a more severe medical problem (or may lead to increased health problems) and you may need to see a physician.

The word unemployment itself describes that the problem of giving job to those who are willing to work. It is mainly an economic problem. A problem that has been in tradition without a particular solution. The major rise in unemployment is because of the population crisis. This year we can say that the pandemic also played an important role and increased this problem at the highest level. The people who were employed and were at professional posts lost their jobs because of the pandemic situation for which they weren’t prepared.

Now coming to the second part that is the population crisis. We need proper family planning schemes so that the jobs could be created. Because it’s impossible to create the employment opportunities for all if we will not plan accordingly and prepare a structure for this problem. The trouble is not only this. In every field we have multiple candidates with qualified degrees for the same single post. People are going to the same sector as their parents had gone into that and think that they will get the better chance.

Mental makeup is also necessary for both boys and girls. We ate service minded since our childhood’s so that we are afraid of taking risk but it is not a good option to completely being dependent on the government for creating job opportunities. It’s the problem of both educated and uneducated people and we can find a solution together only. Even agriculture sector suffers disguised unemployment which can be job oriented if we think and focus on it.

When the person is unemployed it may be lead to many undesired results that may be competition, frustation, depression, drug addiction, and even suicides. Running a race without a goal is worthless. One must think twice before taking his steps about his studies and career. Every individual is not the same and has different way of thoughts and capabilities. We need to get to know about them so that we could be confident in our field and make necessary decisions.

At last I could conclude my article on a positive note that the one step should be taken by government and one step by ourselves because it’s our choice, our future and our life. Expectations are a part of life but don’t try to make it a habit. If the steps are taken from both the side then only the solution can be derived not only for ourselves but for our future generations too.

Keep reading, keep knowing…… Thank you!!

Trophy hunting is hunting of wild game that is characterized by the selective harvest of mature male animals. Sad to say that this ancient practice is still being carried out in the name of ‘providing incentive’ and ‘developing economies’.

Animal rights have been openly violated by some nations by allowing trophy hunting and are in great danger in countries considering to resort to such barbaric means to earn money.

Animal rights are not legal rights but moral rights which are often ignored in the name of utilitarianism. Animals are treated as property and, thus, enjoy little to know legal rights. As the saying goes, “Until the lion learns how to write every story will glorify the hunter”. Well, the hunters indeed are trying to glorify their scheme of easy money earned through their immoral and savage actions against innocent lives.As the government of countries allowing trophy hunting, such as Africa, US and some countries in North America, reasons that trophy hunting raise funds for the conservation of wildlife, when there is “no incentive” for conservation, might I say that this can be considered an irony, a hilarious one too.

The truth is that these governments think that investing a portion of their GDP on conservation of environment, moreover on conservation of wildlife, is nothing more than waste of money. Those arguing that this practice also serve as population control of the wild animals, which would otherwise exceed the carrying capacity of an area, must I remind them that it was our fault, fault of the human race, behind significant decrease in forest areas and green cover and now to cover up our mess we are going on mass killing of innocent animals.

It might sound extreme but, Sire, this would be called murder with corporate motives had the entity been human. The claims stating, directly or indirectly, that trophy hunting is the best method to make money out of wildlife and the local community benefits from this income have been false. Reports suggest that around 3% After revenue collected from trophy hunting reaches the communities that are affected by it.

As for money through wildlife conservation, wildlife tours and safaris and increasing fascination for trips to reconnect with nature can fairly boost economy. Not only it gives incentive to save wildlife but also a chance for connected sectors, such as tours and travels, aviation, hospitality, local handicraft etc., to grow and prosper.Considering ourselves to be the superior species though, why must we ponder upon the wellbeing of wildlife and concern ourselves with moral issue of innocent animals being killed in the name of big game, isn’t it?

Animals like lions, tigers, wild boar and others are the ones on the kill list of rich people in the name of ‘social service by killing dangerous animals’. Basically the idea is ‘killing the ones on the top of the food chain’. It’s unfortunate that human race never learns from its past mistake. I would like to tell the story of Sahara desert which apparently wasn’t a desert but a King, in his own noble perspective, killed all carnivores in order to protect the herbivores from ‘savage beings’. With no one to check the plant-eaters, they grazed the whole forest down to a desert. There is a reason nature came up with the food chain and the so-called ‘savage beasts’. Need of the time is sustainable development and protection of environment, not what is being done in the name of economy and GDPs, so that there remains an economy to be taken care of not just.If it’s really about utilitarian view then we should start killing all the people above the age of 65 or 70 who are dependent. It will give far more greater benefits than loses.

