Definition;

Analytical reasoning connotes a person’s general aptitude to arrive at a logical conclusion or solution to given problems. Just as with critical thinking, analytical thinking critically examines the different parts or details of something to fully understand or explain it.

Logical thinking requires the use of reasoning skills to study a problem critically, which will enable you to draw a reasoned decision on how to proceed. Examples of logical thinking: The Rubik cube. Mathematical puzzles and riddles.

Example of Analytical Skills;

• Critical Thinking. Any position across all levels of a company can benefit from critical thinking skills. …
• Data Analysis. …
• Creative Thinking. …
• Communication. …
• Problem-solving. …
• Collaboration.

Critical Thinking;

Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in which you question, analyse, interpret, evaluate and make a judgement about what you read, hear, say, or write. The term critical comes from the Greek word kritikos meaning “able to judge or discern”.

Data Analysis;

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data.

Creative Thinking;

Creative thinking is the ability to come up with unique, original solutions. Also known as creative problem-solving, creative thinking is a valuable and marketable soft skill in a wide variety of careers.

Communication;

According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, communication can be defined as the process or act of exchanging, expressing or conveying information and ideas through writing, speaking and gesturing.

Problem solving;

Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution. 

Collabaration;

Collaboration is a partnership; a union; the act of producing or making something together. Collaboration can take place between two people or many people, strangers or best friends. 

Definition;

The rich heritage of India, one of the world’s oldest civilizations, is an all-embracing confluence of religions, traditions and customs. The highlights of Indian heritage lie in the treasure of its art, architecture, classical dance, music, flora and fauna, and the innate secular philosophy of its people.

What are the 7 natural heritage of India?

Natural World Heritage Sites

The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal, all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee. The most recent site listed was Dholavira, in 2021.

. Objectives
In this lesson, students investigate various facets of Indian culture. Throughout the chapter,
emphasis will be on the concept and importance of Indian culture through various ages of India.
After studying this lesson you will be able to:

• understand the concept and meaning of culture;
• establish the relationship between culture and civilization;
• establish the link between culture and heritage;
• discuss the role and impact of culture in human life.
• describe the distinctive features of Indian culture;
• identify the central points and uniqueness of Indian culture;
• explain the points of diversity and underlying unity in it; and
• trace the influence and significance of geographical features on Indian culture

Culture has two types: (i) material, and (ii) non-material. The first includes technologies, instruments, material goods, consumer goods, household design and architecture, modes of production, trade, commerce, welfare and other social activities. The latter includes norms, values, beliefs, myths, legends, literature, ritual, art forms and other intellectual-literary activities. The
material and non-material aspects of any culture are usually interdependent on each other. Sometimes, however, material culture may change quickly but the non-material may take longer time to change. According to Indologists, Indian culture stands not only for a traditional social code but also for a spiritual foundation of life.

Culture and Heritage;
Cultural development is a historical process. Our ancestors learnt many things from their
predecessors. With the passage of time they also added to it from their own experience and gave up
those which they did not consider useful. We in turn have learnt many things from our ancestors. As
time goes we continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and sometimes we
give up some which we don’t consider useful any more. This is how culture is transmitted and
carried forward from generation to next generation. The culture we inherit from our predecessors is
called our cultural heritage.

General Characteristics of Culture;
Now let us discuss some general characteristics of culture, which are common to different cultures throughout the world.
Culture is learned and acquired: Culture is acquired in the sense that there are certain behaviors which are acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit certain qualities from their parents but socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are learnt from family members, from the group and the society in which they live. It is thus apparent that the culture of human beings is
influenced by the physical and social environment through which they operate. Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be called culture if it is shared and believed or practiced by a group of people.
Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed from one generation to another generation. More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as the time passes by. Each may work out solution to problems in life that passes from one generation to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time.
Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as new cultural traits are added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within the particular culture as time passes.
Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of culture that stems from the culture’s cumulative quality. Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns: It involves how an activity
should be conducted, how an individual should act appropriately.
Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts. Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming culture as whole.

Importance of Culture in Human life;
Culture is closely linked with life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as human beings can use. It is not merely a touch of color. It is what makes us human. Without culture, there would be no humans. Culture is made up of traditions, beliefs, way of life, from the most spiritual to the most material. It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human beings are creators of culture
and, at the same time, culture is what makes us human. A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolic expression. We must value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to make progress in terms of interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural dialogue. As the world is becoming more and more global and we coexist on a more global level we can’t just think there’s only one right way of living or that any one is valid. The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and beliefs necessary. In order to not make such mistakes, the best thing we can do is get to know other cultures, while also getting to know our own. How can we dialogue with other cultures, if we don’t really know what our own culture is? The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked with culture. It is culture that brings us closer to truth through philosophy and religion; it brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic beings; and it is culture that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings and teaching us the values of love, tolerance and peace

Characteristics of Indian culture;
Traditional Indian culture, in its overall thrust towards the spiritual, promotes moral values and the attitudes of generosity, simplicity and frugality. Some of the striking features of Indian culture that pervade its numerous castes, tribes, ethnic groups and religious groups and sects are as follows;

. A Cosmic Vision;
The framework of Indian culture places human beings within a conception of the universe as a divine creation. It is not anthropo-centric (human-centric) only and considers all elements of creation, both living and non-living, as manifestations of the divine. Therefore, it respects God’s design and promotes the ideal of co-existence. This vision thus, synthesizes human beings, nature
and God into one integral whole. This is reflected in the idea of satyam-shivam-sundaram

Sense of Harmony;
Indian philosophy and culture tries to achieve an innate harmony and order and this is extended to the entire cosmos. Indian culture assumes that natural cosmic order inherent in nature is the foundation of moral and social order. Inner harmony is supposed to be the foundation of outer harmony. External order and beauty will naturally follow from inner harmony. Indian culture
balances and seeks to synthesize the material and the spiritual, as aptly illustrated by the concept of purushartha

Tolerance;
An important characteristic of Indian culture is tolerance. In India, tolerance and liberalism is found for all religions, castes, communities, etc. Many foreign cultures invaded India and Indian society gave every culture the opportunity of prospering. Indian society accepted and respected Shaka, Huna, Shithiyan, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Jain, Buddhist cultures. The feeling of tolerance
towards all religions is a wonderful characteristic of Indian society. Rigveda says-“Truth is one, even then the Scholars describe it in various forms. In Gita, Lord Krishna says, “Those praying others are actually praying me.” This thought is the extreme of tolerance. There is a peaceful coexistence of various religions in India and all have been effecting each other – although this
tradition has been badly affected by activities of converting religion by some religious organizations. All the religions existing in India are respected equally. Indian culture accepts the manifoldness of reality and assimilates plurality of viewpoints, behaviors, customs and institutions. It does not try to suppress diversity in favor of uniformity. The motto of Indian culture is both unity in diversity as well as diversity in unity.

. Adaptability;
Adaptability has a great contribution in making Indian culture immortal. Adaptability is the process of changing according to time, place and period. It’s an essential element of longevity of any culture. Indian culture has a unique property of adjustment, as a result of which, it is maintained till today. Indian family, caste, religion and institutions have changed themselves with time. Due to
adaptability and co-ordination of Indian culture, it’s continuity, utility and activity is still present. Dr. Radha Krishnan, in his book, ‘Indian culture: Some Thoughts’, while describing the adaptability of Indian culture has said all people whether black or white, Hindus or Muslims, Christians or Jews are brothers and our country is the entire universe

Spirituality.;
Spirituality is the soul of Indian culture. Here the existence of soul is accepted. Therefore, the ultimate aim of man is not physical comforts but is self-realisation. Radha Kumud Mukerjee, in his book, ‘Hindu Civilization’, has analysed that Indian culture, which kept it’s personal specialities, bound the entire nation in unity in such a way that nation and culture were considered
inseparable and became unanimous. Nation became culture and culture became nation. Country took the form of Spiritual World, beyond the physical world. When Indian culture originated in the times of Rigveda, then it spread with time to Saptasindhu, Bramhavarta, Aryavarta, Jumbudweepa, Bharata Varsha or India. Because of its strength, it reached abroad beyond the borders of India and established there also.

9.Thoughts about Karma and Reincarnation.;
The concept of Karma (action) and Reincarnation have special importance in Indian culture. It is believed that one gains virtue during good action and takes birth in higher order in his next birth and spends a comfortable life. The one doing bad action takes birth in lower order in his next birth and suffers pain and leads a miserable life. Upanishads say that the Principle of fruits of action
is correct. A man gets the fruits as per the action he does. Therefore, man needs to modify his actions, so as to improve the next birth also. Continuously performing good actions in all his birth, he will get salvation, i.e. will be liberated from the cycle of birth and death. This concept is not only of the Upnishads but is also the basis of the Jainism, Buddhism, etc. In this way, the concept of
reincarnation is associated with the principle of action. The actual cause of reincarnation is the actions done in the previous birth

Defintion;

Poverty has various manifestations: hunger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments; and social discrimination and exclusion.

HUNGER;

Hunger is the condition where both adults and children cannot access food constantly and have to decrease food intake, eat poor diets, and often go without any food

POVERTY;

There are basically three current definitions of poverty in common usage;

absolute poverty

relative poverty

social exclusion

Absolute poverty is defined as lack of sufficient resources with which to keep body and soul together

Relative poverty defines income or resources in relation to the average. It is concerned with the absence of material needs to participate fully in accepted daily life

Social exclusion as shorthand label for what can happen when individuals or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment ,poor skills ,low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown

Issues relating to poverty and hunger

India is one of the fastest growing economies. Despite this, poverty and hunger in India are very high. About 20-35% of children suffer from severe undernutrition in the majority of Indian states. According to India’s 2011 government data, 65 million people live in areas that lack basic facilities, which puts them under the risk of various diseases alongside hunger, which is often life-threatening.

In recently published the Global Hunger Index (GHI), India has slid down, falling behind its South Asian neighbors to rank 101 out of 116 countries. The government has dismissed the report’s ‘unscientific’ methodology.

Issues relating to poverty and hunger

Poverty and hunger have been a universal and increasing menace to humankind. Let us learn about these issues in detail.

Issues relating to Hunger

• Hunger is the condition where both adults and children cannot access food constantly and have to decrease food intake, eat poor diets, and often go without any food.

Root causes of hunger;

Hunger at global scale is one of the main problems that large number of the global population faces presently. Hunger varies with severity. World hunger has many annoying factors and major causes, such as insufficient economic systems, misinformation, and climate changes. But the main unbearable factor is poverty as poverty always has led to people going without regular meals because they cannot afford to eat. There are majority of people in developing countries such as Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia that are in desperate need of food. It has been observed that with the growth of population, the number of hungry people also increases at an uneven rate.

Among numerous issues, Hunger and malnutrition are closely associated in indian scenario;

• The Global Study revealed that 42% children in India are underweight and 58% of children are stunted by two years of age.
• Malnutrition occurs when a person’s body receives little or no nutrients. People who are malnourished get sick more often and as a result in many cases die.
• Malnutrition is consequently the most important risk factor for the problem of disease in developing countries.
• It is the direct cause of about 300,000 deaths per year and is indirectly responsible for about half of all deaths in young children.
• It can be said that world hunger must be taken seriously and should be approached with all deliberate and instant policies.
• There are different issues of world hunger but the three main ones are poverty, climate changes, and also feeble economies.
• In India, 21.9% of the population lives below the national poverty line in 2011.
• In India, the proportion of the employed population below $1.90 purchasing power parity a day in 2011 is 21.2%.
• For every 1,000 babies born in India in 2017, 39 die before their 5th birthday.
• Poverty is a condition characterized by lack of basic needs such as water, health care, foods, sufficient access to social and economic services, and few opportunities for formal income generation.
• Poverty is often described in terms of the income level below which people are unable to access sufficient food for a healthy working life.
• Hunger and food insecurity are the most serious forms of extreme poverty.
• Progress in poverty reduction has been concentrated in Asia and especially East Asia. In other areas, the number of people in extreme poverty has increased especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Poverty in India is primarily due to improper government policies and the misuse of the financially weaker section by the wealthier community.

• Poor health services: It has been observed that People of India have less access to good health services as compared to industrialized nations. The relationship between poverty and access to health care can be seen as part of a larger cycle, where poverty leads to ill health and ill health maintains poverty.
• Child malnutrition: The occurrence of under-nutrition in India is amongst the highest levels found in any country in the world and in spite of the development in food production, disease control and economic and social development; India is facing an acute problem of child malnutrition.
• Insufficient education and training: In developing countries, children do not have access to basic education because of inequalities that originate in sex, health and cultural identity. It has been revealed in reports that illiteracy and lack of education are common factor that lead to poverty

• Other causes include:
  • Population Rise
  • Low Productivity in Agriculture
  • Under-Utilized Resources
  • Low Rate of Economic Development
  • Price Rise
  • Unemployment
  • Shortage of Capital and Able Entrepreneurship
  • Social Factors

What are the causes of poverty (Indian perspective)?

• Colonial exploitation: India under the colonial hegemony was forced to de-industrialize resulting in increased raw material production and a decrease in the export of value-added goods like traditional handicrafts and textiles. The natives were forced to buy British goods, thus discouraging them from manufacturing indigenously. This led to massive unemployment. The droughts, diseases, and others increased the plight of the Indians during that time.
• Caste Based Rural Economy: The traditional village economy revolved around a hereditary caste hierarchy that prescribed individuals´ occupations. Upper castes were the landowners, middle-ranked (backward) castes the farmers and artisans, and the lowest-ranked (scheduled) castes the laborers who performed menial tasks. Though after globalization rural economy extending towards semi-urban economy yet right to choose occupation is still massive hurdle for rural population.
• Increase in the population: the rapid increase in the population due to a decrease in the mortality rate and an increase in the birth rate can be an asset for the Indian economy. However, in the present scenario, this is turning out to be a liability due to massive unemployment and an increase in the dependence on those working populations. The massive population must be converted to human capital to promote the growth of the economy.
• Natural Calamities: In India, the maximum of the population who belong to BPL is from states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. The reason behind this is that these states are prone to natural disasters and also most of the population in these states are from SC/STs thus making them unrepresented. The natural calamities in these states hamper the agricultural progress and economic development of these states.
• The rise of unorganised sectors: many sectors in the Indian economy are unorganised. This brings in the problem of labour exploitation. The increase in demand for work also causes job insecurities.
• Failing Agricultural sector: the agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable sectors of the Indian economy. Farmer suicides and protests are on the rise due to the increasing debt and decrease in production. This, in the long run, would result in them suffering from poverty. This sector employs a maximum of the Indian population but provides little profit.
• Lack of investment: The investment provides more job opportunities. For this, the Indian economy must be favourable for foreign investment. However, some parts of India remain unfavourable due to corruption, political instability, militancy etc.
• Social factors: Illiteracy, unrepresented minorities, social norms, caste systems are still prevalent in certain parts of India.
• Lack of skilled labour: the population can be an asset to the economy if it is utilized efficiently. This can be done through human capitalization. Measures to improve the literacy of the population are very slow. Some, due to the lack of sufficient skills are not accepted in the workforce. This results in unemployment and poverty.
• Corruption: Many measures have been taken by the government to eliminate poverty. However, there is still a lack of political will. The corruption by those in power also contributes to poverty.
• Inefficient use of resources: India is a country that has abundant natural resources which, if utilized efficiently, without wastage, can be turned into an asset.
• Lack of entrepreneurship: There are many activities in India that can be of asset to the economy. For example, some tribes have rich art and culture which can be utilized for the tribes’ growth and development through proper entrepreneurship. However, due to a lack of leadership and entrepreneurial skills, they go to waste. The tribes remain one of the most vulnerable sections of Indian society.
• Lack of infrastructure: Many parts of India still remain isolated despite the rapid economic growth. There are several villages in India that still don’t have access to basic commodities like electricity, thus resulting in poor standards of living. They don’t even have proper roads or railways. Their contribution to the economy goes to waste due to inaccessibility.
• Recession induced by coronavirus pandemic.

