Trophy hunting is hunting of wild game that is characterized by the selective harvest of mature male animals. Sad to say that this ancient practice is still being carried out in the name of ‘providing incentive’ and ‘developing economies’.

Animal rights have been openly violated by some nations by allowing trophy hunting and are in great danger in countries considering to resort to such barbaric means to earn money.

Animal rights are not legal rights but moral rights which are often ignored in the name of utilitarianism. Animals are treated as property and, thus, enjoy little to know legal rights. As the saying goes, “Until the lion learns how to write every story will glorify the hunter”. Well, the hunters indeed are trying to glorify their scheme of easy money earned through their immoral and savage actions against innocent lives.As the government of countries allowing trophy hunting, such as Africa, US and some countries in North America, reasons that trophy hunting raise funds for the conservation of wildlife, when there is “no incentive” for conservation, might I say that this can be considered an irony, a hilarious one too.

The truth is that these governments think that investing a portion of their GDP on conservation of environment, moreover on conservation of wildlife, is nothing more than waste of money. Those arguing that this practice also serve as population control of the wild animals, which would otherwise exceed the carrying capacity of an area, must I remind them that it was our fault, fault of the human race, behind significant decrease in forest areas and green cover and now to cover up our mess we are going on mass killing of innocent animals.

It might sound extreme but, Sire, this would be called murder with corporate motives had the entity been human. The claims stating, directly or indirectly, that trophy hunting is the best method to make money out of wildlife and the local community benefits from this income have been false. Reports suggest that around 3% After revenue collected from trophy hunting reaches the communities that are affected by it.

As for money through wildlife conservation, wildlife tours and safaris and increasing fascination for trips to reconnect with nature can fairly boost economy. Not only it gives incentive to save wildlife but also a chance for connected sectors, such as tours and travels, aviation, hospitality, local handicraft etc., to grow and prosper.Considering ourselves to be the superior species though, why must we ponder upon the wellbeing of wildlife and concern ourselves with moral issue of innocent animals being killed in the name of big game, isn’t it?

Animals like lions, tigers, wild boar and others are the ones on the kill list of rich people in the name of ‘social service by killing dangerous animals’. Basically the idea is ‘killing the ones on the top of the food chain’. It’s unfortunate that human race never learns from its past mistake. I would like to tell the story of Sahara desert which apparently wasn’t a desert but a King, in his own noble perspective, killed all carnivores in order to protect the herbivores from ‘savage beings’. With no one to check the plant-eaters, they grazed the whole forest down to a desert. There is a reason nature came up with the food chain and the so-called ‘savage beasts’. Need of the time is sustainable development and protection of environment, not what is being done in the name of economy and GDPs, so that there remains an economy to be taken care of not just.If it’s really about utilitarian view then we should start killing all the people above the age of 65 or 70 who are dependent. It will give far more greater benefits than loses.

We can achieve control on population, decrease in number of dependent population, more disposable income more resources and increase in unit area per person, not to forget increase in availability hospital beds, decrease in waste generation and better waste management and economic development in sector dealing with cremations, funeral services etc. And at what cost?

Only the emotional unrest which will eventually fade with the realisation of the inevitable ad the burden of caring the economy. Sound barbaric, extreme, baseless. What about the greater good now?

Just because human beings, in their own false sense of superiority, fail to remember doesn’t mean that animals are not an entity and do not deserve right to live.To conclude, I would say animal rights are in dire need to be upheld legally and should be ore widespread otherwise the money-minded, greedy beings would wipe out the wildlife. It is not just important but necessary to ban trophy hunting not only to save wildlife and nature but to save our environment, our ecosystem within which the ‘economies’ exist. To assume environment to be unrelated to the issues of economy and politics and proceeding ahead like that is like breaking the roof of one’s own house to build oneself a fire. Not only is it illogical but also will not sustain economies in the long run. Also, I would like to add that giraffes don’t hurt people, they are plant eating and peaceful animals. So, Ms Sabrina Corgatelli should be ashamed of killing innocent, harmless animals and should have her facts straight next time or come up with better excuses.

Epicurean paradox, also known as Riddle of Epicurious or Epicurious trilemma, is a version of problem of evil, i.e. the problem of existence of evil with the existence of an all-knowing, all-loving, all-powerful God. In this paradox, questions that does God knows about all evil or not, can prevent evil or not and whether he is willing to prevent evil or not is contemplated upon on for two possible outcomes, yes or no, and each time the reasoning circles back to God not being all-knowing, all-loving and all-powerful. This paradox, however, doesn’t argues against existence of God’s but rather against the divine-providences. Epicurus believed in the existence of deities, like everyone during the early Hellenistic period in Greece.

Epicurus was born in 341 BC and was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the school philosophy, Epicureanism. He was an empiricist and was against Platonism of his days. He was inspired by Cynics and led a simple like and discussed a wide range of philosophical subjects with his followers. He believed that both body and soul died at death and hence death must not be feared.

The epicurean paradox follows a series of hypothesis and antithesis to arrive to the paradoxical conclusion. As per my understanding of Socrates, he might agree with the process of acquiring knowledge through series of question. But, Socrates believed that God is perfect and immortal and tries to make the soul as perfect as Him. But this trilemma breaks the proposition of God being perfect. Though it does not deny existence of God, it does makes out that God does not interfere with the working of human world. Epicurus did not even believed in realms and believed in only what senses can perceive. Socrates indirectly states that God does affect human realm and that there is more to world and oneself than what senses can perceive. Also, the existence of this paradox is an irony to the existence of one absolute knowledge that Socrates claimed.

As for Plato, Epicureanism was against Platonism and their thoughts differ a great degree. Plato also believed God to be real and all-powerful, all-loving ad all-knowing. He believed that ideal is real and beyond visible. His theories are also challenged through the paradox. Epicurus believed only what the senses can administer. He believed in the existence of God as He was the reason behind the infinite universe and nature but not in the way Plato did.

Aristotle and Epicurus were similar in a lot of ways. Both were empiricist and involved themselves with politics. But where Aristotle, too, believed Epicurus believed that the concept of God is different than what Aristotle believed, that God’s exist unaware of us and does not try to administer the world.