We can achieve control on population, decrease in number of dependent population, more disposable income more resources and increase in unit area per person, not to forget increase in availability hospital beds, decrease in waste generation and better waste management and economic development in sector dealing with cremations, funeral services etc. And at what cost?

Only the emotional unrest which will eventually fade with the realisation of the inevitable ad the burden of caring the economy. Sound barbaric, extreme, baseless. What about the greater good now?

Just because human beings, in their own false sense of superiority, fail to remember doesn’t mean that animals are not an entity and do not deserve right to live.To conclude, I would say animal rights are in dire need to be upheld legally and should be ore widespread otherwise the money-minded, greedy beings would wipe out the wildlife. It is not just important but necessary to ban trophy hunting not only to save wildlife and nature but to save our environment, our ecosystem within which the ‘economies’ exist. To assume environment to be unrelated to the issues of economy and politics and proceeding ahead like that is like breaking the roof of one’s own house to build oneself a fire. Not only is it illogical but also will not sustain economies in the long run. Also, I would like to add that giraffes don’t hurt people, they are plant eating and peaceful animals. So, Ms Sabrina Corgatelli should be ashamed of killing innocent, harmless animals and should have her facts straight next time or come up with better excuses.

Epicurean paradox, also known as Riddle of Epicurious or Epicurious trilemma, is a version of problem of evil, i.e. the problem of existence of evil with the existence of an all-knowing, all-loving, all-powerful God. In this paradox, questions that does God knows about all evil or not, can prevent evil or not and whether he is willing to prevent evil or not is contemplated upon on for two possible outcomes, yes or no, and each time the reasoning circles back to God not being all-knowing, all-loving and all-powerful. This paradox, however, doesn’t argues against existence of God’s but rather against the divine-providences. Epicurus believed in the existence of deities, like everyone during the early Hellenistic period in Greece.

Epicurus was born in 341 BC and was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the school philosophy, Epicureanism. He was an empiricist and was against Platonism of his days. He was inspired by Cynics and led a simple like and discussed a wide range of philosophical subjects with his followers. He believed that both body and soul died at death and hence death must not be feared.

The epicurean paradox follows a series of hypothesis and antithesis to arrive to the paradoxical conclusion. As per my understanding of Socrates, he might agree with the process of acquiring knowledge through series of question. But, Socrates believed that God is perfect and immortal and tries to make the soul as perfect as Him. But this trilemma breaks the proposition of God being perfect. Though it does not deny existence of God, it does makes out that God does not interfere with the working of human world. Epicurus did not even believed in realms and believed in only what senses can perceive. Socrates indirectly states that God does affect human realm and that there is more to world and oneself than what senses can perceive. Also, the existence of this paradox is an irony to the existence of one absolute knowledge that Socrates claimed.

As for Plato, Epicureanism was against Platonism and their thoughts differ a great degree. Plato also believed God to be real and all-powerful, all-loving ad all-knowing. He believed that ideal is real and beyond visible. His theories are also challenged through the paradox. Epicurus believed only what the senses can administer. He believed in the existence of God as He was the reason behind the infinite universe and nature but not in the way Plato did.

Aristotle and Epicurus were similar in a lot of ways. Both were empiricist and involved themselves with politics. But where Aristotle, too, believed Epicurus believed that the concept of God is different than what Aristotle believed, that God’s exist unaware of us and does not try to administer the world.

To conclude, I would like to say that Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, all three of them talked a lot about and believed in existence of absolute knowledge and Good, which is often considered synonymous to God, and importance of following virtue and doing Good. They believed in existence of all-knowing, all-loving and all-powerful Gods who is concerned with the working and miseries of the world, that God is perfect. Though Epicurus believed God to be ethical ideals he did away with the concept of God involving themselves with humanity and through his Problem of Evil wants to prove that only. Also, Epicurus was somewhat influenced by ideas of Socrates because of he was influenced by Cynics and Aristippus, both of which were born out of Socrates teachings. We can see how the branches of the same tree goes in different directions because of different perspective of seeing the same concept, even with reason and logic supporting them.

Roads : lifeline of rural developmentRoadways are not only a key for rural development,but play a major role in poverty reduction by generating increased agricultural income and productive employment.

When globalisation was changing the world it could not reach many places as they were inaccessible due to lack of proper road connectivity hence many village did not develop.