Definition;

Mechanical engineering is the study of physical machines that may involve force and movement. It is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematics principles with material science, to design , analyze, manufacture, and maintain  mechanical systems It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches.

Disciplines within mechanical engineering include but are not limited to:

• Acoustics.
• Aerospace.
• Automation.
• Automotive.
• Autonomous Systems.
• Biotechnology.
• Composites.
• Computer Aided Design (CAD

ACOUSTICS;

acoustics, the science concerned with the production, control, transmission, reception, and effects of sound. The term is derived from the Greek akoustos, meaning “heard.

AEROSPACE;

Aerospace is a term used to collectively refer to the atmosphere and outer space. Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial and military applications. Aerospace engineering consists of aeronautics and astronautics.

AUTOMATION;

Automation is a term for technology applications where human input is minimized. This includes business process automation (BPA), IT automation, personal applications such as home automation and more.

AUTOMOTIVE;

The word automotive comes from the Greek autos (self), and Latin motivus (of motion), referring to any form of self-powered vehicle.

AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS;

An autonomous system (AS) is a network or a collection of networks that are all managed and supervised by a single entity or organization. An AS is a heterogeneous network typically governed by a large enterprise. An AS has many different subnetworks with combined routing logic and common routing policies.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN;

CAD (computer-aided design) is the use of computer-based software to aid in design processes. CAD software is frequently used by different types of engineers and designers. CAD software can be used to create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) models.

4 BRANCHES OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING;

Manufacturing. 

Mechanical Design. 

System Dynamics and

Control. Transportation Systems.

Manufacturing;

Mechanical Engineering with the focus only on Machine Tools, Materials Science, Tribology, and Quality Control is known as Manufacturing Engineering. Professional manufacturing engineers are responsible for all aspect of the design, development, implementation, operation and management of manufacturing system.

Mechanical design;

Mechanical design is to design parts, components, products, or systems of mechanical nature. For example, designs of various machine elements such as shafts, bearings, clutches, gears, and fasteners fall into the scope of mechanical design.

System dynamics;

System Dynamics is a computer-based mathematical modeling approach for strategy development and better decision making in complex systems. This approach uses computer-aided simulation methodology based on feedback systems theory which complements the other Systems Thinking approaches.

Control transportation systems;

Transportation control measures (TCMs) are strategies that reduce transportation-related air pollution, GHG emissions, and fuel use by reducing vehicle miles traveled and improving roadway operations

Definition;

Problem-solving involves identifying an issue, finding causes, asking questions and brainstorming solutions. Gathering facts helps make the solution more obvious. Decision-making is the process of choosing a solution based on your judgment, situation, facts, knowledge or a combination of available data.

Introduction;

This unit focuses on two key management functions in schools: Decision-making and Problem-solving. Exceptions apart, the work performed by school heads involves or is related to decision making in the institution. Problems are addressed. Choices are made. Resources are committed. Consequences are experienced. These decisions have the potential to have a considerable impact on the school and its members.

OBJECTIVES;
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1) define decision-making and problem-solving;
2)explain the importance of decision-making and problem-solving skills;
3) understand the types of decisions and decision-making styles;
4) describe the attributes of an effective decision maker;
5)discuss a model for problem-solving: and
6)I apply the model as a way to improve your decision-making styles.

Approaches to problem solving;

There are many approaches to problem-solving, depending on the nature of the problem and the people involved in the problem.
Rational Approach ‘
The rational approach involves clarifying, giving description of the problem, analysing causes, identifying alternatives, assessing each alternative, choosing one, implementing it, and evaluating whether the problem was solved or not.
Appreciative Inquiry ,
This approach asserts that “problems” are often the result of our own perspectives on a phenomenon. For example, if we look at a particular’ situation as a “problem,” then it will become one and we’ll probably get very stuck with the “problem”. Appreciative inquiry includes identification of our best times about the situation in the past, wishing and thinking about what worked best then, envisioning what we want in the future, and building from our strengths to work toward our vision.

Decision-making Process;
The basic characteristics of decision-making are as follows:
It is the process of choosing a course of action from among the alternative courses of action.
It is a human process involving to a great extent the application of intellectual abilities.
It is the end process preceded by deliberation and reasoning.
It is mostly related to the environment. A decision may be taken in a particular set of circumstances and another in a different set of circumstances.
It involves a time dimension and a time lag.
It always has a purpose. Keeping this in view, there may just be a decision not to decide.
It involves multiple actions like defining the problem and probing and analyzing the various alternatives before a final choice is made.

The decision-making process comprises the following components;
The decision-maker
The decision problem
The environment in which the decision is to be made
The objectives of the decision maker
The alternative courses of action
The outcome expected from various alternatives
The final choice of the alternative

Decision making styles;

There are four styles of decision-making based on who makes the decision:

Individual decision-making;
In individual decision-making, the leader must make the decision alone, and input from others is limited to collecting relevant information.
Decision-making through consultation;
In consultation, the leader discusses the issue with one or more people-seeking ideas, opinions, and suggestions-and then makes a decision. The leader considers the input of others, but the final decision may or may not be influenced by it.
Group decision-making
In this case, the leader and others work together until they reach a consensus decision. Each group member’s opinion and point of view is considered. As a result of participating in the decision making, group members buy into the final decision and commit to supporting its implementation.
Delegating the decision
When delegating a decision, the leader sets the parameters, and then allows one or more colleagues to make the final decision. Although the leader does not make the decision, he or she supports it.

Problem solving;

There are many different decision-making / problem-solving models that you can use. The five-step model shown below has proven effe d tive in emergency situations.
It is not necessary to document each step, but it is important to think through every step

Identify the problem;
Problem identification is undoubtedly the most important and the most difficult step in the process. All subsequent steps will be based on how you define and assess the problem at hand. A problem is a situation or condition of people or the organization
that exist but members of the institution consider that undesirable

Delineating the problem parameters;
Identifying the problem also involves analysing the situation to determine the extent of the problem. Problem parameters include:
What is happening (and is not happening)?
Who is involved?
What the stakes are?

Definition;

Political Science and International Relations are complementary and inter-related disciplines that explore power and politics in many different contexts. They provide concepts with which to explain, justify and critique the modern world. They examine ideologies such as colonisation and socialism.

scope of political science and international relations;

Political Science and International Relations graduates understand diplomacy, conflict, power structures, and politics in a globalised world. Political Science and International Relations students develop strong skills in conceptual analysis, research, strategic thinking, and persuasive communication.

Breadth of study

We are able to offer an excellent range of modules providing both a national and international focus, giving students plenty of choice. Pathways offer students module choices to develop their own specialist interests. 

Personal atmosphere

The staff at the Department of Politics work to create a relaxed and friendly atmosphere. Due to the small size of the seminar groups and the MA-programme in general, lecturers know students individually, and are easily accessible. This stands in stark contrast to the vast and anonymous lectures in some competing MA-programmes at other Universities.

Research-active staff

The University of Liverpool is a Russell Group member, an organisation of leading research and teaching Universities in the UK. All staff are actively researching and publishing in their fields and have national and international reputations. This provides huge benefits for the MA programme as this translates into the classroom. Courses are based on the latest research and give students insight into cutting-edge developments in their fields.

Employability

Studying Politics develops critical and research skills valued by employers – data collection and analysis, problem-solving, argument and self-expression. Graduates have achieved much success in areas such as broadcasting, journalism, the civil service, government (local, national and European), marketing, public relations and academia.

Positive and flexible

We offer postgraduate degrees and adopt a positive and flexible policy towards the requirements of overseas and/or part-time students, including effective timetabling on taught programmes, facilitation of language training, help with practical problems where appropriate, etc. The department fully embraces the University’s Equal Opportunities strategy and works closely with the Student Welfare and Disability Team and the International Office to provide appropriate facilities for students with additional needs including English language support.

Teaching and Research Environment

The University library is well-resourced, up-to-date and easy to use, with particularly good collections in Politics and allied subjects. There are multiple copies of all of the main teaching texts.

Definition;

While our knowledge of the ancient era begins with Thales in the 6th century BCE, little is known about the philosophers who came before socrates (commonly known as the pre Socrates). The ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical schools. Most notable among the schools influenced by Socrates’ teachings were plato, who founded the platonic academy and his student  Aristotle who founded the peripatetic school Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included cynicism, cyrenaicism stoicism, and Academic skepticism. Two other traditions were influenced by Socrates’ contemporary , Democritus: pyrrhonism and Epicureanism

Ancient era

Medieval era;Medieval philosophy (5th–16th centuries) took place during the period following the fall of the Western roman empire and was dominated by the rise of christianity; it hence reflects judeo-christianism theological concerns while also retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of God, the nature of  faith and reason, metaphysics, and the problem of evil  were discussed in this period. Some key medieval thinkers include Augustine ,Thomas,Aquinas, Boethius,Anselm and Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to theology (ancilla theologiae), and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of scholasticism, a text critical method developed in medieval universities based on close reading and disputation on key texts

Early  modern philosophy;

Early modern philosophy  in the Western world begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and Rene Descartes (1596–1650). Following the rise of natural science, modern philosophy was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include spinoza, Leibniz, Lockie, Berkeley, Hume and Kant.

Indian philosophy

Adi shankara is one of the most frequently studied Hindu philosophers.

Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana, lit ’point of view’, ‘perspective’) refers to the diverse philosophical traditions that emerged since the ancient times on the Indian subcontinent. Indian philosophy chiefly considers epistemology, theories of consciousness and theories of mind, and the physical properties of reality.  Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions. These include concepts such as dharma,karma,pramana,dukha ,samsara,moksha.

Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the  later vedic period(1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the vedic period, while the various traditions grouped under Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (astika) or heterodox (nastika) depending on whether they accept the authority of the vedas and the theories of  brahman and atman found therein.

Metaphysics

At its core the study of metaphysics is the study of the nature of reality, of what exists in the world, what it is like, and how it is ordered. In metaphysics philosophers wrestle with such questions as:

• Is there a God?
• What is truth?
• What is a person? What makes a person the same through time?
• Is the world strictly composed of matter?
• Do people have minds? If so, how is the mind related to the body?
• Do people have free wills?
• What is it for one event to cause another?

Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It is primarily concerned with what we can know about the world and how we can know it. Typical questions of concern in epistemology are:

• What is knowledge?
• Do we know anything at all?
• How do we know what we know?
• Can we be justified in claiming to know certain things?

Ethics

The study of ethics often concerns what we ought to do and what it would be best to do. In struggling with this issue, larger questions about what is good and right arise. So, the ethicist attempts to answer such questions as:

• What is good? What makes actions or people good?
• What is right? What makes actions right?
• Is morality objective or subjective?
• How should I treat others?

Logic

Another important aspect of the study of philosophy is the arguments or reasons given for people’s answers to these questions. To this end philosophers employ logic to study the nature and structure of arguments. Logicians ask such questions as:

• What constitutes “good” or “bad” reasoning?
• How do we determine whether a given piece of reasoning is good or bad?

History of Philosophy

The study of philosophy involves not only forming one’s own answers to such questions, but also seeking to understand the way in which people have answered such questions in the past. So, a significant part of philosophy is its history, a history of answers and arguments about these very questions. In studying the history of philosophy one explores the ideas of such historical figures as:

What often motivates the study of philosophy is not merely the answers or arguments themselves but whether or not the arguments are good and the answers are true. Moreover, many of the questions and issues in the various areas of philosophy overlap and in some cases even converge. Thus, philosophical questions arise in almost every discipline. This is why philosophy also encompasses such areas as:

Dir

Definition;

Medical science covers many subjects which try to explain how the human body works. Starting with basic biology it is generally divided into areas of specialisation, such as anatomy, physiology and pathology with some biochemistry, microbiology, molecular biology and genetics.

Subjects in medical science;

Medical science includes Physics, Chemistry, Biology, English, and an optional subject are required for medical students. Non-Medical: Physics, Chemistry, Math, English, and an optional subject are required for non-medical students.

Role of medical science;

It leads to significant discoveries, improves health care, and ensures that patients receive the best care possible. It is what makes the development of new medicines and treatments possible, without it we would not be able to move forward in the development of medicine.

Current medical science (original name: Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology Medical Sciences) is published bimonthly by Huazhong University of Science and Technology in partnership with Springer Publishing Company. It provides a forum by publishing peer-reviewed papers, to promote academic exchange between the Chinese researchers and doctors and their foreign counterparts. The journal covers the subjects of biomedicine such as physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, pharmacology, immunology, pathology and pathophysiology etc., and subjects of clinical medicines such as surgery, internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics and otorhinolaryngology etc. High priority is given to studies on the mechanism underlying human diseases and clinical trials. In China, it is one of the five periodicals that are firstly included in Index Medicus (IM) and is now under the coverage of the Science Citation Index-Expanded (SCI-E).

• A platform for academic exchange between Chinese medical researchers and their foreign colleagues
• Published primarily in English
• Presents articles concerning the latest advances and experiences in biomedicine and clinical medicine

Our Medical Science programme always places students’ interest and learning experience at the heart of the teaching and learning activity, as supported by a strong integration of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles and inclusive teaching. We have dedicated staff with diverse experience, outstanding level of pastoral care as well as scientific and clinical research informed teaching.

After successfully completing year one, Medical Science students will be equipped with fundamental knowledge of and practical skills in chemistry and biochemistry, anatomy and physiology, microbiology and personal and professional skills. In year two, students integrate their understanding of the healthy human body with disease pathology and processes before being introduced to the disciplines and techniques involved in delivering quality healthcare, and an insight into management principles relevant to many professional settings in year three.

uring this course you will have the option to complete a paid placement year, an invaluable opportunity to put the skills developed during your degree into practice. This insight into the professional world will build on your knowledge in a real-world setting, preparing you to progress onto your chosen career. 

Our careers programme DMU Works can help to hone your professional skills with mock interviews and practice aptitude tests, and an assigned personal tutor will support you throughout your placement. 

Students have previously undertaken placement opportunities at Institute of Lung Health at Glenfield Hospital, Clintec and private healthcare organisations.

DMU Global

Our innovative international experience programme DMU Global aims to enrich studies, broaden cultural horizons and develop key skills valued by employers. 

Through DMU Global, we offer an exciting mix of overseas, on-campus and online international experiences, including the opportunity to study or work abroad for up to a year.

The DMU Global initiative has seen Medical Science students explore preventative healthcare in Berlin, raise awareness of type 2 diabetes in Kentucky and perform a parasitological and public health research study in New York.

Graduate careers

To help students prepare for specific careers choices, not only do we have a professional careers team, careers conferences, and employment talks, but an initiative where alumni give their advice for students following in their footsteps, including students who have gone on to postgraduate medicine and dentistry, research, and clinical laboratory careers.

Graduate opportunities exist in medical research, writing, education, commerce and sales. This is an appropriate entry qualification for graduates who wish to apply for further study in graduate entry medicine, physician associate, pharmacy, dentistry or NHS medical care practitioner training.

Definition;

Economics is the study of scarcity and its implications for the use of resources, production of goods and services, growth of production and welfare over time, and a great variety of other complex issues of vital concern to society.

There are 4 definitions of economics

These are – production, consumption, and distribution of goods and services. Ans. Adam Smith defined economics as the “science of wealth.” The definition implies that the economy is determined by the wealth generated when people produce valuable commodities that are consumed.

What are the 5 concepts of economics?

Some of the concepts are scarcity, supply & demand, incentives, trade-off and opportunity cost, economic systems, factors of production, production possibilities, marginal analysis, circular flow, and international trade.

What is economics all about?
Economics is the study of how things are made, moved around, and used. It looks at how people, businesses, governments, and countries choose to use their resources. Economics is the study of how people act, based on the idea that people act rationally and try to get the most value or benefit. Economics is the study of how work and business are run. Since there are many ways to use human labour and many ways to get resources.

Economic Indicators
Economic indicators show how a country’s economy is doing in a specific area. When government agencies or private groups put out these reports regularly, they usually have a big effect on the stock, fixed income, and foreign exchange markets. They can also help investors figure out how the economy will affect markets and make decisions about investments.

