What is the most ridiculous thing you’ve ever done to pass time?

Francis Bacon , the famous English philosopher once said “I don’t think there is any truth. There are only points of view. Boredom, for example, is a point of view. So is total exaltation.” well if that is the case we have been viewing boredom all wrong! For most people, boredom is a dreaded feeling we all try to avoid at all costs. it’s that moment we are stuck in a meeting or in traffic, and we feel like our brain is slowly turning to mush. but according to Francis Bacon, its all just a matter of perspective. boredom is a point of view which means we can choose to see it in a different light.

What is boredom?

Boredom is a universal experience that we all encounter. It’s that feeling of restlessness, dissatisfaction, and the disinterest that creeps in every now and then when we have nothing to do or when we are doing something that fails to engage us. While boredom is a common human experience it’s also a complex and multifaceted emotion that has intrigued psychologists for decades. While most people view boredom as a negative emotion, it can also be seen as a signal that something is amiss in our lives. For example if we are bored at work it could mean that we need more challenging projects or that our values and interest don’t align with our work anymore. As Salvador Dali one said “Boredom is the mother of all creativity.” Boredom can motivate us to seek out new experiences, learn new things or make changes to our environment.

What causes boredom?

There are many factors that leads to the feeling of boredom, including

Monotony: Doing the same thing over and over again can quickly lead to boredom. This is especially true when the activities lack novelty and variation.

Lack of challenge: When a task is too easy or doesn’t require much effort, it can fail to engage us and lead to boredom.

Lack of control: When we feel that we have no control over our situation we may feel helpless and disengaged leading to boredom.

Understimulation: When we are not receiving enough sensory input, we may feel bored. this happens in situations where there is little to no stimulation like waiting in line or sitting in traffic.

Overstimulation: When we are overstimulated we become bored as our brains become overwhelmed and desensitized to the stimuli.

The Effects of boredom

While boredom may seem like an harmless emotion, it can have significant effect on our health and well-being. Chronic boredom has been linked to a range of negative outcomes like anxiety, depression, substance abuse and also many health problems. So one of the main problem of boredom is that it can lead to negative coping strategies like eating too much food, drugs or alcohol. These behaviors can give you temporary relief but can lead to long term negative consequences.

Ways to alleviating boredom

Engage in new activities: One way to compact boredom is to try new activities that challenges your brain. This keeps our brains busy and alleviate boredom.

Set Goals: Setting goals can give us a sense of direction, which helps alleviate boredom

Practice mindfulness: Practices such as meditation can help us be more present and engaged in the movement, which can alleviate boredom

Finding meaning: Find the meaning and purpose in every activity we do. The question we should ask ourselves is “why are we dong this activity right now?” or “How does it benefit me in the long run?” Once we know the answer we are likely to be more engaged in what we do and feel less bored.

Take breaks: Continuously working for hours can make us fell drained or overwhelmed, this can lead to loss of motivation and boredom. So sometimes taking brakes from an activity can recharge our batteries and we will be able to come back to it with renewed energy and interest.

Boredom is a very common human experience that can have significant impact on our mental and physical wellbeing. But by understanding the cause and effect of boredom we can develop strategies to alleviate it and lead more fulfilling lives.

So there you have it Folks. boredom and total exaltation are just points of view, according to Francis Bacon. While we may not be able to achieve total exaltation all the time, but with proper strategies we certainly can find ways to make the most of our moments of boredom and cultivate moments of joy and creativity. After all life is too short to be bored all the time!

Definition;

Analytical reasoning connotes a person’s general aptitude to arrive at a logical conclusion or solution to given problems. Just as with critical thinking, analytical thinking critically examines the different parts or details of something to fully understand or explain it.

Logical thinking requires the use of reasoning skills to study a problem critically, which will enable you to draw a reasoned decision on how to proceed. Examples of logical thinking: The Rubik cube. Mathematical puzzles and riddles.

Example of Analytical Skills;

• Critical Thinking. Any position across all levels of a company can benefit from critical thinking skills. …
• Data Analysis. …
• Creative Thinking. …
• Communication. …
• Problem-solving. …
• Collaboration.

Critical Thinking;

Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in which you question, analyse, interpret, evaluate and make a judgement about what you read, hear, say, or write. The term critical comes from the Greek word kritikos meaning “able to judge or discern”.

Data Analysis;

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data.

Creative Thinking;

Creative thinking is the ability to come up with unique, original solutions. Also known as creative problem-solving, creative thinking is a valuable and marketable soft skill in a wide variety of careers.

Communication;

According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, communication can be defined as the process or act of exchanging, expressing or conveying information and ideas through writing, speaking and gesturing.

Problem solving;

Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution. 

Collabaration;

Collaboration is a partnership; a union; the act of producing or making something together. Collaboration can take place between two people or many people, strangers or best friends. 

Definition;

The rich heritage of India, one of the world’s oldest civilizations, is an all-embracing confluence of religions, traditions and customs. The highlights of Indian heritage lie in the treasure of its art, architecture, classical dance, music, flora and fauna, and the innate secular philosophy of its people.

What are the 7 natural heritage of India?

Natural World Heritage Sites

The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal, all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee. The most recent site listed was Dholavira, in 2021.

. Objectives
In this lesson, students investigate various facets of Indian culture. Throughout the chapter,
emphasis will be on the concept and importance of Indian culture through various ages of India.
After studying this lesson you will be able to:

• understand the concept and meaning of culture;
• establish the relationship between culture and civilization;
• establish the link between culture and heritage;
• discuss the role and impact of culture in human life.
• describe the distinctive features of Indian culture;
• identify the central points and uniqueness of Indian culture;
• explain the points of diversity and underlying unity in it; and
• trace the influence and significance of geographical features on Indian culture

Culture has two types: (i) material, and (ii) non-material. The first includes technologies, instruments, material goods, consumer goods, household design and architecture, modes of production, trade, commerce, welfare and other social activities. The latter includes norms, values, beliefs, myths, legends, literature, ritual, art forms and other intellectual-literary activities. The
material and non-material aspects of any culture are usually interdependent on each other. Sometimes, however, material culture may change quickly but the non-material may take longer time to change. According to Indologists, Indian culture stands not only for a traditional social code but also for a spiritual foundation of life.

Culture and Heritage;
Cultural development is a historical process. Our ancestors learnt many things from their
predecessors. With the passage of time they also added to it from their own experience and gave up
those which they did not consider useful. We in turn have learnt many things from our ancestors. As
time goes we continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and sometimes we
give up some which we don’t consider useful any more. This is how culture is transmitted and
carried forward from generation to next generation. The culture we inherit from our predecessors is
called our cultural heritage.

General Characteristics of Culture;
Now let us discuss some general characteristics of culture, which are common to different cultures throughout the world.
Culture is learned and acquired: Culture is acquired in the sense that there are certain behaviors which are acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit certain qualities from their parents but socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are learnt from family members, from the group and the society in which they live. It is thus apparent that the culture of human beings is
influenced by the physical and social environment through which they operate. Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be called culture if it is shared and believed or practiced by a group of people.
Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed from one generation to another generation. More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as the time passes by. Each may work out solution to problems in life that passes from one generation to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time.
Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as new cultural traits are added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within the particular culture as time passes.
Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of culture that stems from the culture’s cumulative quality. Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns: It involves how an activity
should be conducted, how an individual should act appropriately.
Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts. Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming culture as whole.