To conclude, I would like to say that Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, all three of them talked a lot about and believed in existence of absolute knowledge and Good, which is often considered synonymous to God, and importance of following virtue and doing Good. They believed in existence of all-knowing, all-loving and all-powerful Gods who is concerned with the working and miseries of the world, that God is perfect. Though Epicurus believed God to be ethical ideals he did away with the concept of God involving themselves with humanity and through his Problem of Evil wants to prove that only. Also, Epicurus was somewhat influenced by ideas of Socrates because of he was influenced by Cynics and Aristippus, both of which were born out of Socrates teachings. We can see how the branches of the same tree goes in different directions because of different perspective of seeing the same concept, even with reason and logic supporting them.

Roads : lifeline of rural developmentRoadways are not only a key for rural development,but play a major role in poverty reduction by generating increased agricultural income and productive employment.

When globalisation was changing the world it could not reach many places as they were inaccessible due to lack of proper road connectivity hence many village did not develop.

To solve this issue government launched pradhan mantri gram sadak yojna also known as PMGSY in the year 2000 to connect rural areas with urban by network of all weather roadways.Objectives of construction of roads :-

1.To connect unconnected habitations in rural areas with major urban areas and markets for better buisness and employment

2. To make places having resources accessible so that suitable industries could set up in order to develop the area.

3.to establish a core network that is essential to provide basic access to essential social and economic services to all eligible unconnected habitations.Steps taken by government :-

1. Government has launched PMGSY whose primary focus is to connect remote areas with urban areas.

2. Government creates a core network of roads from each place so that basic needs like school,hospital, market are accessible

3. Government launches tender after suitable time for maintenance of roads.

4. Government ensures quality of roads is high otherwise necessary actions are taken again the contractor.

5. Government prioritizes different places where roads should be constructed with their needs

6. Border areas are also connnected with mainstreams by roads especially constructed for them.Importance of roads :-

1. Roadways helps in the growth of market hence helps in rural development.

2. They connect places with schools so that children can be educated .

3. Areas with proper roads attracts different industrialists which help in development of area.

4. Roads help in attracting tourist which helps the locality by generating ample opportunities.Rural connectivity is not an end in itself it is a means. The connectivity will improve education,health,rural incomes.roadways connects rural areas to major political hubs which helps local government to ensure development in their locality

Poverty as an issue:

One of the biggest challenges faced by rural India is Poverty.We are not talking about the places like Punjab where the agriculture and people live with colours.

The issue is about the backward places and actual rural places in India. Even states like Odisha  and Jharkhand who are very rich in resources are considered the poorest states in India. Poverty is an interdependent aspect of the society. The most it is dependant on is the literacy rate. Other backward areas , Naxalite areas are still very far away from attaining the correct information and education. These people are not even aware of the relaxations and schemes of the government for their welfare. The most that is holding back people in these rural areas is adaptation.

They are nit very familiar with the concept of change with time. They bind themselves inside their old practices when there is much more to learn and excel in. The stereotypes and old practices cause them to loose assets for them.For example the girls are not educated and are not used as assets who can earn in future. They are considered as a burden and hence are thought only for the marriage purposes.The main reason for poverty in the rural society is because rural people do have the resources but they are bot aware as of how to use their resources.

Some provisions given by the government for poverty alleviation are:

Wages programmes like: 

  Jawahar Rozgar Yojhna/ Gram Samridhi YojhnaThe NREP and RLEGP were merged in April 1989 under the Jawahar Rozgar Yojhna. The JRY was meant to generate meaningful employment opportunity for the unemployed and underemployed in rural areas through the creation of economic infrastructure. A major proportion of JRY funds was spent on roads and buildings. Over 47 per cent of the employment generated benefited SC/STs. The share of landless labourers among the beneficiaries was 36 per cent. The village community found the assets created under the programme useful:  

   Employment Assurance Scheme:

The Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was launched on 2 October 1993 covering 1,778 drought-prone, desert, tribal and hill area blocks. It was later extended to all the blocks in 1997-98. The EAS was designed to provide employment in the form of manual work in the lean agricultural season. The works taken up under the lean agricultural season. 

Self Employment programmes like:·     

The coverage of beneficiaries in the Ninth plan was considerably lower than the coverage under SGSY. The formation of self-help groups by itself contributes to the empowerment and economic well-being of the poor by improving their collective bargaining position. The group formation also emphasises social capital and enables the poor to Interact with other social groups from a position of strength. Group formation would continue to be the Focus under the SGSY. 

NGOs have an inherent advantage in·        ·       Reaching the poor due to their proximity, the trust. They generate by working in the area, their. Commitment, flexibility in approach, responsiveness.And cost effectiveness. They have played a dynamic role as social animators and organisers in rural areas. Many NGOs have not only been instrumental in the formation of self-help groups but· Have also nurtured them over the years. Such NGOs have a strong presence in many states. However, voluntary and non-governmental action is weak in some of the poorer states. These are also the states where the spirit of cooperation and collaboration may be lacking because of poverty Itself.

Training of social animators would have to be promoted in such states. Departments of social sciences, social work, agriculture and rural development in universities and colleges could be engaged as facilitators in the process of group formation so that every rural habitation has at least one self-help group by the end of 2004.Many more reforms are suggested by the government for different aspects which affect the lifestyle and habitat of the people.           

The counting of blood cells after proper dilution is known as haemocytometer. Using haemocytometer method,red cells, platelets and eosinophils are often counted. Now-a-days it is also used for counting cells of bacteria, yeast, or algae.

Haemocytometer – instrument’s description

A haemocytometer consists of a counting chamber, a coverglass for the counting chamber and diluting pipettes. Many types of counting chambers are available. Improved Neubauer and Fauchs Rosenthal are the two most commonly used counting chambers in laboratories.

RBCs and WBCs in blood cannot be counted as such. The blood has to be dilute in specific isotonic solutions. RBC, diluting fluid is called Hayem’s solution. For WBC counting Turk’s solution or Toisson solution can be used.

The total number of cells is expressed per mm^3 . The isotonic diluting fluid keeps up the cells intact. In WBC counting, the solution will lyse the red blood cells and the remaining nucleated WBCs are counted. Venous blood is used in blood cells counting.

Normal Range of RBCs in human

Men : 4.5-5.9 million/mm^3

Women: 4.1-5.1 million/mm^3

At birth: 4.0-5.6 million/mm^3

Normal Range of WBCs in human

Adults: 4,500-11,000/mm^3

Neonates: 10,000-25,000/mm^3

Clinical significance

☆ Decrease in the number of circulating erythrocytes indicates anaemia.