Gross national product (GDP)
Many people think that a country’s gross domestic product (GDP) is the best way to measure how well its economy is doing. It is the total market value of all finished goods and services made in a country during a certain year or other time period. The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) releases a monthly report at the end of each month. Many investors, analysts, and traders pay attention to the advance GDP report and the preliminary report, which come out a few months before the annual GDP report.

Retail sales
The Department of Commerce (DOC) puts out a report on retail sales in the middle of each month. This report measures the total amount of money made or the dollar value of all products sold in stores.

Industrial manufacturing
The Federal Reserve puts out a report every month called “Industrial Production” that shows how the production of U.S. factories, mines, and utilities has changed over time. One of the closely watched variables in this study is the capacity utilisation ratio, which shows how much of the economy’s productive capacity is being used instead of sitting idle. A country should see its production values increase and its capacity is used to its fullest

Employment Data
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports “nonfarm payrolls” every first Friday of the month with information about jobs.
Most of the time, a strong economy means that jobs are being added quickly. In the same way, big drops could mean that contractions are coming. Even though these are broad trends, it is important to look at how the economy is doing.

Changes in prices for consumers (CPI)
The Consumer Price Index (CPI), which the BLS also puts out, is the standard way to measure inflation. It shows how much retail prices (consumer costs) have changed. The CPI compares price changes from month to month and from year to year by putting goods and services from the economy into a basket.

Definition;

Animal husbandry is the management and care of farm animals by humans. Veterinary Science is the science of diagnosing, treating and curing diseases in birds and animals. It covers the study of animal physiology, treatment and prevention of diseases among animals.

Animal nutrition;

1 Partitioning of food energy within the animal. Direct and indirect calorimetry. Carbon – nitrogenbalance and comparative slaughter methods. Systems for expressing energy value of foods inruminants, pigs and poultry. Energy requirements for maintenance, growth, pregnancy, lactation, egg,wool, and meat production.

1.2 Latest advances in protein nutrition. Energy protein interrelationships. Evaluation of protein quality.Use of NPN compounds in ruminant diets. Protein requirements for maintenance, growth, pregnancy,lactation, egg, wool and meat production.

1.3 Major and trace minerals – Their sources, physiological functions and deficiency symptoms. Toxicminerals. Mineral interactions. Role of fat-soluble and water – soluble vitamins in the body, theirsources and deficiency symptoms.

1.4 Feed additives – methane inhibitors, probiotics, enzymes, antibiotics, hormones, oligosaccharides ,antioxidants, emulsifiers, mould inhibitors, buffers etc. Use and abuse of growth promoters like hormones and antibiotics – latest concepts.

. Animal Physiology;

2.1 Physiology of blood and its circulation, respiration; excretion. Endocrine glands in health and disease.

2.2 Blood constituents – Properties and functions-blood cell formationHaemoglobin synthesis andchemistryplasma proteins production, classification and properties, coagulation of blood;Haemorrhagicdisorders-anticoagulants-blood groups-Blood volumePlasma expanders-Buffer systems in blood.Biochemical tests and their significance in disease diagnosis.

2.3 Circulation – Physiology of heart, cardiac cycle, heart sounds, heart beat, electrocardiograms. Work and efficiency of heart-effect of ions on heart function metabolism of cardiac muscle, nervous and chemical regulation of heart, effect of temperature and stress on heart, blood pressure and hypertension, osmotic regulation, arterial pulse, vasomotor regulation of circulation, shock. Coronary and pulmonary circulation, Blood-Brain barrier- Cerebrospinal fluid- circulation in birds.

.Animal Reproduction;

Semen quality- Preservation and Artificial Insemination- Components of semen, composition of spermatozoa, chemical and physical properties of ejaculated semen, factors affecting semen in vivo and in vitro. Factors affecting semen production and quality, preservation, composition of diluents, sperm concentration, transport of diluted semen. Deep freezing techniques in cows, sheep, goats, swine and poultry. Detection of oestrus and time of insemination for better conception. Anoestrus and repeat breeding

.Livestock Production and Management;

4.1 Commercial Dairy Farming Comparison of dairy farming in India with advanced countries. Dairying under mixed farming and as specialized farming, economic dairy farming. Starting of a dairy farm, Capital and land requirement, organization of the dairy farm. Opportunities in dairy farming, factors determining the efficiency of dairy animal. Herd recording, budgeting, cost of milk production, pricing policy; Personnel Management. Developing Practical and Economic rations for dairy cattle ;supply of greens throughout the year, feed and fodder requirements of Dairy Farm.

Animal Diseases;

2.1 Etiology, epidemiology pathogenesis, symptoms, postmortem lesions, diagnosis, and control of infectious diseases of cattle, sheep and goat, horses, pigs and poultry.

2.2 Etiology, epidemiology, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment of production diseases of cattle, horse, pig and poultry.

2.3 Deficiency diseases of domestic animals and birds.

2.4 Diagnosis and treatment of non-specific conditions like impaction, Bloat, Diarrhoea, Indigestion, dehydration, stroke, poisoning.

2.5 Diagnosis and treatment of neurological disorders.

2.6 Principles and methods of immunization of animals against specific diseases herd immunity- disease free zones- zero disease concept- chemoprophylaxis.

2.7 Anaesthesia- local, regional and general-preanesthetic medication. Symptoms and surgical interference in fractures and dislocation. Hernia, choking abomasal displacement- Caesarian operations. Rumenotomy-Castrations.

2.8 Disease investigation techniques.- Materials for laboratory investigation Establishment of Animal Health Centers Disease free zone.

.

Veterinary Public Health;

: 3.1 Zoonoses. – Classification, definition, role of animals and birds in prevalence and transmission of zoonotic diseases occupational zoonotic diseases.

3.2 Epidemiology- Principle, definition of epidemiological terms, application of epidemiological measures in the study of diseases and disease control. Epidemiological features of air, water and foodborne infections. OIE regulations, WTO, sanitary and phytosanitary measures.

3.3 Veterinary Jurisprudence- Rules and Regulations for improvement of animal quality and prevention of animal diseases – State and central rules for prevention of animal and animal product borne diseases-S P C A- Veterolegal cases Certificates -Materials and Methods of collection of samples for veterolegal investigation.

Meat Hygiene and Technology;

5.1.1 Ante mortem care and management of food animals, stunning, slaughter and dressing operations; abattoir requirements and designs; Meat inspection procedures and judgment of carcass meat cuts-grading of carcass meat cuts- duties and functions of Veterinarians in wholesome meat production.

5.1.2 Hygienic methods of handling production of meat- Spoilage of meat and control measures- Post -slaughter physicochemical changes in meat and factors that influence them- Quality improvement methods – Adulteration of meat and detection – Regulatory provisions in Meat trade and Industry.

5.2 Meat Technology.5.2.1 Physical and chemical characteristics of meat- Meat emulsions- Methods of preservation of meat-Curing, canning, irradiation, packaging of meat and meat products, processing and formulations

5.3 By- products- Slaughter house byproducts and their utilization- Edible and inedible by products-Social and economic implications of proper utilization of slaughter house by-products- Organ products for food and pharma

Definition;

​​The word geology means ‘Study of the Earth’. Also known as geoscience or earth science, Geology is the primary Earth science and looks at how the earth formed, its structure and composition, and the types of processes acting on it

The Principles of Geology

• Uniformitarianism.
• Original horizontality.
• Superposition.
• Cross-cutting relationships.
• Walther’s Law.

What are the 4 laws of geology?

The four laws are the law of superposition, law of original horizontality, law of cross-cutting relationships, and law of lateral continuity. Nicolaus Steno was a 17th-century Danish geologist.

Mineral;

Minerals are natural occurring elements and compounds with a definite homogeneous chemical composition and ordered atomic composition.

Each mineral has distinct physical properties, and there are many tests to determine each of them. The specimens can be tested for:

• Luster: Quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral. Examples are metallic, pearly, waxy, dull.
• Color: Minerals are grouped by their color. Mostly diagnostic but impurities can change a mineral’s color.
• streak: Performed by scratching the sample on a porcelian plate. The color of the streak can help name the mineral.
• Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratching.
• Breakage pattern: A mineral can either show fracture or cleavage, the former being breakage of uneven surfaces, and the latter a breakage along closely spaced parallel planes.
• specific gravity the weight of a specific volume of a mineral.
• Effervescence: Involves dripping hydrochloric acid on the mineral to test for fizzing.
• Magnetism: Involves using a magnet to test for magnetism
• Taste: Minerals can have a distinctive taste, such as halite (which tastes like table salt ).

Rock;

The rock cycle shows the relationship between igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloids Most research in geology is associated with the study of rocks, as they provide the primary record of the majority of the geological history of the Earth. There are three major types of rock: igneous sedimentary, and metamorphic. The  rock cycle illustrates the relationships among them .

innerscale of the Earth

The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline.

Millions of Years (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th)
Thousands of years (5th)

Relative dating;

Cross cutting relations can be used to determine the relative ages of  rock strata and other geological structures. Explanations: A – folded  rock strata cut by a thrust fault B – large intrusion  (cutting through A); C – erosion angular unconformity  (cutting off A & B) on which rock strata were deposited; D –  volcanic dyke (cutting through A, B & C); E – even younger rock strata (overlying C & D); F – normal fault  (cutting through A, B, C & E).

Methods for relative dating  were developed when geology first emerged as a natural science . Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geological history and the timing of geological events.

The principle of uniformataism states that the geological processes observed in operation that modify the Earth’s crust at present have worked in much the same way over geological time. A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th-century Scottish physician and geologist James Hutton  is that “the present is the key to the past.” In Hutton’s words: “the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now.”

Absolute dating;

Geologists also use methods to determine the absolute age of rock samples and geological events. These dates are useful on the own and may also be used in conjunction with relative dating methods or to calibrate relative methods.

At the beginning of the 20th century, advancement in geological science was facilitated by the ability to obtain accurate absolute dates to geological events using radioactive isotopes  and other methods. This changed the understanding of geological time. Previously, geologists could only use fossils and stratigraphic correlation to date sections of rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates, it became possible to assign absolute ages  to rock units, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages.

Methods of geology;

A standard  Brunton pocket transit commonly used by geologists for mapping and surveying Geologists use a number of fields, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to petrology  (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation).

Field methods

A typical USGS field mapping camp in the 1950

Today, handheld computers with  GPS and geographic information systems software are often used in geological field work digital geological mapping

A pertified log in pertified forest national park Arizona U.S.A.

Geological  field works varies depending on the task at hand. Typical fieldwork could consist of:

• Geological mapping
  • Structural mapping: identifying the locations of major rock units and the faults and folds that led to their placement there.
  • Stratigraphic mapping: pinpointing the locations of sedimentary facies (lithofacies and biofacies) or the mapping of  isopachs of equal thickness of sedimentary rock
  • Surficial mapping: recording the locations of soils and surficial deposits
• Petrology
• In addition to identifying rocks in the field (lithology), petrologists identify rock samples in the laboratory. Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are through optical microscopy and by using an electronic microprobe. In an optical minerology analysis, petrologists analyze thin sections of rock samples using a  petrograhic microscope .where the minerals can be identified through their different properties in plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, including their birefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interference properties with a conoscopic lens In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals. stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into the geochemical  evolution of rock units.

Economic geology;

Economic geology is a branch of geology that deals with aspects of economic minerals that humankind uses to fulfill various needs. Economic minerals are those extracted profitably for various practical uses. Economic geologists help locate and manage the Earth’s natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as mineral resources, which include metals such as iron, copper, and uranium.

Mining geology;

Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from the Earth. Some resources of economic interests include gemstones metals such as gold and copper, and many minerals such as perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, ,pumice,, quartz and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine , and helium

Petroleum geology

Mud log in process, a common way to study the lithology when drilling oil well petroleum geologists study the locations of the subsurface of the Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons, especially petroleum and natural gas. Because many of these reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins they study the formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic evolution and the present-day positions of the rock units.

Engineering geology

Engineering geology is the application of geological principles to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of engineering works are properly addressed. Engineering geology is distinct from geological engineering, particularly in North America

Hydrology

Geology and geological principles can be applied to various environmental problems such as stream restoration, the restoration of  brown fields, and the understanding of the interaction between natural habitat and the geological environment. Groundwater hydrology, or hydrogeology, is used to locate groundwater, which can often provide a ready supply of uncontaminated water and is especially important in arid regions, and to monitor the spread of contaminants in groundwater wells.

Definition;

In Maths, Statistics is a method of interpreting, analysing and summarising the data. Hence, the types of statistics are categorised based on these features: Descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on the representation of data such as using pie charts, bar graphs, or tables, we analyse and interpret it.

What are the 3 types of statistics?

They are: (i) Mean, (ii) Median, and (iii) Mode. Statistics is the study of Data Collection, Analysis, Interpretation, Presentation, and organizing in a specific way.

Mean;

Mean is an essential concept in mathematics and statistics. The mean is the average or the most common value in a collection of numbers.

In statistics, it is a measure of central tendency of a probability distribution along median and mode. It is also referred to as an expected value.

How to Calculate Mean?

There are different ways of measuring the central tendency of a set of values. There are multiple ways to calculate the mean. Here are the two most popular ones:

Arithmetic mean is the total of the sum of all values in a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in a collection. It is calculated in the following way:

Geometric mean is an nth root of the product of all numbers in a collection. The formula for the geometric mean is:

The geometric mean includes the volatility and compounding effects of returns. Thus, the geometric average provides a more accurate calculation of an average return.

Median;

The median of a set of data is the middlemost number or centre value in the set. The median is also the number that is halfway into the set.

Median Formula

The formula to calculate the median of the finite number of data set is given here. The median formula is different for even and odd numbers of observations. Therefore, it is necessary to recognise first if we have odd number of values or even number of values in a given data set.

The formula to calculate the median of the data set is given as follows.

Odd Number of Observations

If the total number of observations given is odd, then the formula to calculate the median is:

Median = {(n+1)/2}^th term

where n is the number of observations

Even Number of Observations

If the total number of observation is even, then the median formula is:

Median = [(n/2)^th term + {(n/2)+1}^th term]/2

where n is the number of observations

Mode;

In statistics, the mode is the value that is repeatedly occurring in a given set. We can also say that the value or number in a data set, which has a high frequency or appears more frequently, is called mode or modal value. It is one of the three measures of central tendency, apart from mean and median

Mode Definition in Statistics

A mode is defined as the value that has a higher frequency in a given set of values. It is the value that appears the most number of times.

 Bimodal, Trimodal & Multimodal (More than one mode);

• When there are two modes in a data set, then the set is called bimodal

For example, The mode of Set A = {2,2,2,3,4,4,5,5,5} is 2 and 5, because both 2 and 5 is repeated three times in the given set.

• When there are three modes in a data set, then the set is called trimodal

For example, the mode of set A = {2,2,2,3,4,4,5,5,5,7,8,8,8} is 2, 5 and 8

• When there are four or more modes in a data set, then the set is called multimodal

Summary Statistics;

In Statistics, summary statistics are a part of descriptive statistics (Which is one of the types of statistics), which gives the list of information about sample data. We know that statistics deals with the presentation of data visually and quantitatively. Thus, summary statistics deals with summarizing the statistical information. Summary statistics generally deal with condensing the data in a simpler form, so that the observer can understand the information at a glance. Generally, statisticians try to describe the observations by finding:

• The measure of central tendency or mean of the locations, such as arithmetic mean.
• The measure of distribution shapes like skewness or kurtosis.
• The measure of dispersion such as the standard mean absolute deviation.
• The measure of statistical dependence such as correlation coefficient.

Summary Statistics Table;

The summary statistics table is the visual representation of summarized statistical information about the data in tabular form.

For example, the blood group of 20 students in the class are O, A, B, AB, B, B, AB, O, A, B, B, AB, AB, O, O, B, A, AB, B, A.

Thus, the summary statistics table shows that 4 students in the class have O blood group, 4 students have A blood group, 7 students in the class have B blood group and 5 students in the class have AB blood group. The summary statistics table is generally used to represent the big data related to population, unemployment, and the economy to be summarized systematically to interpret the accurate result.