Importance of Culture in Human life;
Culture is closely linked with life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as human beings can use. It is not merely a touch of color. It is what makes us human. Without culture, there would be no humans. Culture is made up of traditions, beliefs, way of life, from the most spiritual to the most material. It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human beings are creators of culture
and, at the same time, culture is what makes us human. A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolic expression. We must value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to make progress in terms of interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural dialogue. As the world is becoming more and more global and we coexist on a more global level we can’t just think there’s only one right way of living or that any one is valid. The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and beliefs necessary. In order to not make such mistakes, the best thing we can do is get to know other cultures, while also getting to know our own. How can we dialogue with other cultures, if we don’t really know what our own culture is? The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked with culture. It is culture that brings us closer to truth through philosophy and religion; it brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic beings; and it is culture that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings and teaching us the values of love, tolerance and peace

Characteristics of Indian culture;
Traditional Indian culture, in its overall thrust towards the spiritual, promotes moral values and the attitudes of generosity, simplicity and frugality. Some of the striking features of Indian culture that pervade its numerous castes, tribes, ethnic groups and religious groups and sects are as follows;

. A Cosmic Vision;
The framework of Indian culture places human beings within a conception of the universe as a divine creation. It is not anthropo-centric (human-centric) only and considers all elements of creation, both living and non-living, as manifestations of the divine. Therefore, it respects God’s design and promotes the ideal of co-existence. This vision thus, synthesizes human beings, nature
and God into one integral whole. This is reflected in the idea of satyam-shivam-sundaram

Sense of Harmony;
Indian philosophy and culture tries to achieve an innate harmony and order and this is extended to the entire cosmos. Indian culture assumes that natural cosmic order inherent in nature is the foundation of moral and social order. Inner harmony is supposed to be the foundation of outer harmony. External order and beauty will naturally follow from inner harmony. Indian culture
balances and seeks to synthesize the material and the spiritual, as aptly illustrated by the concept of purushartha

Tolerance;
An important characteristic of Indian culture is tolerance. In India, tolerance and liberalism is found for all religions, castes, communities, etc. Many foreign cultures invaded India and Indian society gave every culture the opportunity of prospering. Indian society accepted and respected Shaka, Huna, Shithiyan, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Jain, Buddhist cultures. The feeling of tolerance
towards all religions is a wonderful characteristic of Indian society. Rigveda says-“Truth is one, even then the Scholars describe it in various forms. In Gita, Lord Krishna says, “Those praying others are actually praying me.” This thought is the extreme of tolerance. There is a peaceful coexistence of various religions in India and all have been effecting each other – although this
tradition has been badly affected by activities of converting religion by some religious organizations. All the religions existing in India are respected equally. Indian culture accepts the manifoldness of reality and assimilates plurality of viewpoints, behaviors, customs and institutions. It does not try to suppress diversity in favor of uniformity. The motto of Indian culture is both unity in diversity as well as diversity in unity.

. Adaptability;
Adaptability has a great contribution in making Indian culture immortal. Adaptability is the process of changing according to time, place and period. It’s an essential element of longevity of any culture. Indian culture has a unique property of adjustment, as a result of which, it is maintained till today. Indian family, caste, religion and institutions have changed themselves with time. Due to
adaptability and co-ordination of Indian culture, it’s continuity, utility and activity is still present. Dr. Radha Krishnan, in his book, ‘Indian culture: Some Thoughts’, while describing the adaptability of Indian culture has said all people whether black or white, Hindus or Muslims, Christians or Jews are brothers and our country is the entire universe

Spirituality.;
Spirituality is the soul of Indian culture. Here the existence of soul is accepted. Therefore, the ultimate aim of man is not physical comforts but is self-realisation. Radha Kumud Mukerjee, in his book, ‘Hindu Civilization’, has analysed that Indian culture, which kept it’s personal specialities, bound the entire nation in unity in such a way that nation and culture were considered
inseparable and became unanimous. Nation became culture and culture became nation. Country took the form of Spiritual World, beyond the physical world. When Indian culture originated in the times of Rigveda, then it spread with time to Saptasindhu, Bramhavarta, Aryavarta, Jumbudweepa, Bharata Varsha or India. Because of its strength, it reached abroad beyond the borders of India and established there also.

9.Thoughts about Karma and Reincarnation.;
The concept of Karma (action) and Reincarnation have special importance in Indian culture. It is believed that one gains virtue during good action and takes birth in higher order in his next birth and spends a comfortable life. The one doing bad action takes birth in lower order in his next birth and suffers pain and leads a miserable life. Upanishads say that the Principle of fruits of action
is correct. A man gets the fruits as per the action he does. Therefore, man needs to modify his actions, so as to improve the next birth also. Continuously performing good actions in all his birth, he will get salvation, i.e. will be liberated from the cycle of birth and death. This concept is not only of the Upnishads but is also the basis of the Jainism, Buddhism, etc. In this way, the concept of
reincarnation is associated with the principle of action. The actual cause of reincarnation is the actions done in the previous birth

Defintion;

Poverty has various manifestations: hunger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments; and social discrimination and exclusion.

HUNGER;

Hunger is the condition where both adults and children cannot access food constantly and have to decrease food intake, eat poor diets, and often go without any food

POVERTY;

There are basically three current definitions of poverty in common usage;

absolute poverty

relative poverty

social exclusion

Absolute poverty is defined as lack of sufficient resources with which to keep body and soul together

Relative poverty defines income or resources in relation to the average. It is concerned with the absence of material needs to participate fully in accepted daily life

Social exclusion as shorthand label for what can happen when individuals or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment ,poor skills ,low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown

Issues relating to poverty and hunger

India is one of the fastest growing economies. Despite this, poverty and hunger in India are very high. About 20-35% of children suffer from severe undernutrition in the majority of Indian states. According to India’s 2011 government data, 65 million people live in areas that lack basic facilities, which puts them under the risk of various diseases alongside hunger, which is often life-threatening.

In recently published the Global Hunger Index (GHI), India has slid down, falling behind its South Asian neighbors to rank 101 out of 116 countries. The government has dismissed the report’s ‘unscientific’ methodology.

Issues relating to poverty and hunger

Poverty and hunger have been a universal and increasing menace to humankind. Let us learn about these issues in detail.

Issues relating to Hunger

• Hunger is the condition where both adults and children cannot access food constantly and have to decrease food intake, eat poor diets, and often go without any food.

Root causes of hunger;

Hunger at global scale is one of the main problems that large number of the global population faces presently. Hunger varies with severity. World hunger has many annoying factors and major causes, such as insufficient economic systems, misinformation, and climate changes. But the main unbearable factor is poverty as poverty always has led to people going without regular meals because they cannot afford to eat. There are majority of people in developing countries such as Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia that are in desperate need of food. It has been observed that with the growth of population, the number of hungry people also increases at an uneven rate.