☆ An increased number of erythrocytes indicates the possibility of polycythemia.

☆ An increase in WBC count for a transient period indicates bacterial infection.

☆ Progressive increase in abnormal WBC count indicates the possibility of leukemia.

Dr. Stephen Jay Gould, a Professor of Geology at Harvard University, a Curator of invertebrate paleontology in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, a public figure and spokesperson, and an author of many popular science books, has in a Wonderful Life created a window through which the reader views one of the most important events in natural history: the explosion in the variety of marine animals that took place during the Cambrian Period more than half-a-billion years ago. What could be more thrilling than to witness one of the great steps in the long history story of life that has begun with a microbe and ended with the Homo sapiens?

A favorite theme of Dr. Gould is to overturn commonly accepted notions that have arisen through human prejudices often due to self-centered preconceptions. It is almost as though Gould regards humans as apes with merely enlarged brains and big egos¹ who would still believe to this very day that the Earth was the center of the universe had not humanity been enlightened by Galileo, Newton and Copernicus. This is one reason why Gould selected as a subject of a book the Burgess Shale of eastern British Columbia in Canada. Charles Doolittle Walcott, who discovered the remains of tens of thousands of mostly soft-bodied invertebrates in the Burgess Shale in 1909, managed to misinterpret what one day would become one of the greatest discoveries in paleontology. Walcott incorrectly classified these marine animals as ancient versions of modern fauna despite the extraordinary character of some of them such as Opabinia, which had five eyes, and Hallucigenia, whose name describes its bizarre and dream-like appearance (it had seven pairs of toothpick-like spines, a tubular tail, a bulb-like head, seven tentacles along its back and six pods at the base of its tail!). Walcott considered this creature to be a worm. How could the director of the Smithsonian Institution make such an incredible mistake? According to Gould, Walcott was trying to force the Burgess Shale fauna into the classification scheme prevailing at the time. Here was one of the great field paleontologists trying, like an infant child, to squeeze round pegs into square holes.

For more than 60 years, scientists would believe Walcott’s interpretation of the Burgess Shale fauna. However, in 1971, Harry Whittington published a monograph on Marrella in which he expressed doubts that Marrella was a trilobite² as previously thought. Marrella looked roughly like a fly with wings replaced by a shield consisting of four, pointed prongs sweeping over its back. Eventually, Marrella would be classified as an arthropod unique to the Cambrian Period. Simon Conway Morris and Derek Briggs, who began as graduate students of Whittington, would join him to form a trio of researchers who would radically change Walcott’s view of the Burgess Shale fauna. Through thorough examination of the specimens, the three would in due time arrive at the conclusion that many Burgess Shale specimens were unique arthropods or belonged to new phyla, implying that the Cambrian Period was one of the richest for animal diversity. Thus, this period in geological history marked the appearance of new “wonderful life.” Other paleontologists eventually joined the quest to understand Cambrian marine creatures in what would become a revolution in evolutionary thought — a saga of scientists struggling to discover the truth.³

It is perhaps ironic that Gould, who points out the pitfalls that personal prejudice and ego can play in drawing false conclusions in science, should employ a rather pompous writing style where, in places, his arrogance pervades every other paragraph and where in the Preface of the book he refers to himself as “yours truly.” Nevertheless, Gould is one of the few research scientists who has achieved a heightened mastery of the English sentence and a vocabulary rich enough to make even the most sophisticated writers envious.

The Cambrian Period began 570 million years ago. It marked the beginning of the Paleozoic Era (from which henceforth hardened body parts such as exoskeletons, shells and bones would leave a trail of fossil evidence that paleontologists would ponder over to construct the “tree of life”), and it marked the advent of virtually all the major groups of modern animals. Not only were all the basic extant anatomical designs introduced at this great moment in life’s history but also some designs appeared that would be unmatched in modern fauna. The Cambrian was a period during which Nature seemed to be experimenting in an enormous variety of body structures. Many of these “experiments” failed in the sense that they did not survive, but interestingly Gould suggests that somewhat random factors rather than survival-of-the-fittest properties were the reason for the subsequent decimation.

This coincides with a new viewpoint of evolution that Stephen Gould and Niles Eldredge have advocated in which contingency plays a significant role. This is the so-called punctuated equilibrium. During most periods, the environment at most slowly changes and Darwin’s survival-of-the-fittest principle prevails. But there are other times in geologic history when rapidly varying conditions or catastrophes randomly decimate Earth’s creatures. The extinction of the dinosaurs is a good example (See Chapter XVI :Nature’s Holocaust of the Book of the Cretaceous of The Bible According to Einstein). For more than 100 million years, the dinosaurs were the most “successful” land animal, but, when an asteroid struck the Yucatán Peninsula 65 million years ago, large size was a great disadvantage. Only the smallest creatures survived. When 90% of species disappear during an extinction event, it is often random factors that decide which life forms survive. Another example of contingency, Gould argues, is the Cambrian fauna. It is impossible for scientists in examining the remarkable Burgess Shale fauna to predict which ones would survive and be “successful.” Would not Opabinia, for example, with its five eyes have an evolutionary advantage over fauna with two eyes?

These ideas have led to a new view of the tree of life with a richer branching structure. Compared to the old tree, the new tree during brief periods (such as at the beginning of the Cambrian) suddenly broadens in diversification only to suffer a decimation at a later time with many “leaves” terminating in evolutionary dead ends. Only a few lineages survive. Not all scientists believe in the theory of punctuated equilibrium of Gould and Eldredge, but most give the two credit for pointing out that species quite often appear and disappear on what seems to be short geologic time scales. Although this might be an artifact due to the scanty fossil record, it is more likely that evolutionary processes occur much faster than have previously been assumed.

Gould, by his own admission, is unable to provide a convincing explanation of why the explosion in animal diversity occurred during the Cambrian Period. This is often regarded as an unsolved problem in natural history. According to Gould, several evolutionary forces could have contributed. One argument is that life was filling a new, previously uninhabited, ecological niche, thereby providing an “open field of unparalleled opportunity” into which organisms expanded at rapid rates. A second, rather weak, idea argues that genetic systems age and just happened to “mature” at around the time of the Cambrian Period. Some religiously inclined individuals claim that the lack of a good explanation for the Cambrian biological explosion implies divine intervention. This is a Creationist’s point of view applied not at the initial moment of the birth of life but to the middle of its more-than-three-billion-year long development.