Scope of Statistics;

Statistics is used in many sectors such as psychology, geology, sociology, weather forecasting, probability and much more. The goal of statistics is to gain understanding from the data, it focuses on applications, and hence, it is distinctively considered as a mathematical science.

Methods in Statistics

The methods involve collecting, summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting variable numerical data. Here some of the methods are provided below.

• Data collection
• Data summarization
• Statistical analysis

What is Data in Statistics?

Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, observations etc.

Types of Data

1. Qualitative data- it is descriptive data.
   • Example- She can run fast, He is thin.
2. Quantitative data- it is numerical information.
   • Example- An Octopus is an Eight legged creature.

Types of quantitative data

1. Discrete data- has a particular fixed value. It can be counted
2. Continuous data- is not fixed but has a range of data. It can be measured.

Representation of Data

There are different ways to represent data such as through graphs, charts or tables. The general representation of statistical data are:

• Bar Graph
• Pie Chart
• Line Graph
• Pictograph
• Histogram
• Frequency Distribution

	Bar Graph A Bar Graph represents grouped data with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.
	Pie Chart A type of graph in which a circle is divided into Sectors. Each of these sectors represents a proportion of the whole.
	Line graph The line chart is represented by a series of data points connected with a straight line. The series of data points are called ‘markers.’
	Pictograph A pictorial symbol for a word or phrase, i.e. showing data with the help of pictures. Such as Apple, Banana & Cherry can have different numbers, and it is just a representation of data.
	Histogram A diagram is consisting of rectangles. Whose area is proportional to the frequency of a variable and whose width is equal to the class interval.
	Frequency Distribution The frequency of a data value is often represented by “f.” A frequency table is constructed by arranging collected data values in ascending order of magnitude with their corresponding frequencies.

Definition;

Anthropology is the systematic study of humanity, with the goal of understanding our evolutionary origins, our distinctiveness as a species, and the great diversity in our forms of social existence across the world and through time.

There are 4 types of anthropology;

• Archaeology.
• Bioanthropology.
• Linguistic Anthropology.
• Social-Cultural Anthropology.

Archeology;

Archaeology is the study of the human past using material remains. These remains can be any objects that people created, modified, or used. Portable remains are usually called artifacts. Artifacts include tools, clothing, and decorations. Non-portable remains, such as pyramids or post-holes, are called features.

Bioanthropology;

Bioanthropology is a biosocial science that explores both the sociology and the biology of human groups. Biological anthropologists are interested in human evolution, from our origins and diversity in the past to our probable future as inhabitants of this planet.

Linguistic anthropology;

Linguistic anthropology studies the nature of human languages in the context of those cultures that developed them. Scholars in the field seek to understand the social and cultural foundations of language itself, while exploring how social and cultural formations are grounded in linguistic practices.

social cultural anthropology;

Social-cultural anthropology studies the diversity of human societies in time and space, while looking for commonalities across them. It uses a holistic strategy linking local and global, past and present—to offer various approaches to understanding contemporary challenges.

Applied anthropology;

Applied or practicing anthropologists are an important part of anthropology. Each of the four subfields of anthropology can be applied. Applied anthropologists work to solve real world problems by using anthropological methods and ideas. For example, they may work in local communities helping to solve problems related to health, education or the environment. They might also work for museums or national or state parks helping to interpret history. They might work for local, state or federal governments or for non-profit organizations. Others may work for businesses, like retail stores or software and technology companies, to learn more about how people use products or technology in their daily lives.

Anthropology around the world;

While anthropologists devote much of their attention to what human groups share across time and space, they also study how these groups are different. Just as there is diversity in the ways people physically adapt to their environment, build and organize societies, and communicate, there are also many ways to do anthropology. Unique approaches to anthropology developed in many countries around the world. For example, in some countries the four-field approach is not as strong as it is in others. Anthropologists from across the globe work together through international organizations to try and understand more about our lives as humans.

Employment;

Anthropologists are employed in a number of different sectors, from colleges and universities to government agencies, NGOs, businesses, and health and human services. Within the university, they teach undergraduate and graduate anthropology, and many offer anthropology courses in other departments and professional schools such as business, education, design, and public health. Anthropologists contribute significantly to interdisciplinary fields such as international studies and ethnic and gender studies, and some work in academic research centers. Outside the university, anthropologists work in government agencies, private businesses, community organizations, museums, independent research institutes, service organizations, the media; and others work as independent consultants and research staff for agencies such as the Centers for Disease Control, UNESCO, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank

References;

http://www.wcaanet.org/

https://www.wcaanet.org/members/wcaa-members-associations/

Definition;

The management definition is a single or group of individuals who challenges and oversees a person or collective group of people in efforts to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Furthermore, the definition of management includes the ability to plan, organize, monitor and direct individuals.

Objectives of management

Management can have mainly three types of object

organizational objectives;

Management should consider the interests of all company stakeholders, including employees, customers and the government. Managers are responsible for setting and achieving goals for the organization. Typically, the primary aim of an organization is to achieve growth by utilizing its human, material and financial resources. There are three general organizational objectives for any company:

• Survival: An organisation needs to generate enough revenues to cover its operational costs.
• Profit: Profit provides incentive and is essential for covering unprecedented costs and risks associated with running a business.
• Growth: You can measure the growth of a business in terms of increases in sales volume, workforce and capital investment.

Social objectives

To an extent, the management is also responsible for creating benefits for the society through their work. Companies choose to do this in different ways. Some may incorporate environment-friendly methods of production, while others implement fair wages and opportunities. Larger companies often maintain or fund initiatives that provide basic amenities like healthcare and education. Based on the scale of their operations, companies often initiate CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) campaigns that benefit society in different ways.

Personnel objectives

The management typically decides the financial incentives, salaries, perks and social initiatives for their employees. Activities that improve peer recognition and interaction like corporate outings and holiday bonuses cater to the personnel’s social growth and development.

Importance of management

Here are some reasons management is important:

• Helps in achieving group goals: Effective management gives a common direction to individual efforts and guides them towards achieving the overall goals of an organisation.
• Increases efficiency: Efficiency reduces costs and increases productivity in all spheres of an organisation’s work.
• Creates a dynamic organisation: Management helps its personnel in adapting to change so that the organisation continues to maintain its competitive edge. How well an organisation can respond and adapt to change can mean the difference between its success and failure.
• Helps in achieving personal objectives: Effective management fosters team spirit, cooperation and commitment to achieve the organisational goals as a group, which helps each term member achieve their personal objectives.

In the simplest of terms, business management refers to the coordination and administration of business activities, tasks, and resources to achieve a set objective. This often involves supervision and training of staff, overseeing core operations, and designing company infrastructure to optimize for the future.

The four most common types of managers are top-level managers, middle managers, first-line managers, and team leaders. These roles vary not only in their day-to-day responsibilities, but also in their broader function in the organization and the types of employees they manage.

Every Organization Needs Leaders;

Not everyone can be a leader or manager at work, and many people don’t want the responsibilities of overseeing employees and processes. Fortunately, others feel called to work in management roles and want to make a meaningful impact on their teams and their employers.

Some managers go through company training to learn the skills they need. Others who are new to management “learn by doing,” having to figure things out as they go. Some entry-level managers start the job with formal management education under their belts, which helps them be more confident in their supervisory roles.

Business Management Curriculum;

Our program curriculum is expertly designed to help you excel in the business world. You’ll complete a minimum of 60 credit hours to graduate, studying subjects that include Entrepreneurship, Financial Accounting, Introduction to Marketing, Personal Selling and Sales Management, and Fundamentals of Human Resources.

Completing UC Online’s business management degree equips you with skills that are highly sought after by employers, such as:

• Effectively communicating in a business setting
• Analyzing scenarios and drawing suitable conclusions
• Demonstrating effective team management skills
• Executing the four functions of management: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling
• Using critical thinking skills to solve problems and make decisions based on accepted business principles

Managers Are in Demand Today;

The beaurau of local statistics expects employment in management occupations to grow five percent between now and 2029, faster than the average for all occupations. With a projected 505,000 new positions opening up, the opportunities for you to work in management are broad.

You likely know this from past work/life experiences but working as a manager or supervisor doesn’t limit you to one type of company or industry. Every type of workplace needs leaders. That’s the exciting thing about setting your sights on a management career — the opportunities are almost endless!

If you do some research online, you’ll see a variety of entry-level manager positions, including jobs like these:

• Assistant store manager
• Sales support manager
• Assistant office manager
• Customer relationship manager
• Shift manager

Definition;

Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts

Historical development of sociology;

Though sociology draws on the Western tradition of rational inquiry established by the ancient Greeks, it is specifically the offspring of 18th- and 19th-century philosophy and has been viewed, along with economics and political science, as a reaction against speculative philosophy and folklore. Consequently, sociology separated from moral philosophy to become a specialized discipline. While he is not credited with the founding of the discipline of sociology, French philosopher Auguste comte is recognized for having coined the term  sociology.

What is sociology?

A dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society and social interaction. The word “sociology” is derived from the Latin word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos (speech or reason), which together mean “reasoned speech about companionship”. How can the experience of companionship or togetherness be put into words or explained? While this is a starting point for the discipline, sociology is actually much more complex. It uses many different methods to study a wide range of subject matter and to apply these studies to the real world.

The woman sociologist?

Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) was one of the first women sociologists in the 19th century. There are a number of other women who might compete with her for the title of the first woman sociologist, such as Catherine Macauley, Mary Wollstonecraft, Flora Tristan, and Beatrice Webb, but Martineau’s specifically sociological credentials are strong. She was for a long time known principally for her English translation of Comte’s Course in Positive Philosophy. Through this popular translation she introduced the concept of sociology as a methodologically rigorous discipline to an English-speaking audience. But she also created a body of her own work in the tradition of the great social reform movements of the 19th century and introduced a sorely missing woman’s perspective into the discourse on society

A sociology of forms;

Georg Simmel (1858–1918) was one of the founding fathers of sociology, although his place in the discipline is not always recognized. In part, this oversight may be explained by the fact that Simmel was a Jewish scholar in Germany at the turn of 20th century, and until 1914 was unable to attain a proper position as a professor due to anti-Semitism. Despite the brilliance of his sociological insights, the quantity of his publications, and the popularity of his public lectures as Privatdozent at the University of Berlin, his lack of a regular academic position prevented him from having the kind of student following that would create a legacy around his ideas. It might also be explained by some of the unconventional and varied topics that he wrote on: the structure of flirting, the sociology of adventure, the importance of secrecy, the patterns of fashion, the social significance of money, etc. He was generally seen at the time as not having a systematic or integrated theory of society. However, his insights into how social forms emerge at the micro-level of interaction and how they relate to macro-level phenomena remain valuable in contemporary sociology

References;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology

https://www.britannica.com/topic/sociology

Definition;

Zoology is the branch of biology concerned with the study animals and animal kingdom. It is also known as animal biology. The study of zoology includes the interaction of animal kingdom in their ecosystems such as classification, habits, structure, embryology, distribution, evolution, and extinct species.

Types of zoology;

Here are the core types of Zoology: Morphology. Genomics. Ecology

Morphology;

morphology, in biology, the study of the size, shape, and structure of animals, plants, and microorganisms and of the relationships of their constituent parts. The term refers to the general aspects of biological form and arrangement of the parts of a plant or an animal.

Genomics;

Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration.

Ecology;

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them.

History of zoology;

Prehistoric man’s survival as a hunter defined his relation to other animals, which were a source of food and danger. As man’s cultural heritage developed, animals were variously incorporated into man’s folklore and philosophical awareness as fellow living creatures. Domestic of animals forced man to take a systematic and measured view of animal life, especially after urbanization necessitated a constant and large supply of animal products.

Study of animal life by the ancient Greeks became more rational, if not yet scientific, in the modern sense, after the cause of disease—until then thought to be demons—was postulated by Hippocrates to result from a lack of harmonious functioning of body parts. The systematic study of animals was encouraged by Aristotle’s extensive descriptions of living things, his work reflecting the greek concept of order in nature and attributing to nature an idealized rigidity

Anatomy and physiology;

Descriptions of external form and internal organization are among the earliest records available regarding the systematic study of animals. Aristotle was an indefatigable collector and dissector of animals. He found differing degrees of structural complexity, which he described with regard to ways of living, habits, and body parts. Although Aristotle had no formal system of classification, it is apparent that he viewed animals as arranged from the simplest to the most complex in an ascending series. Since man was even more complex than animals and, moreover, possessed a rational faculty, he therefore occupied the highest position and a special category. This hierarchical perception of the animate world proved to be useful in every century to the present, except that in the modern view there is no such “scale of nature,” and there is change in time by evolution from the simple to the complex.

After the time of Aristotle, Mediterranean science was centered at Alexandria, where the study of anatomy, particularly the central nervous system, flourished and, in fact, first became recognized as a discipline. Galen studied anatomy at Alexandria in the 2nd century and later dissected many animals. Much later, the contributions of the renaissance anatomist Andreas visaleaus, though made in the of medicine, as were those of Galen, stimulated to a great extent the rise of comparative anatomy. During the latter part of the 15th century and throughout the 16th century, there was a strong tradition in anatomy; important similarities were observed in the anatomy of different animals, and many illustrated books were published to record these observations.

Physiology;

The practical consequences of physiology have always been an unavoidable human concern, in both medicine and animal husbandry. Inevitably, from Hippocrates to the present, practical knowledge of human bodily function has accumulated along with that of domestic animals and plants. This knowledge has been expanded, especially since the early 1800s, by experimental work on animals in general, a study known as comparative physiology. The experimental dimension had wide applications following Harvey’s demonstration of the circulation of blood. From then on, medical physiology developed rapidly; notable texts appeared, such as  Albrech von Haller’s eight-volume work Elementa Physiologiae Corporis Humani (Elements of Human Physiology), which had a medical emphasis. Toward the end of the 18th century the influence of chemistry on physiology became pronounced through Antoine Lausiers brilliant analysis of respiration as a form of combustion. This French chemist not only determined that oxygen was consumed by living systems but also opened the way to further inquiry into the energetics of living systems. His studies further strengthened the mechanistic view, which holds that the same natural laws govern both the inanimate and the animate realms.

References;

https://www.britannica.com ›

https://en.wikipedia

https://www.sciencedirect.com › journal › zoology

Definition:

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways.

There are 5 types of civil engineers;

• Infrastructure Engineering.
• Structural Engineering.
• Environmental Engineering.
• Geotechnical Engineering.
• Transportation Engineers.

Infrastructure engineering;

.Infrastructure refers to the basic facilities and systems that help society function, including buildings, roads, utilities and other system

structural engineering;

Structural engineers ensure that bridges don’t collapse and are structurally sound, while civil engineers ensure that things like annual flooding and potential traffic bottlenecks are taken into consideration during transportation planning

Environmental engineering;

Environmental engineering functions include applied research and teaching; project planning and management; the design, construction, and operation of facilities; the sale and marketing of environmental-control equipment; and the enforcement of environmental standards and regulations.

Geotechnical engineering;

Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behaviour of soils under the influence of loading forces and soil-water interactions. This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations, retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners, and geosynthetics for waste containment.

Transportation engineers:

Transportation engineering, primarily involves planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation facilities. The facilities support .

There are 7 fields of civil engineering:

• Construction Engineering and Management.
• Construction Materials.
• Energy-Water-Environment Sustainability Program.
• Environmental Engineering and Science.
• Geotechnical Engineering.
• Structural Engineering.
• Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure Systems Program

Construction engineering and management;

Construction engineering management refers to the use of critical thinking in technical and scientific fields to improve a construction project. This often involves designing and executing new solutions and faster processes that can help overcome worksite obstacles and improve efficiency.

Construction materials;

Wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks, concrete, clay are the most common type of building material used in construction. The choice of these are based on their cost effectiveness for building projects

Energy water environment sustainability program;

The program in Energy-Water-Environment Sustainability (EWES) is a cross-cutting program focused on providing and supporting sustainable solutions for the exploration, production, delivery and use of energy, and their intersection with water and the natural and built environment.

Environmental engineering and science;

Environmental engineering science (EES) is a multidisciplinary field of engineering science that combines the biological, chemical and physical sciences with the field of engineering.