Among numerous issues, Hunger and malnutrition are closely associated in indian scenario;

• The Global Study revealed that 42% children in India are underweight and 58% of children are stunted by two years of age.
• Malnutrition occurs when a person’s body receives little or no nutrients. People who are malnourished get sick more often and as a result in many cases die.
• Malnutrition is consequently the most important risk factor for the problem of disease in developing countries.
• It is the direct cause of about 300,000 deaths per year and is indirectly responsible for about half of all deaths in young children.
• It can be said that world hunger must be taken seriously and should be approached with all deliberate and instant policies.
• There are different issues of world hunger but the three main ones are poverty, climate changes, and also feeble economies.
• In India, 21.9% of the population lives below the national poverty line in 2011.
• In India, the proportion of the employed population below $1.90 purchasing power parity a day in 2011 is 21.2%.
• For every 1,000 babies born in India in 2017, 39 die before their 5th birthday.
• Poverty is a condition characterized by lack of basic needs such as water, health care, foods, sufficient access to social and economic services, and few opportunities for formal income generation.
• Poverty is often described in terms of the income level below which people are unable to access sufficient food for a healthy working life.
• Hunger and food insecurity are the most serious forms of extreme poverty.
• Progress in poverty reduction has been concentrated in Asia and especially East Asia. In other areas, the number of people in extreme poverty has increased especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Poverty in India is primarily due to improper government policies and the misuse of the financially weaker section by the wealthier community.

• Poor health services: It has been observed that People of India have less access to good health services as compared to industrialized nations. The relationship between poverty and access to health care can be seen as part of a larger cycle, where poverty leads to ill health and ill health maintains poverty.
• Child malnutrition: The occurrence of under-nutrition in India is amongst the highest levels found in any country in the world and in spite of the development in food production, disease control and economic and social development; India is facing an acute problem of child malnutrition.
• Insufficient education and training: In developing countries, children do not have access to basic education because of inequalities that originate in sex, health and cultural identity. It has been revealed in reports that illiteracy and lack of education are common factor that lead to poverty

• Other causes include:
  • Population Rise
  • Low Productivity in Agriculture
  • Under-Utilized Resources
  • Low Rate of Economic Development
  • Price Rise
  • Unemployment
  • Shortage of Capital and Able Entrepreneurship
  • Social Factors

What are the causes of poverty (Indian perspective)?

• Colonial exploitation: India under the colonial hegemony was forced to de-industrialize resulting in increased raw material production and a decrease in the export of value-added goods like traditional handicrafts and textiles. The natives were forced to buy British goods, thus discouraging them from manufacturing indigenously. This led to massive unemployment. The droughts, diseases, and others increased the plight of the Indians during that time.
• Caste Based Rural Economy: The traditional village economy revolved around a hereditary caste hierarchy that prescribed individuals´ occupations. Upper castes were the landowners, middle-ranked (backward) castes the farmers and artisans, and the lowest-ranked (scheduled) castes the laborers who performed menial tasks. Though after globalization rural economy extending towards semi-urban economy yet right to choose occupation is still massive hurdle for rural population.
• Increase in the population: the rapid increase in the population due to a decrease in the mortality rate and an increase in the birth rate can be an asset for the Indian economy. However, in the present scenario, this is turning out to be a liability due to massive unemployment and an increase in the dependence on those working populations. The massive population must be converted to human capital to promote the growth of the economy.
• Natural Calamities: In India, the maximum of the population who belong to BPL is from states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. The reason behind this is that these states are prone to natural disasters and also most of the population in these states are from SC/STs thus making them unrepresented. The natural calamities in these states hamper the agricultural progress and economic development of these states.
• The rise of unorganised sectors: many sectors in the Indian economy are unorganised. This brings in the problem of labour exploitation. The increase in demand for work also causes job insecurities.
• Failing Agricultural sector: the agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable sectors of the Indian economy. Farmer suicides and protests are on the rise due to the increasing debt and decrease in production. This, in the long run, would result in them suffering from poverty. This sector employs a maximum of the Indian population but provides little profit.
• Lack of investment: The investment provides more job opportunities. For this, the Indian economy must be favourable for foreign investment. However, some parts of India remain unfavourable due to corruption, political instability, militancy etc.
• Social factors: Illiteracy, unrepresented minorities, social norms, caste systems are still prevalent in certain parts of India.
• Lack of skilled labour: the population can be an asset to the economy if it is utilized efficiently. This can be done through human capitalization. Measures to improve the literacy of the population are very slow. Some, due to the lack of sufficient skills are not accepted in the workforce. This results in unemployment and poverty.
• Corruption: Many measures have been taken by the government to eliminate poverty. However, there is still a lack of political will. The corruption by those in power also contributes to poverty.
• Inefficient use of resources: India is a country that has abundant natural resources which, if utilized efficiently, without wastage, can be turned into an asset.
• Lack of entrepreneurship: There are many activities in India that can be of asset to the economy. For example, some tribes have rich art and culture which can be utilized for the tribes’ growth and development through proper entrepreneurship. However, due to a lack of leadership and entrepreneurial skills, they go to waste. The tribes remain one of the most vulnerable sections of Indian society.
• Lack of infrastructure: Many parts of India still remain isolated despite the rapid economic growth. There are several villages in India that still don’t have access to basic commodities like electricity, thus resulting in poor standards of living. They don’t even have proper roads or railways. Their contribution to the economy goes to waste due to inaccessibility.
• Recession induced by coronavirus pandemic.

Definition;

Mechanical engineering is the study of physical machines that may involve force and movement. It is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematics principles with material science, to design , analyze, manufacture, and maintain  mechanical systems It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches.

Disciplines within mechanical engineering include but are not limited to:

• Acoustics.
• Aerospace.
• Automation.
• Automotive.
• Autonomous Systems.
• Biotechnology.
• Composites.
• Computer Aided Design (CAD

ACOUSTICS;

acoustics, the science concerned with the production, control, transmission, reception, and effects of sound. The term is derived from the Greek akoustos, meaning “heard.

AEROSPACE;

Aerospace is a term used to collectively refer to the atmosphere and outer space. Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial and military applications. Aerospace engineering consists of aeronautics and astronautics.

AUTOMATION;

Automation is a term for technology applications where human input is minimized. This includes business process automation (BPA), IT automation, personal applications such as home automation and more.

AUTOMOTIVE;

The word automotive comes from the Greek autos (self), and Latin motivus (of motion), referring to any form of self-powered vehicle.

AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS;

An autonomous system (AS) is a network or a collection of networks that are all managed and supervised by a single entity or organization. An AS is a heterogeneous network typically governed by a large enterprise. An AS has many different subnetworks with combined routing logic and common routing policies.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN;

CAD (computer-aided design) is the use of computer-based software to aid in design processes. CAD software is frequently used by different types of engineers and designers. CAD software can be used to create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) models.

4 BRANCHES OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING;

Manufacturing. 

Mechanical Design. 

System Dynamics and

Control. Transportation Systems.