The Cambrian explosion can be “explained” by several important developments in evolution that had occurred in the Precambrian. Earth’s very early atmosphere essentially contained no oxygen gas. Indeed, this was “fortunate” for O₂ was poisonous for early life. The oxygen in the atmosphere has been largely biologically generated as a waste product of photosynthetic life, and, as a result, oxygen in air has been increasing during the last 3 billion years. Approximately 2 billion years ago, certain organisms uncovered how to use O₂ as a more efficient means to generate energy in metabolic processes. This allowed life forms to increase in size. Eukaryotes, which are organisms with cells containing organelles specializing in various biological processes and containing, in particular, a nucleus housing genetic codes, first appeared around 1.4 billion years ago. About a billion years ago, sexual reproduction arose as a more efficient means of biological replication. The potentially rapid increase in evolutionary progress expected from sexual reproduction, however, was retarded by the longest ice age in geologic history. Had Earth been warmer, the Cambrian explosion might have happened several hundred million years earlier. With the eukaryotic cell, respiratory metabolism and sexual reproduction, life forms were able to increase their size: The first multicellular organisms — microscopic metazoa — emerged about 800 million years ago. Then, 200 million years later, the two supercontinents of Earth broke up providing more shallow water habitats for life, and, at around the same time, one of the coldest ice ages, the Varanger, ended. The confluence of all these developments and events provided the “fuel” for the Cambrian explosion. The second chapter of the book of The Cambrian of The Bible According to Einstein summarizes the situation:

Now evolution was proceeding at a rapid pace. The fire on the fuse was burning. The fuse itself was almost gone. And everything was perfect for a biological explosion, an evolutionary radiation.  The geology was right; the chemistry was right; the climate was right; the atmosphere was right; the biology was right; and the recent evolutionary past was right, for sea level had risen and the continents had separated, providing new shallow-water habitats; for circulating ocean currents were full of nutrients; for the seas and air had warmed; for the atmosphere had oxygen; for eukaryotic cells had previously appeared and the sexual revolution in evolution had occurred.

Gould is a firm believer that Homo sapiens hold no special status in the scheme of things. It is true — here on Earth, we are the “smartest” creatures. But whether we are superior is a totally different issue. Bacteria outnumber us multiplicatively by the billions. As species, archaea have outlived us by a factor of more than 10,000. Elephants are still bigger, cockroaches more cunning, lions still stronger, rats more numerous and so on. Not only have the seventeenth century astronomers relegated us to an inconspicuous corner of the universe, but modern paleontologists such as Gould have also placed us on a tiny, barely noticeable twig of the tree of life.

In fact, we are very “lucky” (in both senses of the word: “fortunate” and “probabilistically unlikely”) to be here on Earth. We often think of Darwinian evolution as a smooth, almost predicable, process in which the poorly adapted species die out and the “superior” species survive. Such a viewpoint is not valid and neglects some of the truly random events that have shaped the history of life. The asteroid-induced extinction mentioned above is a good example. Had it not struck Earth 65 million years ago, reptiles would probably still be ruling the Earth and the small mammals that survived would not have had the opportunity to radiate. The result would have been no monkeys, no apes and no humans. There are dozens of examples for which a slight change in the history of the Earth would have eliminated one of the essential steps in the long chain that gave rise to Homo sapiens.

Gould, while taking great pleasure in overthrowing false dogma, is probably himself guilty of exaggeration, an effect possibly due to his enthusiasm for his field of research. Has he overemphasized the role of punctuated equilibrium and contingency in the evolution of life? Could the Cambrian explosion be less dramatic, a consequence of a great find of 50,000 soft-bodied specimens in a single location during a particular point in time? Could the introduction for the first time of hard-body parts led to significantly more fossils thereby creating the illusion of a great radiation of species? It is possible that, one day, we shall have more information and a clearer picture as to how the Cambrian fauna fit into the great scheme of things. Perhaps the Cambrian diversity is somewhat exaggerated and future links will be established between divergent phyla. Perhaps some “consolidation of the data” will take place. Indeed, it is now suspected that Hallucigenia is related to the modern velvet worm rather than a new phylum as Conway Morris had proposed. But even if a revision does occur, the Cambrian will remain one of the great periods of experimentation in animal design.

Wonderful Life is detailed, well written, entertaining and informative. It is fun to follow the history of the Burgess Shale story. In the book are some great descriptions and sketches of the main characters of the drama, those diminutive Cambrian marine metazoa of extraordinary design and sophistication. In a Wonderful Life, the reader learns about the thrills and pitfalls of a historically based science such as paleontology. The writing is often intricate, sometimes technical and not always so accessible to the unskilled reader. But enthusiasts of science with an interest in evolution should greatly enjoy reading this classic, best-selling book.

What is Child marriage?

A child marriage is a term which is generally used when and underage boy or a girl or both of them enter into the commitment of marriage.

How it affects the rural India and development?

This is a very common happening in the stereotypical societies of rural India. There have been cases when even babies or sometimes an unborn child is promised and married.

One of the most probable reasons for it is the stereotype in the rural society and the image of woman being born as a burden. They want to marry her off soon so that they don’t have to worry about dowry and bringing her up.

This also results in less Literacy rate of women and hence less resources. Women are taught to not ho outside and this is the bitter reality of the rural regions. Although this practice still happens in urban areas too but this article mainly focuses on how the development of rural society gets affected.

The Child Marriage Act:

 The act may also be called the prohibition of Child marriage Act,2006 and it came into force on 1 November 2007 in India. The contents of the act includes 21 sections and it extends all over India and the Union territories.

The main objective of the act was to save innocent children from getting into a big commitment like marriage and to save their childhood innocence and to make a difference.

Punishments under the Act are:

If an adult man who is above the age of 18 years does child marriage, then he will be punishable with a maximum extended fine of one lakh rupees or a 2-year imprisonment or maybe both.

The act of conducting or performing a child marriage is punishable with 2-year imprisonment or a fine which may extend to 1 lakh rupees or both.

Promoting and permitting of Child marriage and even attending one is punishable with 2 years imprisonment or a fine which may extend to 1 lakh rupees or both.