To solve this issue government launched pradhan mantri gram sadak yojna also known as PMGSY in the year 2000 to connect rural areas with urban by network of all weather roadways.Objectives of construction of roads :-

1.To connect unconnected habitations in rural areas with major urban areas and markets for better buisness and employment

2. To make places having resources accessible so that suitable industries could set up in order to develop the area.

3.to establish a core network that is essential to provide basic access to essential social and economic services to all eligible unconnected habitations.Steps taken by government :-

1. Government has launched PMGSY whose primary focus is to connect remote areas with urban areas.

2. Government creates a core network of roads from each place so that basic needs like school,hospital, market are accessible

3. Government launches tender after suitable time for maintenance of roads.

4. Government ensures quality of roads is high otherwise necessary actions are taken again the contractor.

5. Government prioritizes different places where roads should be constructed with their needs

6. Border areas are also connnected with mainstreams by roads especially constructed for them.Importance of roads :-

1. Roadways helps in the growth of market hence helps in rural development.

2. They connect places with schools so that children can be educated .

3. Areas with proper roads attracts different industrialists which help in development of area.

4. Roads help in attracting tourist which helps the locality by generating ample opportunities.Rural connectivity is not an end in itself it is a means. The connectivity will improve education,health,rural incomes.roadways connects rural areas to major political hubs which helps local government to ensure development in their locality

Poverty as an issue:

One of the biggest challenges faced by rural India is Poverty.We are not talking about the places like Punjab where the agriculture and people live with colours.

The issue is about the backward places and actual rural places in India. Even states like Odisha  and Jharkhand who are very rich in resources are considered the poorest states in India. Poverty is an interdependent aspect of the society. The most it is dependant on is the literacy rate. Other backward areas , Naxalite areas are still very far away from attaining the correct information and education. These people are not even aware of the relaxations and schemes of the government for their welfare. The most that is holding back people in these rural areas is adaptation.

They are nit very familiar with the concept of change with time. They bind themselves inside their old practices when there is much more to learn and excel in. The stereotypes and old practices cause them to loose assets for them.For example the girls are not educated and are not used as assets who can earn in future. They are considered as a burden and hence are thought only for the marriage purposes.The main reason for poverty in the rural society is because rural people do have the resources but they are bot aware as of how to use their resources.

Some provisions given by the government for poverty alleviation are:

Wages programmes like: 

  Jawahar Rozgar Yojhna/ Gram Samridhi YojhnaThe NREP and RLEGP were merged in April 1989 under the Jawahar Rozgar Yojhna. The JRY was meant to generate meaningful employment opportunity for the unemployed and underemployed in rural areas through the creation of economic infrastructure. A major proportion of JRY funds was spent on roads and buildings. Over 47 per cent of the employment generated benefited SC/STs. The share of landless labourers among the beneficiaries was 36 per cent. The village community found the assets created under the programme useful:  

   Employment Assurance Scheme:

The Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was launched on 2 October 1993 covering 1,778 drought-prone, desert, tribal and hill area blocks. It was later extended to all the blocks in 1997-98. The EAS was designed to provide employment in the form of manual work in the lean agricultural season. The works taken up under the lean agricultural season. 

Self Employment programmes like:·     

The coverage of beneficiaries in the Ninth plan was considerably lower than the coverage under SGSY. The formation of self-help groups by itself contributes to the empowerment and economic well-being of the poor by improving their collective bargaining position. The group formation also emphasises social capital and enables the poor to Interact with other social groups from a position of strength. Group formation would continue to be the Focus under the SGSY. 

NGOs have an inherent advantage in·        ·       Reaching the poor due to their proximity, the trust. They generate by working in the area, their. Commitment, flexibility in approach, responsiveness.And cost effectiveness. They have played a dynamic role as social animators and organisers in rural areas. Many NGOs have not only been instrumental in the formation of self-help groups but· Have also nurtured them over the years. Such NGOs have a strong presence in many states. However, voluntary and non-governmental action is weak in some of the poorer states. These are also the states where the spirit of cooperation and collaboration may be lacking because of poverty Itself.

Training of social animators would have to be promoted in such states. Departments of social sciences, social work, agriculture and rural development in universities and colleges could be engaged as facilitators in the process of group formation so that every rural habitation has at least one self-help group by the end of 2004.Many more reforms are suggested by the government for different aspects which affect the lifestyle and habitat of the people.           

The counting of blood cells after proper dilution is known as haemocytometer. Using haemocytometer method,red cells, platelets and eosinophils are often counted. Now-a-days it is also used for counting cells of bacteria, yeast, or algae.