Manufacturing;

Mechanical Engineering with the focus only on Machine Tools, Materials Science, Tribology, and Quality Control is known as Manufacturing Engineering. Professional manufacturing engineers are responsible for all aspect of the design, development, implementation, operation and management of manufacturing system.

Mechanical design;

Mechanical design is to design parts, components, products, or systems of mechanical nature. For example, designs of various machine elements such as shafts, bearings, clutches, gears, and fasteners fall into the scope of mechanical design.

System dynamics;

System Dynamics is a computer-based mathematical modeling approach for strategy development and better decision making in complex systems. This approach uses computer-aided simulation methodology based on feedback systems theory which complements the other Systems Thinking approaches.

Control transportation systems;

Transportation control measures (TCMs) are strategies that reduce transportation-related air pollution, GHG emissions, and fuel use by reducing vehicle miles traveled and improving roadway operations

Definition;

Problem-solving involves identifying an issue, finding causes, asking questions and brainstorming solutions. Gathering facts helps make the solution more obvious. Decision-making is the process of choosing a solution based on your judgment, situation, facts, knowledge or a combination of available data.

Introduction;

This unit focuses on two key management functions in schools: Decision-making and Problem-solving. Exceptions apart, the work performed by school heads involves or is related to decision making in the institution. Problems are addressed. Choices are made. Resources are committed. Consequences are experienced. These decisions have the potential to have a considerable impact on the school and its members.

OBJECTIVES;
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1) define decision-making and problem-solving;
2)explain the importance of decision-making and problem-solving skills;
3) understand the types of decisions and decision-making styles;
4) describe the attributes of an effective decision maker;
5)discuss a model for problem-solving: and
6)I apply the model as a way to improve your decision-making styles.

Approaches to problem solving;

There are many approaches to problem-solving, depending on the nature of the problem and the people involved in the problem.
Rational Approach ‘
The rational approach involves clarifying, giving description of the problem, analysing causes, identifying alternatives, assessing each alternative, choosing one, implementing it, and evaluating whether the problem was solved or not.
Appreciative Inquiry ,
This approach asserts that “problems” are often the result of our own perspectives on a phenomenon. For example, if we look at a particular’ situation as a “problem,” then it will become one and we’ll probably get very stuck with the “problem”. Appreciative inquiry includes identification of our best times about the situation in the past, wishing and thinking about what worked best then, envisioning what we want in the future, and building from our strengths to work toward our vision.

Decision-making Process;
The basic characteristics of decision-making are as follows:
It is the process of choosing a course of action from among the alternative courses of action.
It is a human process involving to a great extent the application of intellectual abilities.
It is the end process preceded by deliberation and reasoning.
It is mostly related to the environment. A decision may be taken in a particular set of circumstances and another in a different set of circumstances.
It involves a time dimension and a time lag.
It always has a purpose. Keeping this in view, there may just be a decision not to decide.
It involves multiple actions like defining the problem and probing and analyzing the various alternatives before a final choice is made.

The decision-making process comprises the following components;
The decision-maker
The decision problem
The environment in which the decision is to be made
The objectives of the decision maker
The alternative courses of action
The outcome expected from various alternatives
The final choice of the alternative

Decision making styles;

There are four styles of decision-making based on who makes the decision:

Individual decision-making;
In individual decision-making, the leader must make the decision alone, and input from others is limited to collecting relevant information.
Decision-making through consultation;
In consultation, the leader discusses the issue with one or more people-seeking ideas, opinions, and suggestions-and then makes a decision. The leader considers the input of others, but the final decision may or may not be influenced by it.
Group decision-making
In this case, the leader and others work together until they reach a consensus decision. Each group member’s opinion and point of view is considered. As a result of participating in the decision making, group members buy into the final decision and commit to supporting its implementation.
Delegating the decision
When delegating a decision, the leader sets the parameters, and then allows one or more colleagues to make the final decision. Although the leader does not make the decision, he or she supports it.

Problem solving;

There are many different decision-making / problem-solving models that you can use. The five-step model shown below has proven effe d tive in emergency situations.
It is not necessary to document each step, but it is important to think through every step

Identify the problem;
Problem identification is undoubtedly the most important and the most difficult step in the process. All subsequent steps will be based on how you define and assess the problem at hand. A problem is a situation or condition of people or the organization
that exist but members of the institution consider that undesirable

Delineating the problem parameters;
Identifying the problem also involves analysing the situation to determine the extent of the problem. Problem parameters include:
What is happening (and is not happening)?
Who is involved?
What the stakes are?

Definition;

Political Science and International Relations are complementary and inter-related disciplines that explore power and politics in many different contexts. They provide concepts with which to explain, justify and critique the modern world. They examine ideologies such as colonisation and socialism.

scope of political science and international relations;

Political Science and International Relations graduates understand diplomacy, conflict, power structures, and politics in a globalised world. Political Science and International Relations students develop strong skills in conceptual analysis, research, strategic thinking, and persuasive communication.

Breadth of study

We are able to offer an excellent range of modules providing both a national and international focus, giving students plenty of choice. Pathways offer students module choices to develop their own specialist interests. 

Personal atmosphere

The staff at the Department of Politics work to create a relaxed and friendly atmosphere. Due to the small size of the seminar groups and the MA-programme in general, lecturers know students individually, and are easily accessible. This stands in stark contrast to the vast and anonymous lectures in some competing MA-programmes at other Universities.

Research-active staff

The University of Liverpool is a Russell Group member, an organisation of leading research and teaching Universities in the UK. All staff are actively researching and publishing in their fields and have national and international reputations. This provides huge benefits for the MA programme as this translates into the classroom. Courses are based on the latest research and give students insight into cutting-edge developments in their fields.

Employability

Studying Politics develops critical and research skills valued by employers – data collection and analysis, problem-solving, argument and self-expression. Graduates have achieved much success in areas such as broadcasting, journalism, the civil service, government (local, national and European), marketing, public relations and academia.

Positive and flexible

We offer postgraduate degrees and adopt a positive and flexible policy towards the requirements of overseas and/or part-time students, including effective timetabling on taught programmes, facilitation of language training, help with practical problems where appropriate, etc. The department fully embraces the University’s Equal Opportunities strategy and works closely with the Student Welfare and Disability Team and the International Office to provide appropriate facilities for students with additional needs including English language support.

Teaching and Research Environment

The University library is well-resourced, up-to-date and easy to use, with particularly good collections in Politics and allied subjects. There are multiple copies of all of the main teaching texts.

Definition;

While our knowledge of the ancient era begins with Thales in the 6th century BCE, little is known about the philosophers who came before socrates (commonly known as the pre Socrates). The ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical schools. Most notable among the schools influenced by Socrates’ teachings were plato, who founded the platonic academy and his student  Aristotle who founded the peripatetic school Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included cynicism, cyrenaicism stoicism, and Academic skepticism. Two other traditions were influenced by Socrates’ contemporary , Democritus: pyrrhonism and Epicureanism

Ancient era

Medieval era;Medieval philosophy (5th–16th centuries) took place during the period following the fall of the Western roman empire and was dominated by the rise of christianity; it hence reflects judeo-christianism theological concerns while also retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of God, the nature of  faith and reason, metaphysics, and the problem of evil  were discussed in this period. Some key medieval thinkers include Augustine ,Thomas,Aquinas, Boethius,Anselm and Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to theology (ancilla theologiae), and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of scholasticism, a text critical method developed in medieval universities based on close reading and disputation on key texts

Early  modern philosophy;

Early modern philosophy  in the Western world begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and Rene Descartes (1596–1650). Following the rise of natural science, modern philosophy was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include spinoza, Leibniz, Lockie, Berkeley, Hume and Kant.