One of the very important statement of this act is :

The legal age for marriage among female should be 18 and the same among males should be 21 years of age and the act of marrying below this age will make the marriage voidable.

One of the very important cases of this Act is Independent Thought Vs UOI which brought a very big change as The Supreme Court increased the age of consent for sexual intercourse within marriages to 18. Before the ruling sexual conducts of a husband on his wife , where the wife  was above 15 years of age  did not constitute rape for the purpose of criminal law. The case law instigated the issue that almost all the statues in India suggest that a girl below the age of 18 is a child.

Some of the issues which the case law instigated and were solved later are:

• Whether intercourse with a 15 to 18 year girl would amount to rape or not?
• Whether the section 375 of IPC is discriminatory.
• And just because the girl between the age of 15 to 18 is married does not mean that she can conceive a baby or is mantally and physically capable of having sex.

In the case law it was said that Independent Thought and Child Rights trust argued that the classification between married and unmarried minor girls in punishing sexual violence had no rational nexus to the objectives of the section. It is also contrary to the obligations of the State to protect the right of the child under Article 21 as well as under International Conventions (Supreme Court observers. LINK:https://www.scobserver.in/)

Local government as a tool for rural development constitutionally , local government is the third tier of indian goverment commonly known as ‘”grassroot government'”.

A proper combination of local efforts with the government in order to develop socio-economic conditions of the people is a key factor for rural development.Local government as a tool :-The major factor in rural development is self help.the local government being nearest to the population is one of the best institutions or tool for generations motivation and encouraging mobilization for self help.

Thay can also induce wider participation of local people in decision making.To guarantee the basic social needs local people must participate not only in political affairs but also commonly affairs hence local government serves as the proper tool .

Integrated rural development :-

Proper synchronisation between the people and the government is inevitable for rural development.Without IRD rural development is not possible as each place has different basic needs,requires different kind of approach. Only local government ensures that government works in proper synchronisation with locals to provide basic needs ,to solve local issues.IRD focuses only on the growth of the local area with the help of local resources and support of local people hence,it serves as the most effective tool for rural development.

The panchayat or the Panchs hold so much power to themselves that they even take decisions of life and death in the area.

India is a vast country to be administered to the depest levels. Rural areas and their traditions can only be controlled and understood by a local government.

Conclusion :-Thus we conclude that local government acts as the closest government to the people.Local government is the focus of central government to develop social as well as economic conditions of the are which leads to the rural development.Local government also succeeds in understanding the people better and hence motivating them to become self sustainable ,encourage them to take part in decision making and work together with the government for proper development. Local governments work effectively as a communication between the local people and central government. They also observe needs of the locality and with the help of revenues from the government local bodies fulfill the needs.hence,local government acts as the most powerful tool in rural development.

Impact of globalisation on rural developmentThe uninterrupted flow of trade,capital ans technology across the world is commonly known as globalisation.In globalisation the world is considered as a whole big market.In 1991 when new industrial policy came into force globalisation started taking pace.

Just like a coin globalisation had two faces one good and one bad. This means that it had good impact as well as bad impact on the people of rural places.If we try to observe in a larger view globalisation was good as it had many good impacts like the world transformed into a single society but it also widened the gap between the rich and poor.Positive impacts of globalisation on rural area :-

1. Liberalisation of international trade and marketing of food and agricultural products.

2. standards of living increased in rich and poor families of urban as well as rural places

3. Increasing privatization like privatization of coal mines increased employment opportunities

4. Intensification of people as well as internal migration

5. Education quality developed and people from rural places started learning new skills

6. Many villages advanced and now they have advanced automated or semi automatic technologies, fertilizers etc.

7. globalisation provided better exposure to market goods hence quality of goods increased as well as proper price was providedWe can observe that globalisation developed our society ,our nation but in many ways it also ruined it.Negative impacts of globalisation on rural development :-

1. With globalisation many advanced technologies came into this nation which reduced manpower hence unemployment increased especially among unskilled labourers of the rural areas.

2. As many villages did not have proper transportation facilities, communication facilities many hinterlands never got chance to develop

3. With globalisation competition increased and local farmers could not compete with international quality and price hence their condition got worse.

4. not only farmers conditions of artisans also got worse as they could not compete

5.Many small industries of rural areas were shut down because of high level of competition and economical lossWe can still take steps to neutralize the negative impacts of globalisation om the rural area of this country which is predominantly rural and has major part of its income from these areas only.Steps that can be taken for neutralization are :-

1.steps luke ‘bharatnet’ should be taken in order to provide advanced information and technology to people living in rural areas.

2. Government,NGOs as well as private sector should join their hands to provide assets to rural areas and encourage entrepreneurship.

3. Government should impose some restrictions in MNCs before coming to indian market so that they dont affect small businesses

4. Low cost loans should be provided to small industries so that they get time to re-establish themselves and earn profit.

5. Proper rural urban transportation and communication facilities should be developed even in inaccessible areas so that they can also enter the market .

Types of Negotiable Instruments

The types of negotiable expand a lot. some of the very common ones are promissory notes, certificate of deposit , money orders etc.

Personal Checks:         

These checks can only be authorized by a person if they deposit money in the bank and clearly justify the sum of money and the name of the person to whom the cheque is addressed to with the name of the bearer of the check.

Advantages of Checks:

No cash is required and big amounts can be transferred hassle free.

If money gets lost it can’t be recovered but check transactions can be stopped from depositing, if lost.

Disadvantages of Personal Checks:

• Personal checks are not always taken easily everywhere.

In the fast pace world of technology checks are relatively sluggish and their processing takes time.

2. Travellers Check:             

Travellers checks are convenient for people who are in foreign countries for any of the following temporary situations such as vacations, work visits, trading etc. these checks can be used as an alternative for the respective foreign currency which makes the travel hassle free and reduces currency exchange which results in more following of the social distancing protocol.

“These checks are generally issues by financial institutions with serial no. and in prepaid fixed amounts”. A dual signature system is generally followed in which the signature of the buyer of the check has to sign at the time of issuing of the check and later another signature is required while using the check. The two signature are mandatory to match for the financial institutions to issue the check and guarantee the payment.

Advantages of Travellers:

• Hassle free and safe travel is enabled because no big amounts of money are carried around.
• The banks back up for most of the stolen or lost checks and even sometimes provide security money for the same.