Haemocytometer – instrument’s description

A haemocytometer consists of a counting chamber, a coverglass for the counting chamber and diluting pipettes. Many types of counting chambers are available. Improved Neubauer and Fauchs Rosenthal are the two most commonly used counting chambers in laboratories.

RBCs and WBCs in blood cannot be counted as such. The blood has to be dilute in specific isotonic solutions. RBC, diluting fluid is called Hayem’s solution. For WBC counting Turk’s solution or Toisson solution can be used.

The total number of cells is expressed per mm^3 . The isotonic diluting fluid keeps up the cells intact. In WBC counting, the solution will lyse the red blood cells and the remaining nucleated WBCs are counted. Venous blood is used in blood cells counting.

Normal Range of RBCs in human

Men : 4.5-5.9 million/mm^3

Women: 4.1-5.1 million/mm^3

At birth: 4.0-5.6 million/mm^3

Normal Range of WBCs in human

Adults: 4,500-11,000/mm^3

Neonates: 10,000-25,000/mm^3

Clinical significance

☆ Decrease in the number of circulating erythrocytes indicates anaemia.

☆ An increased number of erythrocytes indicates the possibility of polycythemia.

☆ An increase in WBC count for a transient period indicates bacterial infection.

☆ Progressive increase in abnormal WBC count indicates the possibility of leukemia.

Dr. Stephen Jay Gould, a Professor of Geology at Harvard University, a Curator of invertebrate paleontology in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, a public figure and spokesperson, and an author of many popular science books, has in a Wonderful Life created a window through which the reader views one of the most important events in natural history: the explosion in the variety of marine animals that took place during the Cambrian Period more than half-a-billion years ago. What could be more thrilling than to witness one of the great steps in the long history story of life that has begun with a microbe and ended with the Homo sapiens?

A favorite theme of Dr. Gould is to overturn commonly accepted notions that have arisen through human prejudices often due to self-centered preconceptions. It is almost as though Gould regards humans as apes with merely enlarged brains and big egos¹ who would still believe to this very day that the Earth was the center of the universe had not humanity been enlightened by Galileo, Newton and Copernicus. This is one reason why Gould selected as a subject of a book the Burgess Shale of eastern British Columbia in Canada. Charles Doolittle Walcott, who discovered the remains of tens of thousands of mostly soft-bodied invertebrates in the Burgess Shale in 1909, managed to misinterpret what one day would become one of the greatest discoveries in paleontology. Walcott incorrectly classified these marine animals as ancient versions of modern fauna despite the extraordinary character of some of them such as Opabinia, which had five eyes, and Hallucigenia, whose name describes its bizarre and dream-like appearance (it had seven pairs of toothpick-like spines, a tubular tail, a bulb-like head, seven tentacles along its back and six pods at the base of its tail!). Walcott considered this creature to be a worm. How could the director of the Smithsonian Institution make such an incredible mistake? According to Gould, Walcott was trying to force the Burgess Shale fauna into the classification scheme prevailing at the time. Here was one of the great field paleontologists trying, like an infant child, to squeeze round pegs into square holes.

For more than 60 years, scientists would believe Walcott’s interpretation of the Burgess Shale fauna. However, in 1971, Harry Whittington published a monograph on Marrella in which he expressed doubts that Marrella was a trilobite² as previously thought. Marrella looked roughly like a fly with wings replaced by a shield consisting of four, pointed prongs sweeping over its back. Eventually, Marrella would be classified as an arthropod unique to the Cambrian Period. Simon Conway Morris and Derek Briggs, who began as graduate students of Whittington, would join him to form a trio of researchers who would radically change Walcott’s view of the Burgess Shale fauna. Through thorough examination of the specimens, the three would in due time arrive at the conclusion that many Burgess Shale specimens were unique arthropods or belonged to new phyla, implying that the Cambrian Period was one of the richest for animal diversity. Thus, this period in geological history marked the appearance of new “wonderful life.” Other paleontologists eventually joined the quest to understand Cambrian marine creatures in what would become a revolution in evolutionary thought — a saga of scientists struggling to discover the truth.³

It is perhaps ironic that Gould, who points out the pitfalls that personal prejudice and ego can play in drawing false conclusions in science, should employ a rather pompous writing style where, in places, his arrogance pervades every other paragraph and where in the Preface of the book he refers to himself as “yours truly.” Nevertheless, Gould is one of the few research scientists who has achieved a heightened mastery of the English sentence and a vocabulary rich enough to make even the most sophisticated writers envious.