Geotechnical engineering;

Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behaviour of soils under the influence of loading forces and soil-water interactions. This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations, retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners, and geosynthetics for waste containment.

Structural engineering;

Structural engineering is a subfield of civil engineering focused on the strength, stability, and durability of buildings, bridges, airplanes, and other structures.

Sustainable and resilient infrastructure

Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure is an interdisciplinary journal that focuses on the sustainable development of resilient communities.

INTRODUCTION;

What are kinetic roads?

Introduction
Nowadays, all the energy resources are depleting due to our constant dependency on natural resources. At this stage, an urgency has emerged to harness the energy that can operate almost anything in the world. Likewise, in the civil engineering world, new inventions are emerging to make a greener world.

In the transportation sector, kinetic roads can help tackle pollution and our extensive dependency on natural resources. Solar radiation and kinetic energy from passing automobiles are two forms of energy sources frequently applied to road surfaces. As a result, they offer a lot of potential as long-term energy sources. Roadway pavement occupies a large portion of urban and rural areas, covering millions of square kilometers and constantly being exposed to various energy sources such as sun radiation, vibration, and traffic-induced pressures.

All you need to know about glass railings;

Introduction
These days, glass is the most popular material for modern railing. We can see why it’s a popular alternative to hardwood handrails and spindles.

The glass railing creates a striking visual impact, enhances openness, expands areas, and allows light to flow freely. When built and installed properly, it adds luxury and value to a home while also being incredibly secure and practical.

Tempered glass is commonly used in glass railings. Tempering strengthens the structure and protects it from cracking and damage. Glass railings are popular among modern home builders because of their adaptability, exquisite design potential, and cheap upkeep.
What is Top-Down construction procedure ,Advantages and Disadvantages

What is Top-Down Construction?
In top-down construction, permanent structures are built from the ground up, beginning with a deep basement excavation. This method is the inverse of the more common bottom-up approach. This method involves constructing the basement levels in layers as the excavation continues. The concrete floors in basements act as lateral bracing for the surrounding walls. Slabs for the ground floor and basement are poured into the excavation holes. Since all subsequent below-grade levels have been completed, the floors can now act as lateral bracing for the perimeter walls.

Diaphragm walls, or “D” walls as they are more commonly known, are a type of perimeter wall that provides a foolproof answer to any problem that may arise during underground building. D walls are ideal for controlling groundwater movement and maintaining stable earth retention.

Introduction
Curing is the process of providing moisture to the concrete mix so that better interlocking is established. If curing is not done properly then it will cause insufficient hydration and as a result there will be capillary pores, causing cracks and shrinkage. Moreover, strength and durability will also get affected and the concrete will disintegrate and break. It also ensures to maintain a sufficient temperature of concrete at its early age. It must be implemented as soon as placement & finishing is done. Also, it must continue for a specific period for the concrete to achieve its desired strength and durability. Uniform temperature is necessary to avoid thermal shrinkage cracks, plastic shrinkage and problems like bleeding and segregation.

Types of Brick bonding in Brick Maasonry

Introduction
Brick is one rectangular building unit that constitutes the whole structure. It is mainly made of clay at high temperature and is mostly red in color. Other constituents of bricks are sand, cement, lime and fly ash. There are many patterns involved in laying bricks some of which are going to be discussed here. Nowadays, concrete hollow bricks are replacing the conventional bricks as more advancement in technology is going on. The standard size of brick used in buildings without mortar is 219 x 9 x 9 cm and with mortar the size is 20 x 10 x 10 cm. Bricks contribute in distribution of loads and maintain stability of the structure. Thus, bricks are such units that are irreplaceable in construction industry till today.

Riveting And weilding of steel

Introduction
Riveting is the process of joining two metal plates with the help of nuts and bolts. In other words, it is a process in which a hole is made on the steel plates to be joined, the diameter of which is more than the nominal diameter of bolt. The rivet is then inserted and the head is formed at the other end. The rivets should conform to IS: 1929-1982 and IS: 2155-1982 as appropriate. High tensile steel rivet must be manufactured from steel conforming to IS: 1149-1982.
Engineered cementitious composite

Introduction
Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) or Strain Hardening Cement-based Composites (SHCC) is a particular type of concrete reinforced with specially selected short random fibers. The strain capacity of such composite is in the range of 3–7%, compared to 0.01% for ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Bendable concrete acts like ductile metal when compared to the brittle nature of OPC cement. As a result of adverse effects on fiber dispersion and overall performance, the coarse aggregates are not used in ECC. Different type of fibers is implemented to impart the tensile strength in ECC. Some fibers include Poly Vinyl Alcohol, Polypropylene fiber, and also natural fibers. ECC shows ductility property in the hardened state, and flexible property in the new state makes ECC applicable to a wide range of construction applications. This report presents a review of ECC durability studies in the literature, with detailed discussions on ECC high-temperature resistance, permeability resistance, and shrinkage resistance. The use of engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) has gained wide attention considering their properties, such as high tensile strength and elasticity values. However, the required methods for direct measurement of tensile strength are not developed adequately

References;

https://www.britannica.com › … › Civil Engineering

https://www.twi-global.com › technical-knowledg

Definition:

Mathematics is the science and study of quality, structure, space, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns, formulate new conjectures, and establish truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.

Areas of mathematics:

At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis in mathematics and the resulting systematization of the axiomatic method led to an explosion of new areas of mathematics. The 2020 mathematics subject classification contains no less than sixty-three first-level areas. Some of these areas correspond to the older division, as is true regarding number theory (the modern name for higher arithmetic and geometry. Several other first-level areas have “geometry” in their names or are otherwise commonly considered part of geometry. Algebra and calculus do not appear as first-level areas but are respectively split into several first-level areas. Other first-level areas emerged during the 20th century or had not previously been considered as mathematics, such as mathematical logic and foundations.

Number theory

This is the ulam spiral which illustrates the distribution of prime numbers. The dark diagonal lines in the spiral hint at the hypothesized approximate independence between being prime and being a value of a quadratic polynomial, a conjecture now known as Hardy and little wood’s conjecture.

Number theory began with the manipulation of  numbers that is, natural numbers  and later expanded to integers  and rational numbers  Number theory was once called arithmetic, but nowadays this term is mostly used for numerical calculations. Number theory dates back to ancient Babylon and probably China. Two prominent early number theorists were Euclid of ancient Greece and Diophantus of Alexandria. The modern study of number theory in its abstract form is largely attributed to pierre de fermat  and Leonhard Euler .

Many easily stated number problems have solutions that require sophisticated methods, often from across mathematics. A prominent example is Fermat’s last theorem This conjecture was stated in 1637 by Pierre de Fermat, but it was proved  only in 1994 by Andrew wiles, who used tools including scheme theory  from algebraic geometry category theory and homological algebra Another example is Goldbach’s conjecture . which asserts that every even integer greater than 2 is the sum of two prime numbers. Stated in 1742 by Christian Goldbach it remains unproven despite considerable effort.

Geometry

On the surface of a sphere, Euclidian geometry only applies as a local approximation. For larger scales the sum of the angles of a triangle is not equal to 180°.

Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It started with empirical recipes concerning shapes, such as line’s angles  and circle’s, which were developed mainly for the needs of surveying and architecture, but has since blossomed out into many other subfields.

A fundamental innovation was the ancient Greeks’ introduction of the concept of proof’s which require that every assertion must be proved. For example, it is not sufficient to verify by measurement that, say, two lengths are equal; their equality must be proven via reasoning from previously accepted results (theorems) and a few basic statements. The basic statements are not subject to proof because they are self-evident (postulates), or are part of the definition of the subject of study (axioms). This principle, foundational for all mathematics, was first elaborated for geometry, and was systematized by Euclid around 300 BC in his book elements

Algebra

Algebra became an area in its own right only with Francois viete (1540–1603), who introduced the use of variables for representing unknown or unspecified numbers. Variables allow mathematicians to describe the operations that have to be done on the numbers represented using mathematical formulas

Until the 19th century, algebra consisted mainly of the study of linear equations (presently linear algebra), and polynomial equations in a single unknown, which were called algebraic equations(a term still in use, although it may be ambiguous). During the 19th century, mathematicians began to use variables to represent things other than numbers (such as matrices, modular integers, and geometric transformations), on which generalizations of arithmetic operations are often valid. The concept of algebraic structure addresses this, consisting of a set whose elements are unspecified, of operations acting on the elements of the set, and rules that these operations must follow. The scope of algebra thus grew to include the study of algebraic structures. This object of algebra was called modern algebra or abstract algebra, as established by the influence and works of Emmy noether (The latter term appears mainly in an educational context, in opposition to elementary algebra, which is concerned with the older way of manipulating formulas.)

Calculus and analysis:

A cauchy sequence consists of elements that become arbitrarily close to each other as the sequence progresses (from left to right).

Calculus, formerly called infinitesimal calculus, was introduced independently and simultaneously by 17th-century mathematicians Newton and Leibniz It is fundamentally the study of the relationship of variables that depend on each other. Calculus was expanded in the 18th century by Euler with the introduction of the concept of a function  and many other results. Presently, “calculus” refers mainly to the elementary part of this theory, and “analysis” is commonly used for advanced parts.

Analysis is further subdivided into real analysis where variables represent real numbers, and complex analysis, where variables represent complex numbers. Analysis includes many subareas shared by other areas of mathematics which include:

• Multivariable calculus
• Functional analysis, where variables represent varying functions;
• Integration , measure theory and potential theory, all strongly related with probability theory ;
• Ordinary differential equations
• Partial differential equations

Discrete mathematics:

• A diagram representing a two-state  Markov chain. The states are represented by ‘A’ and ‘E’. The numbers are the probability of flipping the state.
• Discrete mathematics, broadly speaking, is the study of individual, countable mathematical objects. An example is the set of all integers. Because the objects of study here are discrete, the methods of calculus and mathematical analysis do not directly apply. Algorithms especially their implementation  and computational complexity play a major role in discrete mathematics.^[
• The four colour theorem and optimal sphere packing were two major problems of discrete mathematics solved in the second half of the 20th century.  The P verses NP problem, which remains open to this day, is also important for discrete mathematics, since its solution would potentially impact a large number of computationally difficult problems.

Statistics and other decision sciences

Whatever the form of a random population  distribution (μ), the sampling  mean (x̄) tends to a Gaussian distribution and its variance (σ) is given by the central limit theorem  of probability theory. The field of statistics is a mathematical application that is employed for the collection and processing of data samples, using procedures based on mathematical methods especially probability theory . Statisticians generate data with random sampling or randomized experiments. The design of a statistical sample or experiment determines the analytical methods that will be used. Analysis of data from observational studies is done using statistical models  and the theory of inference, using model selection and estimation.

Sir C.V. Ramanujan:

Srinivasa Ramanujan, (born December 22, 1887, Erode , India—died April 26, 1920, Kumbakonam), Indian mathematician whose contributions to the theory of numbers include pioneering discoveries of the properties of the partition function.

When he was 15 years old, he obtained a copy of George Shoobridge Carr’s Synopsis of Elementary Results in Pure and Applied Mathematics, 2 vol. (1880–86). This collection of thousands of theorems, many presented with only the briefest of proofs and with no material newer than 1860, aroused his genius. Having verified the results in Carr’s book, Ramanujan went beyond it, developing his own theorems and ideas. In 1903 he secured a scholarship to the University Of Madras  but lost it the following year because he neglected all other studies in pursuit of mathematics.

Ramanujan continued his work, without employment and living in the poorest circumstances. After marrying in 1909 he began a search for permanent employment that culminated in an interview with a government official, Ramachandra Rao. Impressed by Ramanujan’s mathematical prowess, Rao supported his research for a time, but Ramanujan, unwilling to exist on charity, obtained a clerical post with the Madras  Port Trust

In England Ramanujan made further advances, especially in the partition of numbers (the number of ways that a positive integer can be expressed as the sum of positive integers; e.g., 4 can be expressed as 4, 3 + 1, 2 + 2, 2 + 1 + 1, and 1 + 1 + 1 + 1). His papers were published in English and European journals, and in 1918 he was elected to the Royal society of London . In 1917 Ramanujan had contracted tuberculosis but his condition improved sufficiently for him to return to India in 1919. He died the following year, generally unknown to the world at large but recognized by mathematicians as a phenomenal genius, without peer since Leon Hard Euler (1707–83) and Carl Jacobi (1804–51). Ramanujan left behind three notebooks and a sheaf of pages (also called the “lost notebook”) containing many unpublished results that mathematicians continued to verify long after his death.

Definition:

Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies spread across it.

There are 7 types of geography;

• cultural geography.
• economic geography.
• health geography.
• historical geography.
• political geography.
• population geography.
• rural geography.
• social geography.

Cultural geography:

In broad terms, cultural geography examines the cultural values, practices, discursive and material expressions and artefacts of people, the cultural diversity and plurality of society, and how cultures are distributed over space, how places and identities are produced, how people make sense of places and build senses 

Economic geography:

Economic Geography is the study of how people earn their living, how livelihood systems vary by area and how economic activities are spatially interrelated and linked.

Health geography;

Health geography  is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care.

Historical geography;

Historical geography  is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time. It is a synthesizing discipline .

Political geography:

Political geography looks at a huge number of different elements in the relationship between politics and places

Population geography:

Population geography relates spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations to the terrain. Population geography involves demography in a geographical perspective. It focuses on the characteristics of population distributions that change in a spatial context

Rural geography:

A rural area is an open swath of land that has few homes or other buildings, and not very many people. A rural areas population density is very low. Many people live in a city, or urban area. Their homes and businesses are located very close to one another.

Social geography:

Social geography is the branch of human geography that is interested in the relationships between society and space, and is most closely related to social theory in general and sociology in particular, dealing with the relation of social phenomena and its spatial components.

Space:

For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be able to be described spatially. Thus, space is the most fundamental concept at the foundation of geography .The concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty defining exactly what it is.  Absolute space is the exact site, or spatial coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena under investigation. We exist in space.

Place:

Place is one of the most complex and important terms in geography. In human geography, place is the synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth’s surface, the activity and use that occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the coordinates, and the meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and groups. This can be extraordinarily complex, as different spaces may have different uses at different times and mean different things to different people. In physical geography, a place includes all of the physical phenomena that occur in space, including the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

Time:

Time is usually thought to be within the domain of history, however, it is of significant concern in the discipline of geography. In physics, space and time are not separated, and are combined into the concept of  space time. Geography is subject to the laws of physics, and in studying things that occur in space, time must be considered

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org 

https://www.britannica.com 

https://unsplash.com 

Definition:

Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.

What do electrical engineers do?

Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical equipment, such as electric motors, radar and navigation systems, communications systems, or power generation equipment. Electrical engineers also design the electrical systems of automobiles and aircraft

The future of electrical engineering

Employment of electrical and electronics engineers is projected to grow by 4 percent between now and 2022, because of these professionals’ “versatility in developing and applying emerging technologies,” the BLS says.

The applications for these emerging technologies include studying red electrical flashes, called sprites, which hover above some thunderstorms. Victor Pasko, an electrical engineer at Penn State, and his colleagues have developed a model for how the strange lightning evolves and disappears. 

Another electrical engineer, Andrea Alù, of the University of Texas at Austin, is studying sound waves and has developed a one-way sound machine.”I can listen to you, but you cannot detect me back; you cannot hear my presence,” Alù told Live Science in a 2014 article.

What’s the difference between electrical and electronics engineering?

 The difference between electrical and electronics engineering is often blurred, but it is generally true to say that electrical engineers are concerned mainly with the large-scale production and distribution of electrical power, while electronics engineers focus on much smaller electronic circuits. In an electronics engineering degree, you are likely to develop an expert understanding of the circuits used in computers and other modern technologies, and for this reason electronics engineering is often taught alongside computer science. An electrical or electronics engineering degree will also overlap with mechanical and civil engineering.