Disadvantages of Travellers check:

• This whole system depends on the double signature system too much and as we understand that signatures can be easily forged it is not the most secure method to carry and transfer money.
• Debit and credit cards are a more convenient way nowadays compared to travellers checks.

3.Promissory Notes:

Promissory notes are handwritten promises between 2 parties. One party is the one liable to pay that is; payor and the other one is the receiver that is payee. These handwritten documents hold promises of the payor   to pay the payee a certain sum of the money in future. These notes also contain all the important aspects for a promise to be relevant. These information includes specified principle amount, interest rate, term length ,date of insurance and signature of the payor.

“These at first enables a person, people or a co operation to obtain financing from a source other than a bank or financial institution. Those who issue a promissory note become lenders.”

4. Money Order:

The holder of money orders are paid a promised amount as mentioned in the money order. These are available across easily and are generally issued by financial organisations and governments also. Money orders differ by the limit of amount of order that is typically One thousand Dollars.

These resemble checks but the main difference is that there is little personal detail mentioned in the money orders compared to checks.

5. Bill of exchange:

“A Bill of Exchange is a binding agreement by one party to pay a fixed amount of cash to another party as of a predetermined date or on demand”

These are basically used for international trade purposes. These have become more powerful.

To understand it in detail the following example is suitable:

If Mr. Varun orders Mr. Jatin to pay Rs.85000 for 60 days and Mr. Jatin signs his name to accept the order given by Mr. Varun then it is called a bill of exchange.

But sometimes due to financial inadequacy or different circumstances the seller and the purchaser cannot pay off immediately generally after which a promise is signed for future credit to be paid and this promise is drafted in a written format after which it turns into a legal instrument of value.

NOTE: “These instruments can often  be accepted by banks and we can advance money against them. Also, we can also endorse the instrument that is, pass it to another person.”

Features of Bill Of Exchange:

• “A bill of exchange is an instrument in writing”
• “It is drawn and signed by the maker i.e. drawer of the bill.”
• “It contains an unconditional order to a person i.e. drawee.”
• “To make an instrument of value the drawee must accept it.”
• “The specified amount is payable to the person whose name is mentioned in the bill or to his order or to the bearer.”
• “It specifies the date by which amount should be paid.”
• “Payment of the bill must be in the legal currency of the country.”
• “It must be properly stamped”.
• “It must bear a revenue stamp”.

5. Post Dated Cheque:

The case is currently being heard by the International Court of Justice(ICJ).

BACKGROUND: The Rohingya people are a group of ethnic(Muslim Indo-Aryan) minority in the Buddhist majority.In the recent years they have been facing procedural ethnic cleansing and prosecution at a mass level. it has also been described as genocide.The genocide followed for more than 2 years with decades of prosecution on the Rohingya people which included mass murders,destruction of villages,rapes and various other heinous crimes undertaken by the millitary of Myanmar.

Mostly restricted to the Rakhine state (where the Rohingya are largely settled) and done under the
garb of “anti-terrorism measures”.
With the general support of the public. (John Oliver did a segment on how “free” Facebook
contributed to the genocide.

What does genocide mean?

According to the Article 2 genocide means comitting any of the follwoing acts:

• Causing serious bodily harm to a group.
• Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part.
• Killing members of the group
• Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group.
• Forcibly transferring children of one group to another group.

Article 6 of Rome Statute of International Criminal Court: For the purpose of
this Statute, “genocide” means any of the following acts committed with intent to
destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethical, racial or religious group, as such:
(a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental
harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group
conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in
part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

Role of women self help groups

Women self help groups is a scheme launched by indian government under the mission of National rural livelihood mission im 2011.The mission took pace around 2012-13.Bank accounts are provided by the government to these groups in which each member adds 10 rupees per week in their account to which the government provides economical support with very less interest.women can borrow loan from the group with a mere interest of 2 percent which is very low compared to the money lenders who charge 20 percent of interest.

Effect of National rural livelihood mission :-
The women self help groups formed under the above mission has worked magically in the field of women empowerment.because of availability of hassle fress loans without and security encouraged women to follow their passion or start a new business.Financial access and other support has increased family incomes of each member by almost 19 percent and savings by 23 percent according to the recent reports by National rural livelihood mission.This scheme proved to be most beneficial for educated women who get extra benefits.

Success stories :-
There are many cases or inspiring stories of women who started their own business in a country having very few women leaders whether they are in politics or in the field of business.Recently,Hemlata devi borrowed some amount from jai ambe swaya sahayata samooh in udaipur rajasthan to buy a pump for her farm.There was no way she could approach any bank for loan as she had nothing as security hence she approached to one of the self help groups in her district who provided her loan with mere interest of 2 percent .Because of this she could buy a pump which gave a powerful thrust to her family income and she easily returned the borrowed amount.

Benefits :-
These self help groups benefitted the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes the most.the programme increased income of households to a good extent and has helped in empowering women.these groups also provide skill training like sewing to the rural people so that they can start their own tailoring shops.they also provide other training as well such as agro ecological practices.these groups boosted confidence of women hence many women started taking part in politics as well.

Conclusion :-
Self help groups has empowered women of rural areas ,has provided training which are beneficiary to everyone despite their differences has motivated equality as well as provided support in the economy of their nation.No doubt SHGs has golden effects on the society and has helped in many ways in the development of their areas.A nation can be developed only if women are empowered and these groups did that.

Negotiable instrument act enacted on 9^th December 1881, by Imperial Legislative Council is an act to define the law relating to negotiableinstruments.

Some imp dates and their significance for the act:

          Negotiable Instrument Act (1881)

            (Citation: ACT No. 26 of 1881)

1866 – The act was originally drafted.

1867- “Introduced in the council and was referred to a select committee.”

1877-“ the bill was revised by a select committee, after the lapse due to criticism by local governments , high courts and chamber of commerce.”

1880-“ By the order of secretary of state the bill was referred to new law commission as in spite of everything happened in the past bill could not reach the final stage.” The bill was redrafted.

1881- Thus after being prepared for 4 times, it was introduced in the council.

1882-  Commenced on 1 March 1882.