Indian philosophy

Adi shankara is one of the most frequently studied Hindu philosophers.

Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana, lit ’point of view’, ‘perspective’) refers to the diverse philosophical traditions that emerged since the ancient times on the Indian subcontinent. Indian philosophy chiefly considers epistemology, theories of consciousness and theories of mind, and the physical properties of reality.  Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions. These include concepts such as dharma,karma,pramana,dukha ,samsara,moksha.

Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the  later vedic period(1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the vedic period, while the various traditions grouped under Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (astika) or heterodox (nastika) depending on whether they accept the authority of the vedas and the theories of  brahman and atman found therein.

Metaphysics

At its core the study of metaphysics is the study of the nature of reality, of what exists in the world, what it is like, and how it is ordered. In metaphysics philosophers wrestle with such questions as:

• Is there a God?
• What is truth?
• What is a person? What makes a person the same through time?
• Is the world strictly composed of matter?
• Do people have minds? If so, how is the mind related to the body?
• Do people have free wills?
• What is it for one event to cause another?

Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It is primarily concerned with what we can know about the world and how we can know it. Typical questions of concern in epistemology are:

• What is knowledge?
• Do we know anything at all?
• How do we know what we know?
• Can we be justified in claiming to know certain things?

Ethics

The study of ethics often concerns what we ought to do and what it would be best to do. In struggling with this issue, larger questions about what is good and right arise. So, the ethicist attempts to answer such questions as:

• What is good? What makes actions or people good?
• What is right? What makes actions right?
• Is morality objective or subjective?
• How should I treat others?

Logic

Another important aspect of the study of philosophy is the arguments or reasons given for people’s answers to these questions. To this end philosophers employ logic to study the nature and structure of arguments. Logicians ask such questions as:

• What constitutes “good” or “bad” reasoning?
• How do we determine whether a given piece of reasoning is good or bad?

History of Philosophy

The study of philosophy involves not only forming one’s own answers to such questions, but also seeking to understand the way in which people have answered such questions in the past. So, a significant part of philosophy is its history, a history of answers and arguments about these very questions. In studying the history of philosophy one explores the ideas of such historical figures as:

What often motivates the study of philosophy is not merely the answers or arguments themselves but whether or not the arguments are good and the answers are true. Moreover, many of the questions and issues in the various areas of philosophy overlap and in some cases even converge. Thus, philosophical questions arise in almost every discipline. This is why philosophy also encompasses such areas as:

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Definition;

Medical science covers many subjects which try to explain how the human body works. Starting with basic biology it is generally divided into areas of specialisation, such as anatomy, physiology and pathology with some biochemistry, microbiology, molecular biology and genetics.

Subjects in medical science;

Medical science includes Physics, Chemistry, Biology, English, and an optional subject are required for medical students. Non-Medical: Physics, Chemistry, Math, English, and an optional subject are required for non-medical students.

Role of medical science;

It leads to significant discoveries, improves health care, and ensures that patients receive the best care possible. It is what makes the development of new medicines and treatments possible, without it we would not be able to move forward in the development of medicine.

Current medical science (original name: Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology Medical Sciences) is published bimonthly by Huazhong University of Science and Technology in partnership with Springer Publishing Company. It provides a forum by publishing peer-reviewed papers, to promote academic exchange between the Chinese researchers and doctors and their foreign counterparts. The journal covers the subjects of biomedicine such as physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, pharmacology, immunology, pathology and pathophysiology etc., and subjects of clinical medicines such as surgery, internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics and otorhinolaryngology etc. High priority is given to studies on the mechanism underlying human diseases and clinical trials. In China, it is one of the five periodicals that are firstly included in Index Medicus (IM) and is now under the coverage of the Science Citation Index-Expanded (SCI-E).

• A platform for academic exchange between Chinese medical researchers and their foreign colleagues
• Published primarily in English
• Presents articles concerning the latest advances and experiences in biomedicine and clinical medicine

Our Medical Science programme always places students’ interest and learning experience at the heart of the teaching and learning activity, as supported by a strong integration of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles and inclusive teaching. We have dedicated staff with diverse experience, outstanding level of pastoral care as well as scientific and clinical research informed teaching.

After successfully completing year one, Medical Science students will be equipped with fundamental knowledge of and practical skills in chemistry and biochemistry, anatomy and physiology, microbiology and personal and professional skills. In year two, students integrate their understanding of the healthy human body with disease pathology and processes before being introduced to the disciplines and techniques involved in delivering quality healthcare, and an insight into management principles relevant to many professional settings in year three.

uring this course you will have the option to complete a paid placement year, an invaluable opportunity to put the skills developed during your degree into practice. This insight into the professional world will build on your knowledge in a real-world setting, preparing you to progress onto your chosen career. 

Our careers programme DMU Works can help to hone your professional skills with mock interviews and practice aptitude tests, and an assigned personal tutor will support you throughout your placement. 

Students have previously undertaken placement opportunities at Institute of Lung Health at Glenfield Hospital, Clintec and private healthcare organisations.

DMU Global

Our innovative international experience programme DMU Global aims to enrich studies, broaden cultural horizons and develop key skills valued by employers. 

Through DMU Global, we offer an exciting mix of overseas, on-campus and online international experiences, including the opportunity to study or work abroad for up to a year.

The DMU Global initiative has seen Medical Science students explore preventative healthcare in Berlin, raise awareness of type 2 diabetes in Kentucky and perform a parasitological and public health research study in New York.

Graduate careers

To help students prepare for specific careers choices, not only do we have a professional careers team, careers conferences, and employment talks, but an initiative where alumni give their advice for students following in their footsteps, including students who have gone on to postgraduate medicine and dentistry, research, and clinical laboratory careers.

Graduate opportunities exist in medical research, writing, education, commerce and sales. This is an appropriate entry qualification for graduates who wish to apply for further study in graduate entry medicine, physician associate, pharmacy, dentistry or NHS medical care practitioner training.

Definition;

Economics is the study of scarcity and its implications for the use of resources, production of goods and services, growth of production and welfare over time, and a great variety of other complex issues of vital concern to society.

There are 4 definitions of economics

These are – production, consumption, and distribution of goods and services. Ans. Adam Smith defined economics as the “science of wealth.” The definition implies that the economy is determined by the wealth generated when people produce valuable commodities that are consumed.

What are the 5 concepts of economics?

Some of the concepts are scarcity, supply & demand, incentives, trade-off and opportunity cost, economic systems, factors of production, production possibilities, marginal analysis, circular flow, and international trade.