Eligibility Criteria for Electrical Engineering

Candidates can pursue Electrical Engineering at diploma, graduate ,postgraduate and doctorate levels. Below mentioned are the eligibility criteria to be fulfilled in order to pursue Electrical Engineering:

Entrance Exams for Electrical Engineering

Admission to BTech/BE/MTech (Electrical Engineering) programmes in most of the institutes are based on entrance exam scores. The popular entrance exams are as follows:

Syllabus for Electrical Engineering 

Some of the core topics in Electrical Engineering course are:

Top Colleges for Electrical Engineering

Top Job Profiles for Electrical Engineering

Most people relate Electrical Engineering with wires and circuits but it is much more than that. Electrical Engineers are needed not only in the construction or power industry but also in telecommunication, IT, navigation, railways, automobile, architecture, aerospace, defence, etc. From maintaining power grids to supervising research and development of electronic devices and technology to designing circuits for computers, Electrical Engineers are required in various fields.

This branch of Engineering is basically required broadly in two fields: Power and Telecommunication.

Power Engineers: Power Engineers are involved in the generation and transmission of electricity. Their service is sought the most in the automobile industry as they are responsible for designing, manufacturing and maintaining engines and maintaining the flow of power from the engine attached to devices. Power Engineers have specialised skills in microelectronics design and manufacture very small power circuits used in computers and other electronic devices. The average starting salary per annum for Power Engineers is INR 4 lakh and upwards.

Telecommunication Engineers: They mainly work on designing and maintenance of cables. Their service is also sought for the production of receivers and transceivers. The average starting salary of Telecommunication Engineer is INR 4 lakh and upwards. Key roles of an Electrical Engineer are:

• Designing, manufacturing and operating power plants, industrial machinery, electrical motors, and ignition systems for automobiles, aircraft, space crafts and other types of engines
• Research and designing improved ways for using electrical power
• Compute the cost of manufacture, construction and installation of electrical equipment as per specifications

Some of the Electrical Engineering jobs includes:

References:

https://www.britannica.com › … › Civil Engineering

https://www.livescience.com › Reference

Definition:

Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice.

6 main Sources in different legal systems:

• Legislation (primary and secondary)
• The case law rules of common law and equity.
• Parliamentary conventions.
• General customs.
• Books of authority.

Legislation:

legislation, the preparing and enacting of laws by local, state, or national legislatures. In other contexts it is sometimes used to apply to municipal ordinances and to the rules and regulations of administrative agencies passed in the exercise of delegated legislative functions.

The case law of common law and equity:

Common law, equity is the set of maxims that “reign over all the law” and “from which flow all civil laws”. The Chancery, the office of equity, was the “office that issued the writs that were the foundation of the common law system”.

Parliamentary conventions:

Features of Parliamentary Conventions. Conventions are rules that define non-legal rights, powers and obligations of office-holders in the three branches of Government, or the relations between governments or government organs.

General customs:

Customs can be described as a cultural idea that defines a regular pattern of behaviour, which is considered a characteristic of life in a social system.

Books of authority:

Books of authorities contain copies of authorities (case law, legal texts etc.) referred to in a party’s factum (written argument). This is a list of format requirements for creating paper Books of Authorities

Types of lawyers:

• Intellectual Property Lawyer.
• Public Interest Lawyer.
• Tax Lawyer.
• Corporate Lawyers.
• Immigration Lawyers.
• Criminal Lawyer.
• Civil Rights Lawyer.
• Family Lawyer.

Intellectual property lawyer:

Intellectual Property lawyers are those specialised groups of legal practitioners who help in carrying out litigation only related to intellectual property cases which may include trademark, copyright, trade secrets to that of patents and geographical indication.

Public interest lawyer:

Public interest lawyering is a process of legal empowerment aimed at capacity building of everyday people towards using the law and institutions to bring about social change. In public interest lawyering, general people and community takes the lead in an active process while working hand in hand with lawyers

Tax lawyer:

Representing clients before the Authority for Advance Ruling and the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal. Representing clients before the High Courts and the Supreme Court of India and briefing senior counsels where required

Corporate lawyers:

Corporate lawyers serve only one client – the corporation they work for. As a corporate lawyer, you will be called upon to handle a variety of legal tasks including corporate taxes, mergers and acquisitions, corporate structure issues, employment law, and government reporting.

Immigration lawyers:

An immigration lawyer is responsible for representing the individuals (clients) involved in the immigration process that includes legal, illegal citizens and refugees who want to reside in the country, start a business or get employment.

Criminal lawyers:

A Criminal Lawyer is someone who represents a party to a court of law and makes sure that the party gets justice under the various Criminal Laws and rules of a country.

Civil rights lawyer;

These professionals specialize in matters involving injustice against members of a protected group. Civil rights lawyers handle matters involving individual freedoms, like the right to freedom of expression. They draft paperwork, represent clients in court, and mediate case resolutions.

Family lawyer:

Family lawyers are involved in the personal aspects of their clients’ lives which may include divorce, child custody, alimony, abuse and neglect proceedings, successions, family partitions and so on. A family lawyer is expected to help a client resolve any issue relating to his/her family.

Law firm:

A law firm is usually a partnership between lawyers who have come together to offer their expertise to clients under one name. These partners share the profits of the firm as well as the risks (liabilities), and engage other lawyers to work with them as associates.

Objectives of lawyer;

 Provided accurate and effective legal advice to clients.

– Attended hearings at court as well as presented evidence in court to support clients in legal proceedings.

– Writing legal documents such as trusts and will besides doing out of court settlements.

Duties of lawyer:

• Advise and represent clients in courts, before government agencies, and in private legal matters.
• Communicate with their clients, colleagues, judges, and others involved in the case.
• Conduct research and analysis of legal problems.
• Interpret laws, rulings, and regulations for individuals and businesses

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law

https://www.britannica.com/topic/law

https://www.india.gov.in/topics/law-justice

Chandragupta Maurya

Founder of the Maurya dynasty in ancient India, Chandragupta Maurya reigned from 321 BCE–298 BCE. He was born to a very meek and humble family; he was orphaned and deserted. Though raised as their son by another rural family, he was later chosen, trained, and counseled by Chanakya, the creator of the world-famous novel ‘Arthashastra.’ After defeating the ‘Nanda Dynasty, Chandragupta built ‘The Maurya Dynasty,’ one of the biggest and most prominent dynasties ever in Indian History.

Later life of Chandragupta Maurya:

As per the Jain sources, Chandragupta Maurya later renounced everything; his power, wealth, and position, and became a Jain monk. As claimed by the ancient Jain texts, Chandragupta Maurya followed Jainism in his life after renouncing everything and went away to Karnataka (known as the Deccan region during that time) with the Jain monks. He ultimately performed Sallekhana – the sacred custom followed by Jains where they welcome death peacefully by fasting. He is certainly one of the greatest emperors in Indian History and is also known to have triumphed over the easternmost satrapies of Alexander the Great.

Many other sources have since been discovered which are capable of rendering further valuable aid in this direction. The Puranas, the Buddhist chronicles of Ceylon 3 and the Jain records, when read together, go a long way in solving the vexed problems of chronology.In the judgment of the present writer it is possible to arrive at nearly precise dates by reconciling the diverse chronologies preserved in these works. Buddhist and Jain authors usually base their calculations on the dates of the passing away of Buddha and Mahavira respectively, and despite occasional mistakes in other matters, they appear to be generally correct when they date an event in terms of these epochs, which were important enough for them to well remember.

Professor Geiger has, after thorough study of the problem, arrived at the conclusion that the Nirvana of Buddha took place in 483 B. C. 1 The date of the death of Mahavira has similarly been determined by Professor Charpentier, on the authority of the Parisishtaparvan and other Jain works, as 468 B. Ca We shall accept these dates in determining the chronology of the kings of Magadha upto Chandragupta. It is, at present, not possible to verify the Puranic account of the Kings of Magadha before the time of Bimbisara. We, therefore, start with that king. The durations of the reigns of Magadhan kings from Bimbisara downwards are diversely given in the Ceylonese chronicles and the Puranas. The VayuPurana, which is one of the oldest Puranas, seems to have the best preserved list, as calculations madeon its basis most nearly agree with the Buddhist and Jain dates.

Growth of magadha:

There were many kingdoms and republics in India when the founder of Buddhism lived. Themost famous kingdoms of that period were Magadha,Avanti, Kosala and Vatsa, while the most important republican clans were the Mallas, the Vrijis, the Sakyas and the Moriyas. The ruling dynasties as well as the republican clans generally belonged to the Kshatriya class. The tendency of the time wastowards the growth of monarchies and the republics were generally being merged into the existing kingdoms or otherwise coming under the influence of monarchism. Chandragupta himself, the hero of our story and the ‘founder of the greatest Indo Aryan dynasty known in history’, sprang from a republican clan, as we shall see later The kingdom of Magadha, which was traditionally founded several centuries before by a king named Brihadratha, was rapidly rising at this period under the rule of a new dynasty whose first important king was Bimbisara, The history of India henceforth is the history of this kingdom’s growth, which culminated in the rise of the Maurya empire.

Carrer of magadha:

We have seen that Northern India was far from being a united country at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great. But the man who was destined to do more than achieve this .unity was already born. This heroic figure was Chandragupta.
The ancestry and early life of Chandragupta is recorded in several works of ancient and metftaeval times although, unfortunately, sufficient details are every-where lacking. It has hitherto been believed by several scholars, on the authority of some mediaeval
works, that Chandragupta was a low-caste man and a scion of the Nanda family. The most important of these works is a collection of stories, without any pretensions to history, known as the Brihatkatha which is preserved through many Sanskrit recensions*
Its story of the death of Nanda and the re-animation of his body is obviously not deserving of criticism, and its account of the origin of Chandragupta should also be likewise treated, being not supported by other old works. The other work which calls Chandragupta a low-caste man and connects him with Nandais the MudraJRakshasa, which is also said by the

Carrer of chandragupta:

Dasarupavaloka to be based on the Brihatkatha. This work contains many inaccuracies such as the assignation of high birth to Nanda. a statement which led the commentators to postulate that the mother of Chandragupta was a Sudra woman, for otherwise
how could the son of a high bom man be low born. 2 On the other hand, all the older works recognise Chandragupta as a Kshatriya. The Puranas, no doubt, state that Sudra kingship began with Nanda, but it simply means that kings of Sudra
caste were not rare from that time, and not that all the subsequent kings were Sudras, for the Puranas themselves designate the Kanva kings, who belonged to one of the subsequent dynasties, as Brahmans.* Therefore, when the Puranas describe the Mauryas
as a new dynasty, neither connecting them with the Nandas, nor calling them Sudras, it is clear that they recognised them as Kshatriyas, the caste to which the king normally belonged. The Kalpasutra of the Jains mentions a Mauryaputra of the Kasyapa gotra, which shows that the Mauryas were regarded as high class folk,* The Buddhist Divyavadana calls Bindusara
and Asoka, a the son and grandson respectively of Chandragupta,asKshatriyas. The Buddhist Mahavansa calls Chandragupta himself as a member of (he Kshatriya clan of the Mauryas, 8 who are represented by the Mahavansatika as a Himalayan off-shoot of the Sakyas.

Administration of empire:

The limits of the empire governed by Chandragupta are not known with absolute precision. But we can approximate to the truth by combining, the accounts of foreign writers with the Indian literary and epigraphic evidence. The empire extended upto the borders of Persia in the north-west as gathered from the terms of the treaty with Suleukos Nikator. It included the whole of the IndoXjangetic valley extending, in the west upto Kathiawar as is evident from the inscription of Rudradaman, and in the east, upto Bengal which must have passed to Chandragupta from Nanda, whoruled over Gangaradai (Ganges delta) as well as
Prassiai (Prachi).

References:

https://www.rarebooksocietyofindia.org

https://examsdaily.in 

Definition:

Public administration is a field in which leaders serve communities to advance the common good and effect positive change. Public administration professionals are equipped with skills to manage at all levels of government (local, state, and federal) as well as nonprofit organizations.

The text has accordingly provided 18 definitions to capture the intrinsic richness and subtlety of the broad phrase “public administration.” These are clustered into four main categories: 

1) political,

2) legal,

3) managerial, and

4) occupational.

Political:

Public Administration is a discipline which is concerned with the organization and the formulation and implementation of public policies for the welfare of the people. It functions in a political setting in order to accomplish the goals and objectives, which are formulated by the political decision makers.

Legal:

Administrative law encompasses the body of laws, procedures, and legal institutions affecting government agencies as they implement legislation and administer public programs. As such, administrative law implicates important political and social values, including democracy, fairness, and efficiency.

Managerial:

Public administration is a field in which leaders serve communities to advance the common good and effect positive change. Public administration professionals are equipped with skills to manage at all levels of government (local, state, and federal) as well as nonprofit organizations.

Occupational:

Public administration is a field in which leaders serve communities to advance the common good and effect positive change. Public administration professionals are equipped with skills to manage at all levels of government (local, state, and federal) as well as nonprofit organizations

Types of Public Administration

• Classical Public Administration. …
• New Public Management (NPM) …
• Postmodern Public Administration.

Classical public administration:

The central assumption of the classical approach to public administration is that hierarchy involves direct control, with the civil servant being accountable only to their superior.

New public management:

New Public Management (NPM) is an approach to running public service organizations that is used in government and public service institutions and agencies, at both sub-national and national levels.

Post modern public administration:

Postmodern public administration theory is the antithesis of positivism and the logic of objective social science. Particularism in postmodernity is overly preoccupied with efficiency, leadership, management, and organization.

Who is the father of new public management?

The Father of Public Administration, Woodrow Wilson, introduced the concept of public administration in the United States of America.

Important characteristics of Public Adminstration :-

1. It is part of executive branch of government.
2. It is related with the activities of the state.
3. It carries out the public policies.
4. It realise the aspirations of the people as formulated and
   3
   expressed in the laws.
5. Waldo and other thinkers insist on the commitment and
   dedication to the well being of the people. Otherwise Public
   Adminstration behaves in a mechanical, impersonal and
   inhuman way.
6. Public Adminstration is politically neutral.Scope :-Following are the three important perspectives about the scope ofPublic Adminstration.Narrow perspective or posdcord perspective.Broad perspective or subjectmatter view.Prevailing view.

scope of public administration:

scope of public administration includes;

1. ‘P’ stands for planning
2. ‘O’ stands for organization
3. ‘S’ stands for staffing.
4. ‘D’ stands for Directing.
5. ‘Co.’ stands for Co-ordination.
6. ‘R’ stands for Reporting
7. ‘B’ stands for Budgeting

p stands for planning:

Planning is the first step of Public Adminstration. i.e. working out the broad outline of the things that need to be done.

O stands for organization:

It means establishment of the formal structure of authority through which the work is sub-divided, arranged and co-ordinated for the defined objective.

S stands for staffing:

It means the recruitment and training of the staff and maintenance of favourable conditions of work for the staff.

D stands for directing:

It means the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions, and thus
guiding the enterprise.

Co stands for co-ordination:

It means interrelating the various parts of organization such as branches, divisions, sections of the work and elimination of
overlapping

R stands for reporting:

It means informing the authority to whom the executive is responsible as to what is going on.

B stands for budgeting:

It means accounting, fiscal planning and control.

Evaluation:

POSDCORB Perspective about the Scope of Public Adminstration is limited and narrow. It stressed on the tools of PublicAdminstration. It does not show the substance of administration. Itis a technique oriented perspective, not a subject oriented.

Prevailing view:

Prevailing view divides the scope of Public Adminstration into two
parts.-
1) Administrative theory
2) Applied administration

Administrative Theory :

Administrative theory includes:

a) Organisational Theory –
The Structure, organization, functions and methods of all types of public authority engaged in administration, whether national,
regional or local and executive.
b) Behaviour –
The functions of adminstrative authorities and the various methods appropriate to different types of functions. The various forms of control of administration.
c) Public Personal Adminstration –
The problems concerning personnel e.g. recruitment, training, promotion, retirement etc. and the problems relating to planning,
research, information and public relation services.