Characteristics of Negotiable Instruments :

• These are freely transferable in nature. for example; property is a negotiable instrument and it is readily transferable by a simple process of delivery..
• Presumed to have been

1. made

2. accepted

3. endorsed

4. drawn

5. negotiated

6. transferred for consideration

• They are easy for recovery

Independent Title: “The general principle as regards the transfer of property, that is, no

“One can give a better title than he himself has, is not applicable in case of negotiable

instruments.  If  the  transferor  had  obtained  a  negotiable  instrument  by  exercising fraud, but the transferee obtains that negotiable instrument in good-faith (bona-fide)

for  value,  then  the  transferee  shall  enjoy  a  good  title  as  regards  that  negotiable

instrument.  Thus,  the  title  of  the  transferee  as regards  a  negotiable  instrument  is independent of the title of

the transferor.”

“The holder who acquires the instruments hold title free from all defects.”

“Every holder of instrument is presumed to be holder in due course.”

 Presumptions as to negotiable instruments: “Sections 118 and 119 of the Negotiable Instrument Act lay down certain presumptions which the court presumes in regard to negotiable instruments. In other words these presumptions need not be proved as they are presumed to exist in every negotiable instrument”. Until the contrary is proved the following presumptions shall be made in case of all negotiable instruments:

 1. Consideration: “It shall be presumed that every negotiable instrument was made drawn, accepted or endorsed for consideration. It is presumed that, consideration is present in every negotiable instrument until the contrary is presumed. The presumption of consideration, 6 however may be rebutted by proof that the instrument had been obtained from, its lawful owner by means of fraud or undue influence.”

 2.Date: “Where a negotiable instrument is dated, the presumption is that it has been made or drawn on such date, unless the contrary is proved.”

3. Time of acceptance: “Unless the contrary is proved, every accepted bill of exchange is presumed to have been accepted within a reasonable time after its issue and before its maturity. This presumption only applies when the acceptance is not dated; if the acceptance bears a date, it will prima facie be taken as evidence of the date on which it was made.”

 4. Time of transfer: “Unless the contrary is presumed it shall be presumed that every transfer of a negotiable instrument was made before its maturity.”

 5. Order of endorsement: “Until the contrary is proved it shall be presumed that the endorsements appearing upon a negotiable instrument were made in the order in which they appear thereon.”

 6. Stamp: “Unless the contrary is proved, it shall be presumed that a lost promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque was duly stamped. “

7. “Holder in due course: Until the contrary is proved, it shall be presumed that the holder of a negotiable instrument is the holder in due course. Every holder of a negotiable instrument is presumed to have paid consideration for it and to have taken it in good faith. But if the instrument was obtained from its lawful owner by means of an offence or fraud, the holder has to prove that he is a holder in due course.”

Role of NGOs in rural development

NGO (Non Governmental Organization) came into use in 1945 .According to the UN,all private bodies which are free from government control are known as NGO.Voluntary organizations with no profit making objective were active in health,disaster relief,cultural promotion as early as medieval era.they proliferated during british empire working to improve social welfare.Many organizations like Friend in need socity(1857), Arya samaj(1875), National council for women in india (1875) emerged during the second half of 19th century as self help emerged as primary objective of socio political movements.When mahatma gandhi returned he identified poverty as major issue and hence focused on developing with available local resources. Concept of voluntary organisations is not new to india.time to time many voluntary organisations emerged each focusing on important things of their time.

Role of NGOs :-

Voluntary organisations can prove themselves as a very helpful hand to the government in order to develop an area or a nation.voluntary organisation have deep roots among the people they know their issues and people love them as they seek no profit for them.NGOs and government working together can develop an area at an exponential rate as these organisations know the root problems that people are facing and have comparatively very low corruption unlikely the government.The only thing they lack is power however government has taken measure so that NGOs can work with government to achieve great results like there are scheme which provide these NGOs permission to use resources directly for rural development.

Some of the major objectives of NGOs in the present world are listed as follows
Objectives of NGO in rural areas :-

1. To establish a proper communication between the people and government
2. To motivate people through social media to help poor people in rural areas
   3.To help people in need with fund raising movements for different causes like health issues ,shelter etc.
3. To establish camps in order to provide basic medicines
   5.to organise programs teaching rural people new skills for their livelihood

Looking at the work quality of these organisations new five year plan was given to these NGOs focusing on rural development by the government.with each tenure new opportunities emerge and these NGOs work amazingly because if their direct connection with people in developing areas.With time NGOs in rural india is growing,so now they are hiring experts to help in solving different issues.

Few famous NGOs in india:-

1. Garima samajh vikas sansthan :-
   Woks primarily in the domain of Gender, education ,food etc.

2.Anahita foundation :-
Established in 2009 works with the single minded focus of empowering rural india

3.Batika :-
Works in the field of sustainable development of rural india

4. Centre for education and social development :-
   Works in the area of advocacy and research, art and culture,nutrition,legal aid etc

5.Akruti :-
Provides special education,health and vocation training to people with disabilities

Conclusion :-
NGOs in rural areas works in many inaccessible areas to provide basic needs to people They not only work as gap fillers but also as a failure mechanism if anything wrong happens in any rural areas.they work among the people and with the government strengthening the society and developing the area .they provide training related to agriculture help people during adverse weather provides food if needed hence we can conclude that NGOs has worked efficiently in rural development and hence are very important for further development as they are the bridge between the rural people and government.

Financial literacy and financial markets are rapidly changing,with developments in technology and new and more complex financial products.From different kind of loans to mortgages,the range of financial products people have to chose from has changes drastically from what it was in the past.the exponential hrwoth in fintech(financial technology) is revolutionizing the way people take financial decisions.Ability to effectively manage money and taking financial decisions in order to become financially self sustainable is known as financial literacy.

The OECD( organisation for economic cooperation and development)defines financial literacy not only as the knowledge of risks and management but also the skills.What does financial literacy involve:-From keeping tracks and understanding when to spend money how to spend money so that it does not have any negative impact on one’s life comes under financial literacy. Importance of financial literacy in a farmer’s life :- Financial literacy enables a farmer to develop a budgetary guide to distinguish what he owes,what he buys and what he spends.This can help them in becoming independent and self sufficient instead of debtors to banks or someone.