What is economics all about?
Economics is the study of how things are made, moved around, and used. It looks at how people, businesses, governments, and countries choose to use their resources. Economics is the study of how people act, based on the idea that people act rationally and try to get the most value or benefit. Economics is the study of how work and business are run. Since there are many ways to use human labour and many ways to get resources.

Economic Indicators
Economic indicators show how a country’s economy is doing in a specific area. When government agencies or private groups put out these reports regularly, they usually have a big effect on the stock, fixed income, and foreign exchange markets. They can also help investors figure out how the economy will affect markets and make decisions about investments.

Gross national product (GDP)
Many people think that a country’s gross domestic product (GDP) is the best way to measure how well its economy is doing. It is the total market value of all finished goods and services made in a country during a certain year or other time period. The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) releases a monthly report at the end of each month. Many investors, analysts, and traders pay attention to the advance GDP report and the preliminary report, which come out a few months before the annual GDP report.

Retail sales
The Department of Commerce (DOC) puts out a report on retail sales in the middle of each month. This report measures the total amount of money made or the dollar value of all products sold in stores.

Industrial manufacturing
The Federal Reserve puts out a report every month called “Industrial Production” that shows how the production of U.S. factories, mines, and utilities has changed over time. One of the closely watched variables in this study is the capacity utilisation ratio, which shows how much of the economy’s productive capacity is being used instead of sitting idle. A country should see its production values increase and its capacity is used to its fullest

Employment Data
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports “nonfarm payrolls” every first Friday of the month with information about jobs.
Most of the time, a strong economy means that jobs are being added quickly. In the same way, big drops could mean that contractions are coming. Even though these are broad trends, it is important to look at how the economy is doing.

Changes in prices for consumers (CPI)
The Consumer Price Index (CPI), which the BLS also puts out, is the standard way to measure inflation. It shows how much retail prices (consumer costs) have changed. The CPI compares price changes from month to month and from year to year by putting goods and services from the economy into a basket.

Definition;

Animal husbandry is the management and care of farm animals by humans. Veterinary Science is the science of diagnosing, treating and curing diseases in birds and animals. It covers the study of animal physiology, treatment and prevention of diseases among animals.

Animal nutrition;

1 Partitioning of food energy within the animal. Direct and indirect calorimetry. Carbon – nitrogenbalance and comparative slaughter methods. Systems for expressing energy value of foods inruminants, pigs and poultry. Energy requirements for maintenance, growth, pregnancy, lactation, egg,wool, and meat production.

1.2 Latest advances in protein nutrition. Energy protein interrelationships. Evaluation of protein quality.Use of NPN compounds in ruminant diets. Protein requirements for maintenance, growth, pregnancy,lactation, egg, wool and meat production.

1.3 Major and trace minerals – Their sources, physiological functions and deficiency symptoms. Toxicminerals. Mineral interactions. Role of fat-soluble and water – soluble vitamins in the body, theirsources and deficiency symptoms.

1.4 Feed additives – methane inhibitors, probiotics, enzymes, antibiotics, hormones, oligosaccharides ,antioxidants, emulsifiers, mould inhibitors, buffers etc. Use and abuse of growth promoters like hormones and antibiotics – latest concepts.

. Animal Physiology;

2.1 Physiology of blood and its circulation, respiration; excretion. Endocrine glands in health and disease.

2.2 Blood constituents – Properties and functions-blood cell formationHaemoglobin synthesis andchemistryplasma proteins production, classification and properties, coagulation of blood;Haemorrhagicdisorders-anticoagulants-blood groups-Blood volumePlasma expanders-Buffer systems in blood.Biochemical tests and their significance in disease diagnosis.

2.3 Circulation – Physiology of heart, cardiac cycle, heart sounds, heart beat, electrocardiograms. Work and efficiency of heart-effect of ions on heart function metabolism of cardiac muscle, nervous and chemical regulation of heart, effect of temperature and stress on heart, blood pressure and hypertension, osmotic regulation, arterial pulse, vasomotor regulation of circulation, shock. Coronary and pulmonary circulation, Blood-Brain barrier- Cerebrospinal fluid- circulation in birds.

.Animal Reproduction;

Semen quality- Preservation and Artificial Insemination- Components of semen, composition of spermatozoa, chemical and physical properties of ejaculated semen, factors affecting semen in vivo and in vitro. Factors affecting semen production and quality, preservation, composition of diluents, sperm concentration, transport of diluted semen. Deep freezing techniques in cows, sheep, goats, swine and poultry. Detection of oestrus and time of insemination for better conception. Anoestrus and repeat breeding

.Livestock Production and Management;

4.1 Commercial Dairy Farming Comparison of dairy farming in India with advanced countries. Dairying under mixed farming and as specialized farming, economic dairy farming. Starting of a dairy farm, Capital and land requirement, organization of the dairy farm. Opportunities in dairy farming, factors determining the efficiency of dairy animal. Herd recording, budgeting, cost of milk production, pricing policy; Personnel Management. Developing Practical and Economic rations for dairy cattle ;supply of greens throughout the year, feed and fodder requirements of Dairy Farm.

Animal Diseases;

2.1 Etiology, epidemiology pathogenesis, symptoms, postmortem lesions, diagnosis, and control of infectious diseases of cattle, sheep and goat, horses, pigs and poultry.

2.2 Etiology, epidemiology, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment of production diseases of cattle, horse, pig and poultry.

2.3 Deficiency diseases of domestic animals and birds.

2.4 Diagnosis and treatment of non-specific conditions like impaction, Bloat, Diarrhoea, Indigestion, dehydration, stroke, poisoning.

2.5 Diagnosis and treatment of neurological disorders.

2.6 Principles and methods of immunization of animals against specific diseases herd immunity- disease free zones- zero disease concept- chemoprophylaxis.

2.7 Anaesthesia- local, regional and general-preanesthetic medication. Symptoms and surgical interference in fractures and dislocation. Hernia, choking abomasal displacement- Caesarian operations. Rumenotomy-Castrations.

2.8 Disease investigation techniques.- Materials for laboratory investigation Establishment of Animal Health Centers Disease free zone.

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Veterinary Public Health;

: 3.1 Zoonoses. – Classification, definition, role of animals and birds in prevalence and transmission of zoonotic diseases occupational zoonotic diseases.

3.2 Epidemiology- Principle, definition of epidemiological terms, application of epidemiological measures in the study of diseases and disease control. Epidemiological features of air, water and foodborne infections. OIE regulations, WTO, sanitary and phytosanitary measures.

3.3 Veterinary Jurisprudence- Rules and Regulations for improvement of animal quality and prevention of animal diseases – State and central rules for prevention of animal and animal product borne diseases-S P C A- Veterolegal cases Certificates -Materials and Methods of collection of samples for veterolegal investigation.

Meat Hygiene and Technology;

5.1.1 Ante mortem care and management of food animals, stunning, slaughter and dressing operations; abattoir requirements and designs; Meat inspection procedures and judgment of carcass meat cuts-grading of carcass meat cuts- duties and functions of Veterinarians in wholesome meat production.

5.1.2 Hygienic methods of handling production of meat- Spoilage of meat and control measures- Post -slaughter physicochemical changes in meat and factors that influence them- Quality improvement methods – Adulteration of meat and detection – Regulatory provisions in Meat trade and Industry.