2. Applied administration –
   It includes the following aspects :-
   a) Political functions –
   It includes the executive – legislative relationship, administrative activities of the cabinet, the minister and permanent official
   relationship.
   b) Legislative function –
   It includes delegated legislation and the preparatory work done by the officials in connection with the drawing up of bills.
   c) Financial functions –
   It includes total financial administration from the preparation of the budget to its execution, accounting and audit etc.
   d) Defence – Functions relating to military adminstration.
   e) Educational function – It includes functions relating to educational administration.
   f) Social welfare administration –
   It includes the activities of the departments concerned with food; housing, social security and development activities.
   g) Economic Adminstration –
   It is concerned with the production and encouragement of industries and agriculture.
   h) Foreign administration –
   It includes the conduct of foreign affairs, diplomacy, international cooperation etc.
   i) Local administration –
   It concern with the activities of the local self-governing institutions:
3. Conclusion :– The modern state cannot confine its field of activities to only maintenance of law and order, dispensation of justice, collection of revenue and taxes. The modern state is expected to provide more and more services and amenities to the people. This results in tremendous growth both in the governmental responsibilites as well as in the administrative machinery of the state. Naturally the scope of public administration is increased.

Definition:

As a general science major, you’ll study at least three of these fields biology, chemistry, computer science, physics, and psychology and do advanced work in one of them, plus a year of math. You’ll gain confidence to pursue knowledge and ideas across disciplines, setting you up for professional success

.

The 3 main branches of Natural Sciences are:

• Physics: the Study of Universe.
• Chemistry: the Study of Matter.
• Biology: the Study of Life and Living Organisms.

Physics:

Physical Quantities and Mechanics
Matter and its Properties
Electromagnetics Waves & Optics / Light
Heat
Electricity and Magnetism

Physical quantities and mechanics:

Physical quantities are a characteristic or property of an object that can be measured or calculated from other measurements. Units are standards for expressing and comparing the measurement of physical quantities. All units can be expressed as combinations of four fundamental units.

Matter and its properties:

Any characteristic that can be measured, such as an object’s density, colour, mass, volume, length, malleability, melting point, hardness, odour, temperature, and more, are considered properties of matter.

Electromagnetic waves & optics/light:

 Light is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon described by the same theoretical principles that govern all forms of electromagnetic radiation. Optical frequencies occupy a band of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from the infrared through the visible to the ultraviolet.

Heat:

Heat is the transfer of kinetic energy from one medium or object to another, or from an energy source to a medium or object. Such energy transfer can occur in three ways: radiation, conduction, and convection.

Electricity and magnetism:

Electricity and magnetism are essentially two aspects of the same thing, because a changing electric field creates a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field creates an electric field. (This is why physicists usually refer to “electromagnetism” or “electromagnetic” forces together, rather than separately.)

Chemistry:

Nature / State of Matter – Solid, liquid and Gas
Atomic Structure
Radioactivity rays, nuclear fission and fusion
Chemical Formula, Change equation, reactions and bonding
Element classification / periodic table

Nature or state of matter:

Solids, liquids and gases are three states of matter. In solids, the particles are tightly packed together. In liquids, the particles have more movement, while in gases, they are spread out. Particles in chemistry can be atoms, ions or molecule

Atomic structure:

Atomic structure refers to the structure of an atom comprising a nucleus (centre) in which the protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are present. The negatively charged particles called electrons revolve around the centre of the nucleus.

Radioactivity rays , Nuclear fission and fusion:

Fusion is where two light atomic nuclei combine and release energy, while fission is the process of splitting two heavy, unstable atomic nuclei into two lighter nuclei, also releasing energy although less than with fusion. Radioactivity is the spontaneous release of energy from an unstable atom to get to a more stable state. 

Chemical formula, change equation reactions and bonding:

According to the modern view of chemical reactions, bonds between atoms in the reactants must be broken, and the atoms or pieces of molecules are reassembled into products by forming new bonds. Energy is absorbed to break bonds, and energy is evolved as bonds are made.

Element classification or periodic table:

In the long form periodic table the elements are arranged in the order of their atomic numbers. Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus of its atom.

The general features of the long form periodic table are:

• There are in all, 18 vertical columns and 18 groups in the long form periodic table.
• These groups are numbered from 1 to 18 starting from the left.
• There are seven horizontal rows called periods in the long form periodic table. Thus, there are seven periods in the long form periodic table.
• The elements of Groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 are called the main group elements. These are also called typical or representative or normal elements.
• The elements of Groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.
• Elements with atomic number 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) occurring after lanthanum (La) are called lanthanides. Elements with atomic numbers 90 to 103 (Th to Lw) are called actinides. These elements are called f-block elements and also as inner transition elements.

Biology:

Biology
Cell Biology, Genetics and Blood
Plant Anatomy and Physiology
Kingdom and taxonomy of Plant
Plant Physiology

Cell biology:

Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life. Focusing on the cell permits a detailed understanding of the tissues and organisms that cells compose.

Plant anatomy and physiology:

Plant anatomy refers to the detailed structure of the plant: leaf, stem, roots, flowers, and fruits, while plant physiology is concerned with the processes that occur within the plant that account for it being alive and productive.

kingdom and taxonomy of plant:

Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic organisms. The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment, which is required for photosynthesis.

Plant physiology:

Plant physiology is a branch of study in Botany dealing with the physiological processes or functions of plants. Precisely, it is a descriptive study of variation and structure of plants at the molecular and cellular level, resulting in ecological, physiological and biochemistry related aspects of plant exploration

Definition:

Botany, branch of biology that deals with the study of plants, including their structure, properties, and biochemical processes. Also included are plant classification and the study of plant diseases and of interactions with the environment.

Branches of botany:

There are 5 branches of botany

• Plant Pathology.
• Plant ecology
• Palaeobotany. …
• Archaeobotany. …
• Forensic Botany.

Plant Pathology:

Plant pathology is the science that studies the causes of plant diseases, the mechanisms by which diseases develop in individual plants and in plant populations, and the ways and means by which plant diseases can be managed or controlled.

Plant ecology:

Plant ecology is a subdiscipline of ecology that studies the distribution and abundance of plants, the effects of environmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among plants and between plants and other organisms.

Palaeobotany:

Paleobotany is the scientific study of ancient plants, using plant fossils found in sedimentary rocks. These fossils can be impressions or compressions of the plants left on the rock’s surface, or “petrified” objects, such as wood, which preserve the original plant material in rocklike form.

Archeobotany:

Archaeobotany is the study of ancient plant remains. By studying archaeobotanical remains we can find out how people used plants in the past: for food, fuel, medicine, symbolic or ritual purposes, or for building and crafts

Forensic botany:

Forensic botany, otherwise known as plant forensics, is the use of plants in criminal investigations. This includes the analysis of plant and fungal parts, such as leaves, flowers, pollen, seeds, wood, fruit, spores and microbiology, plus plant environments and ecology.

History of botany:

Plants are the major source of life on earth. They provide us with food, oxygen and a variety of raw materials for various industrial and domestic purposes. That is why humans have always been interested in plants since time immemorial.

The Greek scholar Theophrastrus  was one of the early Botanists of the world. He is also known as the “Father of Botany” due to his major writings on plants. One of his books called “Enquiry into Plants” classified the plants based on the geographical ranges, sizes, uses and growth patterns. The other work called “On the Causes of Plants” explained the economics of growing plants.

Dioscorides was another Greek physician from 90-40 A.D. who wrote an encyclopedia about herbal medicines known as “De Materia Medica”. This book was used as an important medicinal guidebook for over 1500 years until the invention of the compound microscope.

The invention of the compound microscope by Robert Hooke in 1665 marked the advancement of scientific knowledge in the field of Botany. It helped in the study of the anatomy and physiology of plants. The discovery of chlorophyll helped in understanding the process of photosynthesis. Gregor Mendel studied the genetic inheritance in plants through his experiments on pea plants.

Anatomy:

Robert Hooke’s microscope which he described in the 1665 Micrograhia: he coined the biological use of the term cell .In the first half of the 18th century botany was beginning to move beyond descriptive science into experimental science. Although the  microscope was invented in 1590 it was only in the late 17th century that lens grinding provided the resolution needed to make major discoveries. Antony van leuwenhoek is a notable example of an early lens grinder who achieved remarkable resolution with his single-lens microscopes.

Important general biological observations were made by  (1635–1703) but the foundations of plant anatomy were laid by Italian Marcello Marpigi(1628–1694) of the University of Bologna in his Anatomy Plantarum (1675) and Royal Society Englishman Nehemiah Grew (1628–1711) in his The Anatomy of Plants Begun (1671) and Anatomy of Plants (1682). These botanists explored what is now called developmental anatomy and morphology by carefully observing, describing and drawing the developmental transition from seed to mature plant, recording stem and wood formation. This work included the discovery and naming of  parenchyma and stomata.

Physiology

 Plant physiology

In plant physiology research interest was focused on the movement of sap and the absorption of substances through the roots. Jan Helmont(1577–1644) by experimental observation and calculation, noted that the increase in weight of a growing plant cannot be derived purely from the soil, and concluded it must relate to water uptake. Englishman Stephen Hales (1677–1761) established by quantitative experiment that there is uptake of water by plants and a loss of water by transpiration and that this is influenced by environmental conditions: he distinguished “root pressure”, “leaf suction” and “imbibition” and also noted that the major direction of sap flow in woody tissue is upward. His results were published in Vegetable Staticks (1727) He also noted that “air makes a very considerable part of the substance of vegetables”. 

English chemist Joseph priestly(1733–1804) is noted for his discovery of oxygen (as now called) and its production by plants. Later Jan ingenhousz (1730–1799) observed that only in sunlight do the green parts of plants absorb air and release oxygen, this being more rapid in bright sunlight while, at night, the air (CO₂) is released from all parts. His results were published in Experiments upon vegetables (1779) and with this the foundations for 20th century studies of carbon fixation were laid.

From his observations he sketched the cycle of carbon in nature even though the composition of carbon dioxide was yet to be resolved. Studies in plant nutrition had also progressed. In 1804  (1767–1845) Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation was an exemplary study of scientific exactitude that demonstrated the similarity of respiration in both plants and animals, that the fixation of carbon dioxide includes water, and that just minute amounts of salts and nutrients (which he analyzed in chemical detail from plant ash have a powerful influence on plant growth.

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychologists are actively involved in studying and understanding mental processes, brain functions, and behavior.

4 main types of psychology

There are different types of psychology, such as cognitive, forensic, social, and developmental psychology.

A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a psychologist. Some psychologists can also be classified as behavior or cognitive scientists. Some psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior. Others explore the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.

History:

The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders. Historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise),addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek physician Hippocrates  theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes.In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart.

Begining of experimental psychology:

Wilhelm wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind

Philosopher John Stuart Mill believed that the human mind was open to scientific investigation, even if the science is in some ways inexact. Mill proposed a “mental chemistry ” in which elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity. Gustav Fechner began conducting psycho physics research in Leipzig in the 1830s. He articulated the principle that human perception of a stimulus varies logarithmically according to its intensity. The principle became known as the Weber-Fechner-Law. Fechner’s 1860 Elements of Psychophysics challenged Kant’s negative view with regard to conducting quantitative research on the mind. Fechner’s achievement was to show that “mental processes could not only be given numerical magnitudes, but also that these could be measured by experimental methods.’ In Heidelberg, 

Development of psychology

Developmental psychologists would engage a child with a book and then make observations based on how the child interacts with the object.

Developmental psychology refers to the scientific study of how and why the thought processes, emotions, and behaviors of humans change over the course of their lives. Some credit Charles Darwin with conducting the first systematic study within the rubric of developmental psychology, having published in 1877 a short paper detailing the development of innate forms of communication based on his observations of his infant son. The main origins of the discipline, however, are found in the work of Jean Piaget. Like Piaget, developmental psychologists originally focused primarily on the development of cognition from infancy to adolescence. Later, developmental psychology extended itself to the study cognition over the life span. In addition to studying cognition, developmental psychologists have also come to focus on affective, behavioral, moral, social, and neural development.

Mental Healthcare:

The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the U.S. Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and counseling psychology professions engage in practices that resemble that of clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists typically include people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology. In Canada, some of the members of the abovementioned groups usually fall within the larger category of professional psychology. In Canada and the U.S., practitioners get bachelor’s degrees and doctorates; doctoral students in clinical psychology usually spend one year in a predoctoral internship and one year in postdoctoral internship.

Agriculture is a art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising livestock, It includes the preparation of plant and animal products for people to use and their distribution to markets.Agriculture provides most of the world’s food and fabrics.

There are 4 types of agriculture which includes;

1)Shifting Cultivation

2)Subsistance Farming

3)Pastoralism

4)Intensive Farming

Shifting Cultivation:

Shifting cultivation is a form of farming where farmers cultivate the land temporarily for two or three seasons .Then they abandon the land and leave it to allow vegetables to grow freely. After that, farmers move to a different place. They leave the place when the soil gets out of fertility or land is overrun by weeds. The cultivation time is generally less than when the ground is allowed to regenerate fertility.

Subsistence Farming:

subsistence farming, form of farming in which nearly all of the crops or livestock raised are used to maintain the farmer and the farmer’s family, leaving little, if any, surplus for sale or trade. Preindustrial agricultural peoples throughout the world have traditionally practiced subsistence farming. Some of these peoples moved from site to site as they exhausted the soil at each location. As urban centres grew, agricultural production became more specialized and commercial farming developed, with farmers producing a sizable surplus of certain crops, which they traded for manufactured goods or sold for cash.

Pastoralism:

Pastoralism has involved the care of herds of domesticated livestock for four millennia, providing a range of services to subsistence farmers. Pastoralism takes different forms, depending on ecology, including nomadic because of discontinuous p pasture (e.g., Mongols), seminomadic with mixed herding-farming (e.g., Turkmen), and transhumance  and estivation (e.g., Mediterranean) with highly developed agriculture.

Intensive Farming:

Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area.

Agriculture Insurance:

What to do?

Safeguard yourself financially against natural risks like
natural disasters/ calamities, insect, pests & diseases and
adverse weather conditions.
1) Take benefit of appropriate crop insurance scheme
applicable in your area.
2)Four insurance schemes are being implemented namely,
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS),Coconut Palm Insurance Scheme (CPIS) and Pilot Unified Package Insurance Scheme (UPIS) (45 districts).
3) Coverage under PMFBY/WBCIS/CPIS/UPIS is compulsory, if you avail crop loan for notified crops.
4) Coverage is voluntary for non-loanee farmers.
5)Contact District Agriculture officers of State Govt./nearest branch of bank/PACS Common
Service Centre (CSC) or crop insurance company operating in your area for availing the benefits under the crop insurance scheme

Whom to Contact?
Nearest branches of Bank/ PACS/Cooperative Banks/ Common Service Centre (CSC) Empanelled General Insurance Companies notified for the area and District Agriculture Officer/Block Development Officer may be contacted or visit web portal http://www.pmfby.gov.in.

Soil Health Card:

What to do?
1) Always use appropriate quantity of fertilizer based on
soil test.
2) Use organic manures to maintain the fertility of soil.
3) In order to get maximum benefit of the fertilizers, always apply in root zone instead of broadcasting.
4) Resort to judicious and efficient use of Phosphatic Fertilizers for proper development of roots/shoots and timely maturity of crops, particularly the legumes which fix atmospheric Nitrogen for enrichment of soil.
5)Farmers desirous of adopting Participatory Organic Guarantee System (PGS – India) Certification system may form a group of at least 5 farmers and get it registered with the nearest Regional Centre of Organic Farming.

Soil Health Card: Soil health card has been launched on 19th February 2015. Under the scheme,
Soil health card will be provided to all farm holdings in the country at an interval of 2 years so as to
enable the farmers to apply appropriate recommended dosages of nutrients for crop production
and improving soil health and its fertility

Whom to Contact?
District Agriculture Officer / District Horticulture Officer / Project Director ATMA

Pradhan Manthri Krishi Sinchai Yojana And Others

What to do?
1) Conserve soil and water through good Agricultural Practices.
2) Harvest rain water through construction of check dams and ponds.
3) Adopt crop diversification, seed production and nursery raising in water logged areas.
4) Adopt drip and sprinkler irrigation system to save 30-37% water and enhance crop quality and productivity.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) : PMKSY was approved by the Cabinet
Committee on Economic Affairs on 01.07.2015 with an outlay of Rs. 50,000 crore for a period of 5
years (2015-16 to 2019-20).
The vision of PMKSY is to ensure access to some means of protective irrigation to all agricultural
farms in the country – to produce ‘per drop more crop. Thus bringing much desired rural prosperity.
PMKSY is strategized by focusing on end-to end solution in irrigation supply chain, viz. water sources,
distribution network, efficient farm level applications, extension services on new technologies &
information etc. based on comprehensive planning process at district/State level.