The Cambrian Period began 570 million years ago. It marked the beginning of the Paleozoic Era (from which henceforth hardened body parts such as exoskeletons, shells and bones would leave a trail of fossil evidence that paleontologists would ponder over to construct the “tree of life”), and it marked the advent of virtually all the major groups of modern animals. Not only were all the basic extant anatomical designs introduced at this great moment in life’s history but also some designs appeared that would be unmatched in modern fauna. The Cambrian was a period during which Nature seemed to be experimenting in an enormous variety of body structures. Many of these “experiments” failed in the sense that they did not survive, but interestingly Gould suggests that somewhat random factors rather than survival-of-the-fittest properties were the reason for the subsequent decimation.

This coincides with a new viewpoint of evolution that Stephen Gould and Niles Eldredge have advocated in which contingency plays a significant role. This is the so-called punctuated equilibrium. During most periods, the environment at most slowly changes and Darwin’s survival-of-the-fittest principle prevails. But there are other times in geologic history when rapidly varying conditions or catastrophes randomly decimate Earth’s creatures. The extinction of the dinosaurs is a good example (See Chapter XVI :Nature’s Holocaust of the Book of the Cretaceous of The Bible According to Einstein). For more than 100 million years, the dinosaurs were the most “successful” land animal, but, when an asteroid struck the Yucatán Peninsula 65 million years ago, large size was a great disadvantage. Only the smallest creatures survived. When 90% of species disappear during an extinction event, it is often random factors that decide which life forms survive. Another example of contingency, Gould argues, is the Cambrian fauna. It is impossible for scientists in examining the remarkable Burgess Shale fauna to predict which ones would survive and be “successful.” Would not Opabinia, for example, with its five eyes have an evolutionary advantage over fauna with two eyes?

These ideas have led to a new view of the tree of life with a richer branching structure. Compared to the old tree, the new tree during brief periods (such as at the beginning of the Cambrian) suddenly broadens in diversification only to suffer a decimation at a later time with many “leaves” terminating in evolutionary dead ends. Only a few lineages survive. Not all scientists believe in the theory of punctuated equilibrium of Gould and Eldredge, but most give the two credit for pointing out that species quite often appear and disappear on what seems to be short geologic time scales. Although this might be an artifact due to the scanty fossil record, it is more likely that evolutionary processes occur much faster than have previously been assumed.

Gould, by his own admission, is unable to provide a convincing explanation of why the explosion in animal diversity occurred during the Cambrian Period. This is often regarded as an unsolved problem in natural history. According to Gould, several evolutionary forces could have contributed. One argument is that life was filling a new, previously uninhabited, ecological niche, thereby providing an “open field of unparalleled opportunity” into which organisms expanded at rapid rates. A second, rather weak, idea argues that genetic systems age and just happened to “mature” at around the time of the Cambrian Period. Some religiously inclined individuals claim that the lack of a good explanation for the Cambrian biological explosion implies divine intervention. This is a Creationist’s point of view applied not at the initial moment of the birth of life but to the middle of its more-than-three-billion-year long development.

The Cambrian explosion can be “explained” by several important developments in evolution that had occurred in the Precambrian. Earth’s very early atmosphere essentially contained no oxygen gas. Indeed, this was “fortunate” for O₂ was poisonous for early life. The oxygen in the atmosphere has been largely biologically generated as a waste product of photosynthetic life, and, as a result, oxygen in air has been increasing during the last 3 billion years. Approximately 2 billion years ago, certain organisms uncovered how to use O₂ as a more efficient means to generate energy in metabolic processes. This allowed life forms to increase in size. Eukaryotes, which are organisms with cells containing organelles specializing in various biological processes and containing, in particular, a nucleus housing genetic codes, first appeared around 1.4 billion years ago. About a billion years ago, sexual reproduction arose as a more efficient means of biological replication. The potentially rapid increase in evolutionary progress expected from sexual reproduction, however, was retarded by the longest ice age in geologic history. Had Earth been warmer, the Cambrian explosion might have happened several hundred million years earlier. With the eukaryotic cell, respiratory metabolism and sexual reproduction, life forms were able to increase their size: The first multicellular organisms — microscopic metazoa — emerged about 800 million years ago. Then, 200 million years later, the two supercontinents of Earth broke up providing more shallow water habitats for life, and, at around the same time, one of the coldest ice ages, the Varanger, ended. The confluence of all these developments and events provided the “fuel” for the Cambrian explosion. The second chapter of the book of The Cambrian of The Bible According to Einstein summarizes the situation:

Now evolution was proceeding at a rapid pace. The fire on the fuse was burning. The fuse itself was almost gone. And everything was perfect for a biological explosion, an evolutionary radiation.  The geology was right; the chemistry was right; the climate was right; the atmosphere was right; the biology was right; and the recent evolutionary past was right, for sea level had risen and the continents had separated, providing new shallow-water habitats; for circulating ocean currents were full of nutrients; for the seas and air had warmed; for the atmosphere had oxygen; for eukaryotic cells had previously appeared and the sexual revolution in evolution had occurred.