Understanding your money and knowing basic principles can prevent farmers from fraud as it will help them with foreseeing risks and argue with anyone learned and well informed.Hurdles in farmer’s way to achieve self sustainability :-Financial literacy can help farmers in many ways, but in india ,most of the farmers are illiterate who dont know how to read,never went to school hence they dont know basics things such as calculating interest adding amounts which plays a very big role in their lives.Because of lack of proper knowledge farmers usually become victims of fraud by money lenders.Money lenders charge a very hight amount of interest which is illegal but many farmers dont know that.Not only this there are many cases when a money lender charges money even though farmers have already paid it . There are many cases in india where farmers hang themselves to tree , burns themselves only because they get trapped in a debt trap and they dont know how to come out of it. There are cases like sanjeev bhatnagar vs union of india 2006, related to this matter but evern supreme court couldn’t do much then asking governments for reasons behind deaths and ordering them to take proper steps. So farmer have tk become self sustainable so that they can prevent themselves and their families from these.And to achieve this the only way is financial literacySolution :- Government should organise specialised programs at every panchayat where trained teachers can teach farmers about 1.Calculating interest to a given amount

2. Managing credit debit system

3. Different places from where they can get low interest loans

4.How to spend money and manage bills so that they dont have to face negative impacts.

5.Asset management. Risk managementThey can also teach them skills and how to apply them because there is no use of knowledge if you dont know how to apply it and where.With proper knowledge and understanding of credit debit system farmers can provide a major help in the growth of economy of india . No farmer will end up having a day with no food,no money or loss of thier land. This will be a concrete step towards the converting our developing nation into developed nation

Importance of rural education in india
India is a country with a population of 135 crores.According to reports by world bank in 2020, 65 percent of indian population resides in rural areas.With such a huge population living in rural areas,rural education in india becomes important not only to eradicate poverty and illiteracy,but also for a variety of social ,economic as well as cultural and political reasons.
In 1947 when india became independent policy makers realized the importance of education.Education is considered as the most strong weapon to improve community development as well as initiate social alterations in the world.For a nation ,education in urban as well as rural areas plays a huge role in growth of country . Although education in urban areas of india has progressed rapidly , there are places where still education is not a priority.
It is mandatory for the government to teach people about the importance of education,about the benefits of education and why it should be enforced even in most remote places.

Benefits of education :-

1. In political system of rural india,it is necessary for rural people to be educated so that they can understand the programs and principles in a much better way and hence elect worthy representatives.
2. Villages in india plays major part in the economical growth of the country by producing agricultural, industrial as well as other goods.For this it is necessary to have an understanding of the global economy as it is the international price movement of goods which regulate their quantity and price.for that its important for rural masses to be educated.
3. With time and introduction of modern gadgets culture is also advancing at a rapid rate. To handle and utilize the benefits of these advanced gadgets whether it is for agriculture or daily life education is a prequisite.For example,a rural farmer must be educated in order to learn how to use harvesters , fertilizers, threshers etc. Education can affect the intellectual life of people and make them contribute in the advancement of society.
4. Indian constitution provides several rights and principles to citizen such as right to education,right to speak,right to information . To understand the significance and functioning of these right modern education becomes must.

Thus we can understand that rural education not only helps in the rural development but it helps in the overall progress and development of the nation.

Thus many steps were taken time to time in order to enhance level of education by the government.many programs were organised to enlighten the people,many schemes were launched in order to attract people of rural areas having low income .
Scheme launched by indian government :-

1. Samagra shiksha is an scheme launched by indian government to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
2. Since the inception of erstwhile centrally sponsored scheme in 2001, 3.18 lakh school building,18.8 lakh additional classrooms,2.3 laks water facilities were constructed.
3. Mid day meal was started to attract poor families and encourage them fo send their children to schools.
4. Based on national achievement survey,2017 was conducted to identify and design strategies to reduce the gaps. 5.section of 23(2) of the RTE Act has been amended to extend the period of untrained in-service elementary teachers.

6.NIOS has been entrusted to organise trainings as well as D.El.Ed was started to ensure quality of teachers.

What is Child labor?

The term child labor is used when a child is involved into doing a work which is mentally, physically , socially or morally harmful and dangerous to a child and also deprives them of a better childhood and schooling opportunities forcing them to leave the opportunities they have and mature earlier than they should.

The Child Labor Act 1986:

Government has enacted the Child Labor (Prohibition & Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016 which came into force. The Amendment Act completely prohibits the employment of children below 14 years. The amendment also prohibits the employment of adolescents in the age group of 14 to 18 years in hazardous occupations and processes and regulates their working conditions where they are not prohibited. The amendment also provides stricter punishment for employers for violation of the Act and making the offence of employing any child or adolescent in contravention of the Act by an employer as cognizable.

The main objective of this act was to ensure, no involvement of children who have not completed the age of 14 in certain occupations.

The Act also prohibits employment of child in about 13 occupations and 51 processes. The constitution of India in the article 24 under right against exploitation also mentions for prohibition for employment of children in factories and other unorganized sector.

A lot of efforts were put in by PN Bhagwati and V.R. Krishna Iyer to get this litigation into running and in action.

The Path-breaking and Landmark Case of MC Mehta V. State of Tamil Nadu:

The case started with a PIL which was filed by Mr. MC Mehta, alleging that many children were being employed in several hazardous industries more particularly in the firecracker and matchstick industry in Sivkasi in Tamil Nadu.

What held in the court:

A committee was appointed by the Supreme Court of India to visit the site and to prepare a report keeping all the different aspects in concern.

The committee after the submission of the report on November 11,1991 , gave suggestions that the state of Tamil Nadu should be directed that no child should be employed in hazardous and damaging industries of any kind. They also suggested another premise for them to not work more than 6 hours. Proper transport and education facilities should be provided in or around the factory.

It was also recommended to start a national commission on children’s welfare to prepare a scheme for the abolition of child labour.

The case is a landmark case and is so important because it introduces a lot of reforms and amendments in the child labor act 1986 and the case threw light on Child labor as a major issue.

Some of the provisions after the MC Mehta Case are:

The provisions introduced as an after effect of the case were:

Article 24 – Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. – No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment. 39€. That the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength.

Article 39(f) -Children should be given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner, in conditions of freedom and dignity and childhood should be protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment.

Article 41 – Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.- The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want.

Article 45 – Provision for free and compulsory education for children.- The State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.

And many other more reforms.

 Reference: lawtimejournal ( for the prvisions)