5.2 Meat Technology.5.2.1 Physical and chemical characteristics of meat- Meat emulsions- Methods of preservation of meat-Curing, canning, irradiation, packaging of meat and meat products, processing and formulations

5.3 By- products- Slaughter house byproducts and their utilization- Edible and inedible by products-Social and economic implications of proper utilization of slaughter house by-products- Organ products for food and pharma

Definition;

​​The word geology means ‘Study of the Earth’. Also known as geoscience or earth science, Geology is the primary Earth science and looks at how the earth formed, its structure and composition, and the types of processes acting on it

The Principles of Geology

• Uniformitarianism.
• Original horizontality.
• Superposition.
• Cross-cutting relationships.
• Walther’s Law.

What are the 4 laws of geology?

The four laws are the law of superposition, law of original horizontality, law of cross-cutting relationships, and law of lateral continuity. Nicolaus Steno was a 17th-century Danish geologist.

Mineral;

Minerals are natural occurring elements and compounds with a definite homogeneous chemical composition and ordered atomic composition.

Each mineral has distinct physical properties, and there are many tests to determine each of them. The specimens can be tested for:

• Luster: Quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral. Examples are metallic, pearly, waxy, dull.
• Color: Minerals are grouped by their color. Mostly diagnostic but impurities can change a mineral’s color.
• streak: Performed by scratching the sample on a porcelian plate. The color of the streak can help name the mineral.
• Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratching.
• Breakage pattern: A mineral can either show fracture or cleavage, the former being breakage of uneven surfaces, and the latter a breakage along closely spaced parallel planes.
• specific gravity the weight of a specific volume of a mineral.
• Effervescence: Involves dripping hydrochloric acid on the mineral to test for fizzing.
• Magnetism: Involves using a magnet to test for magnetism
• Taste: Minerals can have a distinctive taste, such as halite (which tastes like table salt ).

Rock;

The rock cycle shows the relationship between igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloids Most research in geology is associated with the study of rocks, as they provide the primary record of the majority of the geological history of the Earth. There are three major types of rock: igneous sedimentary, and metamorphic. The  rock cycle illustrates the relationships among them .

innerscale of the Earth

The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline.

Millions of Years (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th)
Thousands of years (5th)

Relative dating;

Cross cutting relations can be used to determine the relative ages of  rock strata and other geological structures. Explanations: A – folded  rock strata cut by a thrust fault B – large intrusion  (cutting through A); C – erosion angular unconformity  (cutting off A & B) on which rock strata were deposited; D –  volcanic dyke (cutting through A, B & C); E – even younger rock strata (overlying C & D); F – normal fault  (cutting through A, B, C & E).

Methods for relative dating  were developed when geology first emerged as a natural science . Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geological history and the timing of geological events.

The principle of uniformataism states that the geological processes observed in operation that modify the Earth’s crust at present have worked in much the same way over geological time. A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th-century Scottish physician and geologist James Hutton  is that “the present is the key to the past.” In Hutton’s words: “the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now.”

Absolute dating;

Geologists also use methods to determine the absolute age of rock samples and geological events. These dates are useful on the own and may also be used in conjunction with relative dating methods or to calibrate relative methods.

At the beginning of the 20th century, advancement in geological science was facilitated by the ability to obtain accurate absolute dates to geological events using radioactive isotopes  and other methods. This changed the understanding of geological time. Previously, geologists could only use fossils and stratigraphic correlation to date sections of rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates, it became possible to assign absolute ages  to rock units, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages.

Methods of geology;

A standard  Brunton pocket transit commonly used by geologists for mapping and surveying Geologists use a number of fields, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to petrology  (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation).

Field methods

A typical USGS field mapping camp in the 1950

Today, handheld computers with  GPS and geographic information systems software are often used in geological field work digital geological mapping

A pertified log in pertified forest national park Arizona U.S.A.

Geological  field works varies depending on the task at hand. Typical fieldwork could consist of:

• Geological mapping
  • Structural mapping: identifying the locations of major rock units and the faults and folds that led to their placement there.
  • Stratigraphic mapping: pinpointing the locations of sedimentary facies (lithofacies and biofacies) or the mapping of  isopachs of equal thickness of sedimentary rock
  • Surficial mapping: recording the locations of soils and surficial deposits
• Petrology
• In addition to identifying rocks in the field (lithology), petrologists identify rock samples in the laboratory. Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are through optical microscopy and by using an electronic microprobe. In an optical minerology analysis, petrologists analyze thin sections of rock samples using a  petrograhic microscope .where the minerals can be identified through their different properties in plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, including their birefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interference properties with a conoscopic lens In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals. stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into the geochemical  evolution of rock units.

Economic geology;

Economic geology is a branch of geology that deals with aspects of economic minerals that humankind uses to fulfill various needs. Economic minerals are those extracted profitably for various practical uses. Economic geologists help locate and manage the Earth’s natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as mineral resources, which include metals such as iron, copper, and uranium.

Mining geology;

Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from the Earth. Some resources of economic interests include gemstones metals such as gold and copper, and many minerals such as perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, ,pumice,, quartz and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine , and helium

Petroleum geology

Mud log in process, a common way to study the lithology when drilling oil well petroleum geologists study the locations of the subsurface of the Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons, especially petroleum and natural gas. Because many of these reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins they study the formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic evolution and the present-day positions of the rock units.

Engineering geology

Engineering geology is the application of geological principles to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of engineering works are properly addressed. Engineering geology is distinct from geological engineering, particularly in North America

Hydrology

Geology and geological principles can be applied to various environmental problems such as stream restoration, the restoration of  brown fields, and the understanding of the interaction between natural habitat and the geological environment. Groundwater hydrology, or hydrogeology, is used to locate groundwater, which can often provide a ready supply of uncontaminated water and is especially important in arid regions, and to monitor the spread of contaminants in groundwater wells.

Definition;

In Maths, Statistics is a method of interpreting, analysing and summarising the data. Hence, the types of statistics are categorised based on these features: Descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on the representation of data such as using pie charts, bar graphs, or tables, we analyse and interpret it.

What are the 3 types of statistics?

They are: (i) Mean, (ii) Median, and (iii) Mode. Statistics is the study of Data Collection, Analysis, Interpretation, Presentation, and organizing in a specific way.

Mean;

Mean is an essential concept in mathematics and statistics. The mean is the average or the most common value in a collection of numbers.

In statistics, it is a measure of central tendency of a probability distribution along median and mode. It is also referred to as an expected value.

How to Calculate Mean?

There are different ways of measuring the central tendency of a set of values. There are multiple ways to calculate the mean. Here are the two most popular ones:

Arithmetic mean is the total of the sum of all values in a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in a collection. It is calculated in the following way:

Geometric mean is an nth root of the product of all numbers in a collection. The formula for the geometric mean is:

The geometric mean includes the volatility and compounding effects of returns. Thus, the geometric average provides a more accurate calculation of an average return.

Median;

The median of a set of data is the middlemost number or centre value in the set. The median is also the number that is halfway into the set.