Gould is a firm believer that Homo sapiens hold no special status in the scheme of things. It is true — here on Earth, we are the “smartest” creatures. But whether we are superior is a totally different issue. Bacteria outnumber us multiplicatively by the billions. As species, archaea have outlived us by a factor of more than 10,000. Elephants are still bigger, cockroaches more cunning, lions still stronger, rats more numerous and so on. Not only have the seventeenth century astronomers relegated us to an inconspicuous corner of the universe, but modern paleontologists such as Gould have also placed us on a tiny, barely noticeable twig of the tree of life.

In fact, we are very “lucky” (in both senses of the word: “fortunate” and “probabilistically unlikely”) to be here on Earth. We often think of Darwinian evolution as a smooth, almost predicable, process in which the poorly adapted species die out and the “superior” species survive. Such a viewpoint is not valid and neglects some of the truly random events that have shaped the history of life. The asteroid-induced extinction mentioned above is a good example. Had it not struck Earth 65 million years ago, reptiles would probably still be ruling the Earth and the small mammals that survived would not have had the opportunity to radiate. The result would have been no monkeys, no apes and no humans. There are dozens of examples for which a slight change in the history of the Earth would have eliminated one of the essential steps in the long chain that gave rise to Homo sapiens.

Gould, while taking great pleasure in overthrowing false dogma, is probably himself guilty of exaggeration, an effect possibly due to his enthusiasm for his field of research. Has he overemphasized the role of punctuated equilibrium and contingency in the evolution of life? Could the Cambrian explosion be less dramatic, a consequence of a great find of 50,000 soft-bodied specimens in a single location during a particular point in time? Could the introduction for the first time of hard-body parts led to significantly more fossils thereby creating the illusion of a great radiation of species? It is possible that, one day, we shall have more information and a clearer picture as to how the Cambrian fauna fit into the great scheme of things. Perhaps the Cambrian diversity is somewhat exaggerated and future links will be established between divergent phyla. Perhaps some “consolidation of the data” will take place. Indeed, it is now suspected that Hallucigenia is related to the modern velvet worm rather than a new phylum as Conway Morris had proposed. But even if a revision does occur, the Cambrian will remain one of the great periods of experimentation in animal design.

Wonderful Life is detailed, well written, entertaining and informative. It is fun to follow the history of the Burgess Shale story. In the book are some great descriptions and sketches of the main characters of the drama, those diminutive Cambrian marine metazoa of extraordinary design and sophistication. In a Wonderful Life, the reader learns about the thrills and pitfalls of a historically based science such as paleontology. The writing is often intricate, sometimes technical and not always so accessible to the unskilled reader. But enthusiasts of science with an interest in evolution should greatly enjoy reading this classic, best-selling book.

What is Child marriage?

A child marriage is a term which is generally used when and underage boy or a girl or both of them enter into the commitment of marriage.

How it affects the rural India and development?

This is a very common happening in the stereotypical societies of rural India. There have been cases when even babies or sometimes an unborn child is promised and married.

One of the most probable reasons for it is the stereotype in the rural society and the image of woman being born as a burden. They want to marry her off soon so that they don’t have to worry about dowry and bringing her up.

This also results in less Literacy rate of women and hence less resources. Women are taught to not ho outside and this is the bitter reality of the rural regions. Although this practice still happens in urban areas too but this article mainly focuses on how the development of rural society gets affected.

The Child Marriage Act:

 The act may also be called the prohibition of Child marriage Act,2006 and it came into force on 1 November 2007 in India. The contents of the act includes 21 sections and it extends all over India and the Union territories.

The main objective of the act was to save innocent children from getting into a big commitment like marriage and to save their childhood innocence and to make a difference.

Punishments under the Act are:

If an adult man who is above the age of 18 years does child marriage, then he will be punishable with a maximum extended fine of one lakh rupees or a 2-year imprisonment or maybe both.