Whom to Contact?
District Agriculture Officer / District Soil Conservation Officer / Project Director ATMA /District
Horticulture Officer.

India gained its independence on 15th August, in the year 1947. To achieve its independence, India had to fight relentlessly. India was able to achieve complete independence through the sacrifice of numerous heroes. However, the outrage of rebels started with the introduction of nationalism. The Indian National movement was the first movement that shook the British and the national movement itself paved the path of independence for India and its people. Nationalism played an important part in constructing the history of India and the Indian National Movement. 

How did nationalism arise?

Numerous developments took place in the country and these developments make people curious about certain things. They started asking questions like what is the country of India, and for what kind of people India is meant for? Eventually, the questions were answered. All the people of India together make India where an individual’s class, color, sex, and language do not matter. Additionally, all the resources that are present inside the boundaries of India belong to the people of India as well. As the people of India received answers like this, they started to become aware of the British implementation of control on the lives of the citizens, and resources of India. People started to understand how the British government was compromising the well-being of the country of India and only focused on the development of Britain. The political associations that were formed after the year 1850 were majorly those that came into formation in the 1870s and 1880s. These political associations had well-educated individuals who were professionally a lawyer. Some of the most important political associations were the Indian association, the Bombay Presidency Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, Poorna Sarvajanik Sabha, and the Indian National Congress.  The Poorna Sarvajanik Sabha was called so because the word “Sarvajanik” translates to “for or of all the people” (Sarva= all, Janik= off the people).  All of these associations worked in a certain part of the country. The goals set by these associations were goals set by the people of the entire nation.

The goals remained uniform among all the citizens and they did not change according to caste or creed. This was to make India a sovereign country. Sovereignty was a relatively modern concept for the people of India. The idea of sovereignty played a big role in nationalism. In simpler words, the Indian people believed that they must be allowed to take care of their affairs. Then another act was introduced named ‘The Arms Act’. According to this act, Indians were not allowed to carry any kind of weapons. The Vernacular Press Act was introduced to silence the voice of the Indian Press. Then a bill, named Ilbert Bill was supposed to be passed. According to this bill, the Britishers and the Indians would get equal grounds in a court. However, the Britishers did not allow the Bill to pass. This showed the mindset of the Britishers regarding Indian race. The Britishers discriminated based on color. Therefore, due to the passing of such acts and the prevalence of racial discrimination, the Indians started to generate a feeling of nationalism inside their heart.

The nationalism, as we know it, is a modern phenomenon which evolved in eighteenth-century Europe and, in the wake of European hegemony over the globe, spread to all parts of the world. The new form of community, that is nation, was created through imagination and not through shared experiences. Such communities also demanded to have their own representative states, and they succeeded in a large number of cases. It was through this process that the nation-states emerged, which is a completely novel form of state as it is organically connected with the society. Unit 1 will discuss various theories of nationalism and their relevance in Indian case. Indian Nationalist Movement, as you are aware, was a grand and prolonged struggle launched against British imperialism. Nationalism was the main ideology and the instrument with whose help this struggle was launched. In the context of the Indian Nationalist Movement, Indian nationalism represented two major ideas: anti-imperialism and national unity. In other words, any person, movement or organization that practiced and upheld these two ideas, could be considered a nationalist. It would be best to look at Indian nationalism as a case-study of nationalism in general, but as an important and distinctive case-study. It may not be necessary to construct a separate theory of Indian nationalism, but rather that general theories of nationalism will have to be modified and tailored so as to accommodate the Indian case-study. Perhaps one should separately look at the two components of the Indian experience – the Indian component (specific) and the nationalist (generic) one. It should therefore be seen both as Indian nationalism and also as Indian nationalism.

Rise Of Nationalism In India:

For India, the making of national identity was a long process whose roots can be drawn from the ancient era. India as a whole had been ruled by emperors like Ashoka and Samudra gupta in ancient times and Akbar to Aurangzeb in Medieval times. But,
it was only in the 19th Century that the concept of a national identity and national consciousness emerged. This growth was intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement about which you have already read in lesson 4. The social, economic and
political factors had inspired the people to define and achieve their national identity. People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle against colonialism. The sense of being oppressed under colonial rule provided a shared bond that tied different groups together. Each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently. Their experiences were varied, and their notions of freedom were note always the same. Several other causes also contributed towards the rise and growth of Nationalism. One set of laws of British Government across several regions led to political and administrative unity.

This strengthened the concept of citizenship and one nation among Indians. Do you remember reading the lesson Popular Resistance Movements? Do you remember the way the peasants and the tribals rebelled when their lands and their right to livelihood was taken away? Similarly this economic exploitation by the British agitated other people to unite and react against British Government’s control over their lives and resources. The social and religious reform movements of the 19th century also contributed to the feeling of Nationalism.

Do you remember reading about Swami Vivekananda, Annie Besant, Henry Derision and many others? They revived the glory of ancient India, created faith among the people in their religion and culture and thus gave the message of love for their motherland. The intellectual and spiritual side of Nationalism was voiced by persons like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Aurobindo Ghosh. Bankim Chandra’s hymn to the Motherland, ‘Vande Matram’ became the rallying cry of patriotic nationalists. It inspired generations to supreme self-sacrifice. Simultaneously, it created a fear in the minds of the British. The impact was so strong that the British had to ban the song. Similarly, Swami Vivekananda’s message to the people, “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached”, appealed to the Indians. It acted as a potent force in the course of Indian Nationalism.

References:

https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in

https://unacademy.com

There is a strong connection between sleep and mental health. Getting enough sleep is essential to maintaining good mental health and can help improve mood, cognitive functioning and overall wellbeing. On the other hand ,lack of sleep can increase  the risk of developing mental health conditions such as irritability, difficulty  concentrating, depression and anxiety.

Living with a mental health problem can affect how well you sleep, and poor sleep can have a negative impact on your mental health.  Sufficient sleep, especially REM sleep, facilitates the brain’s processing of emotional information. During sleep, the brain works to evaluate and remember thoughts and memories, and it appears that a lack of sleep is especially harmful to the consolidation of positive emotional content. Additional research found that sleep interventions are effective at reducing symptoms of PTSD,10 lessening the severity of ADHD symptoms,12 and improving the overall quality of life for people with both conditions.

Sleep deprivation makes us moody and irritable, and impairs brain functions such as memory and decision-making. It also negatively impacts the rest of the body – it impairs the functioning of the immune system, for example, making us more susceptible to infection. The recommended amount of sleep for a healthy adult is at least seven hours. Most people don’t need more than eight hours in bed to be well rested. Insomnia is a common problem throughout the world. According to estimates, it is believed to affect approximately 33% of the world’s population.¹Even people without chronic insomnia often struggle with sleep problems.

How Does Lack of Sleep Affect Mental Health?

It’s no secret that sleep plays an important role in good physical health. Lack of sleep is linked to a number of unfavorable health consequences including heart disease and type 2 diabetes. etc,

Some psychiatric conditions can cause sleep problems, and sleep disturbances can also exacerbate the symptoms of many mental conditions including depression, anxiety and bipolar disorder. Research suggests that the relationship between sleep and mental health is complex. While lack of sleep has long been known to be a consequence of many psychiatric conditions, more recent views suggest that lack of sleep can also play a causal role in both the development and maintenance of different mental health problems.

Brain Fog:

Our brain needs sleep to operate at full capacity. Lack of sleep can lead to brain fog, which often feels like confusion or trouble concentrating. You may find it’s more difficult to recall certain memories or find the right words for what you want to say when you didn’t get enough sleep the night before. You will probably find it difficulty to be productive.

Mood Changes:

Not getting enough sleep may cause mood changes, including increased irritability. Participants in one study also experienced feelings of anxiety and depression as a result of sleep deprivation.

Behavior Changes

Along with mood changes may come unusual behaviors. Lack of sleep can lead to increased impulsivity, hyperactivity, and emotional outbursts. We might notice that we struggle to interact with other people when we’re sleep-deprived.

Stress

Poor sleep can make it much more difficult to cope with even relatively minor stress. Daily hassles can turn into major sources of frustration. You might find yourself feeling frazzled by everyday occurrences.

Psychotic Symptoms

Severe sleep deprivation is linked with the development of temporary psychotic symptoms. One study found that some participants who went 24 hours without sleep experienced hallucinations and other perceptual changes; others who went 60 hours without sleep experienced both hallucinations and delusions.

Depression

Insomnia and other sleep problems can be a symptom of depression, but more recently, research has implicated lack of sleep in actually causing depression.

A doctor may also recommend:

• Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I): CBT-I is similar to CBT, except it’s focused on relieving insomnia. A therapist will help you address the thoughts and feelings that may keep you from falling/staying asleep. You’ll learn relaxation techniques to prepare you for rest.¹⁸
• sleep studies: A sleep study is when you sleep in a controlled environment that is set up like a bedroom; doctors monitor your brain waves, heartbeat, eye movements, and more. They can also determine whether you have a sleep condition such as sleep apnea or restless legs syndrome.¹⁹
• Over-the-counter sleep aids: There are over the counter (otc) such as  melatonin that some people find helpful. However, melatonin should only be used for a short time period. Be sure to consult with a doctor prior to use and report any unusual side effects (like dizziness or confusion) to a doctor right away.²⁰
• Sleep medicine: In some cases, a doctor may prescribe a prescription sleep medicine to help you get a full night’s rest. Generally, it’s recommended you don’t use these medications for more than a few weeks, due to potential side effects and dependency, so be sure to use them only under a doctor’s supervision and report any unusual side effects.

Sleep deprivation can affect your mental health

Sleep and mental health are closely connected. Sleep deprivation affects your psychological state and mental health. And those with mental health problems are more likely to have insomnia or other sleep disorders. Americans are notoriously sleep deprived, but those with psychiatric conditions are even more likely to be yawning or groggy during the day. Chronic sleep problems affect 50% to 80% of patients in a typical psychiatric practice, compared with 10% to 18% of adults in the general U.S. population.

How Sleep Deprivation Impacts Mental Health

Americans were having trouble sleeping before COVID-19. Unfortunately, it only got worse when the pandemic isolated us from friends and family, closed our schools and offices, and sent shock waves through the economy.

According to a study of 22,330 adults from 13 countries published in November 2021, one in three participants, had clinical insomnia symptoms and nearly 20 percent met the criteria for insomnia disorder rates more than double what they were before the pandemic. Furthermore, sleep disturbances were linked to higher levels of psychological distress. Anxiety and depression rates were also considerably higher than pre-pandemic levels in the same survey.

“Just like our electronics need to be charged, sleep may recharge or reset the brain to optimize functioning,” Elizibeth zake says, an assistant professor of psychology (in Psychiatry) and a clinical psychologist at the Columbia University Clinic for Anxiety and Related Disorders.

Columbia Psychiatry News spoke with Zakarin about the psychological impact of sleep deprivation, challenges brought on by the pandemic, the influence of food on our sleep patterns, and effective treatments for sleep difficulties. 

References:

https://www.verywellmind.com

https://www.sleepfoundation.org/mental-health

https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter

MENTAL ABILITY

 A mental ability is a pre-employment test that assesses a candidate’s ability to comprehend complex ideas, solve problems, and apply learned skills through questions based on abstract reasoning, numeric reasoning, and verbal reasoning. It helps you identify top talent at the pre-hire stage., GMA tests are mainly used for ranking candidates in recruitment settings. Types of general mental ability include: verbal comprehension, word fluency, associative memory, spatial visualization, perceptual quickness, number facility, and reasoning. characteristics of mental ability include, Abilities allow people to acquire knowledge and solve problems. This general mental ability is what underlies specific mental skills related to areas such as spatial, numerical, mechanical, and verbal abilities. The General Ability segment will contain questions from various subjects such as General Knowledge (GK), English, Chemistry, Physics, Geography, Current Events.

Important functions of general ability include, General mental ability tests are used as pre-employment screening assessments because they are great indicators of success in the future. In a general mental ability test, a candidate will face different types of questions based on several aptitudes, including reading, writing, and logical skills. Types of mental ability includes , The cognitive and psychometric ability tests are further classified into two: logical/abstract reasoning and verbal reasoning. There are 7 G’s of intelligence which includes, The broad abilities recognized by the model are fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized intelligence (Gc), general memory and learning (Gy), broad visual perception (Gv), broad auditory perception (Gu), broad retrieval ability (Gr), broad cognitive speediness (Gs), and processing speed (Gt).Importance of mental ability includes, Psychological skills, or mental skills are tools for the mind. This includes skills like positive self-talk, enhancing confidence, goal setting, and achieving the most productive mindset, among many other skills. Improving your psychological skills can enhance academic performance and your overall well-being.

1. Logical/Abstract Reasoning
2. Verbal Reasoning
3. Data Interpretation
4. Puzzles

The mental ability topics for competitive exams include both reasoning and interpretation questions. Nonetheless, there is no prescribed mental ability syllabus for competitive exams. Here is the mental ability topics list that most of the competitive exams cover:

• Assertion & Reason
• Jumbled Paragraphs/Para-jumbles
• Summary Questions
• Reading Comprehension
• Logical Reasoning
• Data Interpretation (Tables, Charts, Graphs)
• Puzzles
• Analogy
• Blood Relations
• Classification
• Coding and Decoding
• Data Sufficiency
• Direction
• Logical Sequence of Words
• Logical Venn Diagram
• Number Series
• Sequence
• Missing Characters
• Spontaneous Reaction

Though candidates should learn and revise the mental ability syllabus for competitive exams, they must comprehend the right tricks to excel.

1. To solve any problem in the mental ability test, the candidate needs to read the question carefully. For example, if you are solving a data interpretation question, try to analyze the data very carefully before concluding.
2. Blood Relation Tricks– Prepare a tree diagram by assigning symbols to different members of the family. For example, you can allot a circle for mother, a square symbol for father, etc. While reading the questions, draw the symbols of the members mentioned in the problem. This will help you to get accurate answers to blood relation problems.
3. Coding-Decoding Tricks: Most of the coding-decoding questions have a particular pattern to figure out the problem. Be it letter codes or substitution questions, the pattern is the key to solve the coding and decoding questions.
4. Analogy Tricks– There are various types of verbal analogy questions.
5. NWI promotes Six Dimensions of Wellness: Emotional, Physical, Intellectual, Occupational, Spiritual, and Social.

Contents of Logical Reasoning & Analytical Ability

• Syllogism
• Statement and Arguments
• Statement and Assumptions
• Statement and and Courses of Action
• Statement and Conclusions
• Deriving Conclusion
• Assertion and Reason
• Punch lines
• Situation Reaction Tests
• Cause and Effect
• Analytical Reasoning

Mental ability test includes:

Analogy, series completion, coding-decoding, blood relations, logical Venn diagrams, alphabetical test, number ranking, mathematical operations, arithmetical reasoning, data interpretation, data sufficiency, cubes and dies, construction of sequences and triangles

References:

https://iasexamportal.com

https://www.vedantu.com,

https://www.practiceaptitudetests.com,

https://www.vidhyarthimitra.

In now a days inforamation technology is very useful to learn What type of information have you need.

Advantages of Information Technology:

1.Expand your Knowledge

2.Learn what information what we need

3.It improves our knowledge

4.Easy and quick Communication

5.Technology allows to increase production

Why Information technology is Important:

Information technology refers to the use of systems, particularly computers and communications, for the archiving, retrieval, and transmission of data. Our lives revolve heavily around it. The use of computers, the Internet, and mobile devices is essential. Due to their extensive use over time, we frequently take them for granted.