Median Formula

The formula to calculate the median of the finite number of data set is given here. The median formula is different for even and odd numbers of observations. Therefore, it is necessary to recognise first if we have odd number of values or even number of values in a given data set.

The formula to calculate the median of the data set is given as follows.

Odd Number of Observations

If the total number of observations given is odd, then the formula to calculate the median is:

Median = {(n+1)/2}^th term

where n is the number of observations

Even Number of Observations

If the total number of observation is even, then the median formula is:

Median = [(n/2)^th term + {(n/2)+1}^th term]/2

where n is the number of observations

Mode;

In statistics, the mode is the value that is repeatedly occurring in a given set. We can also say that the value or number in a data set, which has a high frequency or appears more frequently, is called mode or modal value. It is one of the three measures of central tendency, apart from mean and median

Mode Definition in Statistics

A mode is defined as the value that has a higher frequency in a given set of values. It is the value that appears the most number of times.

 Bimodal, Trimodal & Multimodal (More than one mode);

• When there are two modes in a data set, then the set is called bimodal

For example, The mode of Set A = {2,2,2,3,4,4,5,5,5} is 2 and 5, because both 2 and 5 is repeated three times in the given set.

• When there are three modes in a data set, then the set is called trimodal

For example, the mode of set A = {2,2,2,3,4,4,5,5,5,7,8,8,8} is 2, 5 and 8

• When there are four or more modes in a data set, then the set is called multimodal

Summary Statistics;

In Statistics, summary statistics are a part of descriptive statistics (Which is one of the types of statistics), which gives the list of information about sample data. We know that statistics deals with the presentation of data visually and quantitatively. Thus, summary statistics deals with summarizing the statistical information. Summary statistics generally deal with condensing the data in a simpler form, so that the observer can understand the information at a glance. Generally, statisticians try to describe the observations by finding:

• The measure of central tendency or mean of the locations, such as arithmetic mean.
• The measure of distribution shapes like skewness or kurtosis.
• The measure of dispersion such as the standard mean absolute deviation.
• The measure of statistical dependence such as correlation coefficient.

Summary Statistics Table;

The summary statistics table is the visual representation of summarized statistical information about the data in tabular form.

For example, the blood group of 20 students in the class are O, A, B, AB, B, B, AB, O, A, B, B, AB, AB, O, O, B, A, AB, B, A.

Thus, the summary statistics table shows that 4 students in the class have O blood group, 4 students have A blood group, 7 students in the class have B blood group and 5 students in the class have AB blood group. The summary statistics table is generally used to represent the big data related to population, unemployment, and the economy to be summarized systematically to interpret the accurate result.

Scope of Statistics;

Statistics is used in many sectors such as psychology, geology, sociology, weather forecasting, probability and much more. The goal of statistics is to gain understanding from the data, it focuses on applications, and hence, it is distinctively considered as a mathematical science.

Methods in Statistics

The methods involve collecting, summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting variable numerical data. Here some of the methods are provided below.

• Data collection
• Data summarization
• Statistical analysis

What is Data in Statistics?

Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, observations etc.

Types of Data

1. Qualitative data- it is descriptive data.
   • Example- She can run fast, He is thin.
2. Quantitative data- it is numerical information.
   • Example- An Octopus is an Eight legged creature.

Types of quantitative data

1. Discrete data- has a particular fixed value. It can be counted
2. Continuous data- is not fixed but has a range of data. It can be measured.

Representation of Data

There are different ways to represent data such as through graphs, charts or tables. The general representation of statistical data are:

• Bar Graph
• Pie Chart
• Line Graph
• Pictograph
• Histogram
• Frequency Distribution

	Bar Graph A Bar Graph represents grouped data with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.
	Pie Chart A type of graph in which a circle is divided into Sectors. Each of these sectors represents a proportion of the whole.
	Line graph The line chart is represented by a series of data points connected with a straight line. The series of data points are called ‘markers.’
	Pictograph A pictorial symbol for a word or phrase, i.e. showing data with the help of pictures. Such as Apple, Banana & Cherry can have different numbers, and it is just a representation of data.
	Histogram A diagram is consisting of rectangles. Whose area is proportional to the frequency of a variable and whose width is equal to the class interval.
	Frequency Distribution The frequency of a data value is often represented by “f.” A frequency table is constructed by arranging collected data values in ascending order of magnitude with their corresponding frequencies.

Definition;

Anthropology is the systematic study of humanity, with the goal of understanding our evolutionary origins, our distinctiveness as a species, and the great diversity in our forms of social existence across the world and through time.

There are 4 types of anthropology;

• Archaeology.
• Bioanthropology.
• Linguistic Anthropology.
• Social-Cultural Anthropology.

Archeology;

Archaeology is the study of the human past using material remains. These remains can be any objects that people created, modified, or used. Portable remains are usually called artifacts. Artifacts include tools, clothing, and decorations. Non-portable remains, such as pyramids or post-holes, are called features.

Bioanthropology;

Bioanthropology is a biosocial science that explores both the sociology and the biology of human groups. Biological anthropologists are interested in human evolution, from our origins and diversity in the past to our probable future as inhabitants of this planet.

Linguistic anthropology;

Linguistic anthropology studies the nature of human languages in the context of those cultures that developed them. Scholars in the field seek to understand the social and cultural foundations of language itself, while exploring how social and cultural formations are grounded in linguistic practices.

social cultural anthropology;

Social-cultural anthropology studies the diversity of human societies in time and space, while looking for commonalities across them. It uses a holistic strategy linking local and global, past and present—to offer various approaches to understanding contemporary challenges.

Applied anthropology;

Applied or practicing anthropologists are an important part of anthropology. Each of the four subfields of anthropology can be applied. Applied anthropologists work to solve real world problems by using anthropological methods and ideas. For example, they may work in local communities helping to solve problems related to health, education or the environment. They might also work for museums or national or state parks helping to interpret history. They might work for local, state or federal governments or for non-profit organizations. Others may work for businesses, like retail stores or software and technology companies, to learn more about how people use products or technology in their daily lives.

Anthropology around the world;

While anthropologists devote much of their attention to what human groups share across time and space, they also study how these groups are different. Just as there is diversity in the ways people physically adapt to their environment, build and organize societies, and communicate, there are also many ways to do anthropology. Unique approaches to anthropology developed in many countries around the world. For example, in some countries the four-field approach is not as strong as it is in others. Anthropologists from across the globe work together through international organizations to try and understand more about our lives as humans.

Employment;

Anthropologists are employed in a number of different sectors, from colleges and universities to government agencies, NGOs, businesses, and health and human services. Within the university, they teach undergraduate and graduate anthropology, and many offer anthropology courses in other departments and professional schools such as business, education, design, and public health. Anthropologists contribute significantly to interdisciplinary fields such as international studies and ethnic and gender studies, and some work in academic research centers. Outside the university, anthropologists work in government agencies, private businesses, community organizations, museums, independent research institutes, service organizations, the media; and others work as independent consultants and research staff for agencies such as the Centers for Disease Control, UNESCO, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank

References;

http://www.wcaanet.org/

https://www.wcaanet.org/members/wcaa-members-associations/