The act of conducting or performing a child marriage is punishable with 2-year imprisonment or a fine which may extend to 1 lakh rupees or both.

Promoting and permitting of Child marriage and even attending one is punishable with 2 years imprisonment or a fine which may extend to 1 lakh rupees or both.

One of the very important statement of this act is :

The legal age for marriage among female should be 18 and the same among males should be 21 years of age and the act of marrying below this age will make the marriage voidable.

One of the very important cases of this Act is Independent Thought Vs UOI which brought a very big change as The Supreme Court increased the age of consent for sexual intercourse within marriages to 18. Before the ruling sexual conducts of a husband on his wife , where the wife  was above 15 years of age  did not constitute rape for the purpose of criminal law. The case law instigated the issue that almost all the statues in India suggest that a girl below the age of 18 is a child.

Some of the issues which the case law instigated and were solved later are:

• Whether intercourse with a 15 to 18 year girl would amount to rape or not?
• Whether the section 375 of IPC is discriminatory.
• And just because the girl between the age of 15 to 18 is married does not mean that she can conceive a baby or is mantally and physically capable of having sex.

In the case law it was said that Independent Thought and Child Rights trust argued that the classification between married and unmarried minor girls in punishing sexual violence had no rational nexus to the objectives of the section. It is also contrary to the obligations of the State to protect the right of the child under Article 21 as well as under International Conventions (Supreme Court observers. LINK:https://www.scobserver.in/)

Local government as a tool for rural development constitutionally , local government is the third tier of indian goverment commonly known as ‘”grassroot government'”.

A proper combination of local efforts with the government in order to develop socio-economic conditions of the people is a key factor for rural development.Local government as a tool :-The major factor in rural development is self help.the local government being nearest to the population is one of the best institutions or tool for generations motivation and encouraging mobilization for self help.

Thay can also induce wider participation of local people in decision making.To guarantee the basic social needs local people must participate not only in political affairs but also commonly affairs hence local government serves as the proper tool .

Integrated rural development :-

Proper synchronisation between the people and the government is inevitable for rural development.Without IRD rural development is not possible as each place has different basic needs,requires different kind of approach. Only local government ensures that government works in proper synchronisation with locals to provide basic needs ,to solve local issues.IRD focuses only on the growth of the local area with the help of local resources and support of local people hence,it serves as the most effective tool for rural development.

The panchayat or the Panchs hold so much power to themselves that they even take decisions of life and death in the area.

India is a vast country to be administered to the depest levels. Rural areas and their traditions can only be controlled and understood by a local government.

Conclusion :-Thus we conclude that local government acts as the closest government to the people.Local government is the focus of central government to develop social as well as economic conditions of the are which leads to the rural development.Local government also succeeds in understanding the people better and hence motivating them to become self sustainable ,encourage them to take part in decision making and work together with the government for proper development. Local governments work effectively as a communication between the local people and central government. They also observe needs of the locality and with the help of revenues from the government local bodies fulfill the needs.hence,local government acts as the most powerful tool in rural development.

Impact of globalisation on rural developmentThe uninterrupted flow of trade,capital ans technology across the world is commonly known as globalisation.In globalisation the world is considered as a whole big market.In 1991 when new industrial policy came into force globalisation started taking pace.

Just like a coin globalisation had two faces one good and one bad. This means that it had good impact as well as bad impact on the people of rural places.If we try to observe in a larger view globalisation was good as it had many good impacts like the world transformed into a single society but it also widened the gap between the rich and poor.Positive impacts of globalisation on rural area :-

1. Liberalisation of international trade and marketing of food and agricultural products.

2. standards of living increased in rich and poor families of urban as well as rural places

3. Increasing privatization like privatization of coal mines increased employment opportunities

4. Intensification of people as well as internal migration

5. Education quality developed and people from rural places started learning new skills

6. Many villages advanced and now they have advanced automated or semi automatic technologies, fertilizers etc.

7. globalisation provided better exposure to market goods hence quality of goods increased as well as proper price was providedWe can observe that globalisation developed our society ,our nation but in many ways it also ruined it.Negative impacts of globalisation on rural development :-

1. With globalisation many advanced technologies came into this nation which reduced manpower hence unemployment increased especially among unskilled labourers of the rural areas.

2. As many villages did not have proper transportation facilities, communication facilities many hinterlands never got chance to develop

3. With globalisation competition increased and local farmers could not compete with international quality and price hence their condition got worse.

4. not only farmers conditions of artisans also got worse as they could not compete

5.Many small industries of rural areas were shut down because of high level of competition and economical lossWe can still take steps to neutralize the negative impacts of globalisation om the rural area of this country which is predominantly rural and has major part of its income from these areas only.Steps that can be taken for neutralization are :-

1.steps luke ‘bharatnet’ should be taken in order to provide advanced information and technology to people living in rural areas.

2. Government,NGOs as well as private sector should join their hands to provide assets to rural areas and encourage entrepreneurship.

3. Government should impose some restrictions in MNCs before coming to indian market so that they dont affect small businesses

4. Low cost loans should be provided to small industries so that they get time to re-establish themselves and earn profit.

5. Proper rural urban transportation and communication facilities should be developed even in inaccessible areas so that they can also enter the market .

Types of Negotiable Instruments

The types of negotiable expand a lot. some of the very common ones are promissory notes, certificate of deposit , money orders etc.

Personal Checks:         

These checks can only be authorized by a person if they deposit money in the bank and clearly justify the sum of money and the name of the person to whom the cheque is addressed to with the name of the bearer of the check.

Advantages of Checks:

No cash is required and big amounts can be transferred hassle free.

If money gets lost it can’t be recovered but check transactions can be stopped from depositing, if lost.

Disadvantages of Personal Checks:

• Personal checks are not always taken easily everywhere.

In the fast pace world of technology checks are relatively sluggish and their processing takes time.

2. Travellers Check:             

Travellers checks are convenient for people who are in foreign countries for any of the following temporary situations such as vacations, work visits, trading etc. these checks can be used as an alternative for the respective foreign currency which makes the travel hassle free and reduces currency exchange which results in more following of the social distancing protocol.

“These checks are generally issues by financial institutions with serial no. and in prepaid fixed amounts”. A dual signature system is generally followed in which the signature of the buyer of the check has to sign at the time of issuing of the check and later another signature is required while using the check. The two signature are mandatory to match for the financial institutions to issue the check and guarantee the payment.

Advantages of Travellers:

• Hassle free and safe travel is enabled because no big amounts of money are carried around.
• The banks back up for most of the stolen or lost checks and even sometimes provide security money for the same.

Disadvantages of Travellers check:

• This whole system depends on the double signature system too much and as we understand that signatures can be easily forged it is not the most secure method to carry and transfer money.
• Debit and credit cards are a more convenient way nowadays compared to travellers checks.

3.Promissory Notes:

Promissory notes are handwritten promises between 2 parties. One party is the one liable to pay that is; payor and the other one is the receiver that is payee. These handwritten documents hold promises of the payor   to pay the payee a certain sum of the money in future. These notes also contain all the important aspects for a promise to be relevant. These information includes specified principle amount, interest rate, term length ,date of insurance and signature of the payor.

“These at first enables a person, people or a co operation to obtain financing from a source other than a bank or financial institution. Those who issue a promissory note become lenders.”

4. Money Order:

The holder of money orders are paid a promised amount as mentioned in the money order. These are available across easily and are generally issued by financial organisations and governments also. Money orders differ by the limit of amount of order that is typically One thousand Dollars.

These resemble checks but the main difference is that there is little personal detail mentioned in the money orders compared to checks.

5. Bill of exchange:

“A Bill of Exchange is a binding agreement by one party to pay a fixed amount of cash to another party as of a predetermined date or on demand”

These are basically used for international trade purposes. These have become more powerful.

To understand it in detail the following example is suitable:

If Mr. Varun orders Mr. Jatin to pay Rs.85000 for 60 days and Mr. Jatin signs his name to accept the order given by Mr. Varun then it is called a bill of exchange.

But sometimes due to financial inadequacy or different circumstances the seller and the purchaser cannot pay off immediately generally after which a promise is signed for future credit to be paid and this promise is drafted in a written format after which it turns into a legal instrument of value.

NOTE: “These instruments can often  be accepted by banks and we can advance money against them. Also, we can also endorse the instrument that is, pass it to another person.”

Features of Bill Of Exchange:

• “A bill of exchange is an instrument in writing”
• “It is drawn and signed by the maker i.e. drawer of the bill.”
• “It contains an unconditional order to a person i.e. drawee.”
• “To make an instrument of value the drawee must accept it.”
• “The specified amount is payable to the person whose name is mentioned in the bill or to his order or to the bearer.”
• “It specifies the date by which amount should be paid.”
• “Payment of the bill must be in the legal currency of the country.”
• “It must be properly stamped”.
• “It must bear a revenue stamp”.

5. Post Dated Cheque: