Jurisprudence is the philosophy of law. In other words, it seeks to explain what law is about in the most general way. Etymologically, the word ‘jurisprudence’ is the English derivation of the Latin word ‘jurisprudentia’ which means the study, knowledge or skill with regards to the law. It discusses law in the most general way e.g. what is law, what is its purpose, how it originated, how does it develop, what are its basic concepts and structure, what is its relation with other social phenomena like the economy, the social system, etc. 

The study of jurisprudence as separate branch of knowledge started with the Romans. For them, jurisprudence meant ‘knowledge of law’. But in modern sense this meaning is too vague and general. Though the Romans in practice never confused law with morality or religion, in theory this distinction is hardly found to be in existence in earlier times. The definition and concept of jurisprudence by Roman jurists may appear to be vague and inadequate in the modern sense of the term, but the credit of recognizing jurisprudence as an independent branch of legal science for the first time goes to the Roman legal philosophers, which eventually paved way to development of the subject in the present form.

The Indian jurisprudence is as old as humanity itself; there is no founder of it other than the Creator itself. It owes its origin to ancient concept of Dharma which was considered to be best way to discipline one’s mind. The practice of Dharma enabled citizens to inculcate the sense of discipline in conducting themselves in the society. This eventually brought about peace and prosperity in the society. According to Dr. Kane, the concept of dharma passed through several transitions over the years and in the modern context it signifies privileges, duties and obligations of a man, his standard of conduct as a member of the society.

However, with the passage of time and changes in the socio-political conditions of India due to the influence of Mughals and later British rule, “the ancient Hindu law which at one time governed the entire gamut of human activity-civil, criminal and miscellaneous, was modified, supplemented and finally superseded by various legislative enactments”. Thus the Hindu law which was at one time revealed to have a divine origin being a part of dharma, has now become “man-made” law and therefore has lost its divinity which the religion still retains, though the distortions therein have reduced it to a mere farce and tool for hoodwinking and playing with the sentiments of the masses by those who are the helm of the religious affairs. It is an irony of fate that dharma, which is as old as humanity itself and of which law proper has been only a part and parcel, has lost all its credence and glory and its is now being increasingly used as a means to accomplish the selfish ends of those who are in power rather than as an instrument to secure even-handed justice to the people of India.

However, with the march of time and progress of Indian society, concept of law and therefore, of jurisprudence has changed radically. India is now a sovereign socialist secular democratic republic. Democracy presupposes government of the people, by the people and for the people, and therefore, citizens are expected to be self restrained and self disciplined. They should also be conscious of their rights and duties. Law played a significant role in sustaining a stable social order. India being a welfare state, a new Indian jurisprudence needs to be developed so as to ensure that law becomes an effective instrument of social change in various facet of Indian life. It has to play the functional role of harmonizing the conflicting interest if individuals in the society by maintaining equilibrium between the freedoms of individuals on the one hand and social welfare on the other.

The modern law and legal philosophy does not touch the morality or the religion. But the dharma of the ancient Indian legal system comprised all the three, namely law, morality and religion within its ambit. This is evinced by the fact Sadachar laid greater stress on morality then law. The element of religion was conspicuously present in the dharma because of its emphasis not only in noble feeling or intentions but in both noble motive and action. Thus religion as a part of dharma meant by what is approved by conscience of virtuous men who are free from hatred and worldly temptations. Religion therefore, consisted in both noble motive and action because noble feeling precedes noble action. In other words, former is the cause and the latter is the effect. For example, to help the poor and needy or attending to the sick and diseased persons are no doubt noble but that should be achieved in a noble way either by sacrifice of personal comforts or personal money but if it is done by robbing others or exploiting others, it would be contrary to dharma.  

The modern conception of Indian law is based on the notion of reasonableness. Though morality and reasonableness appear to be identical concepts, all that are reasonable need to be necessarily moral. For example, in the Bearer Bond’s case, the law in question, namely, the Special Bearer Bonds (Immunities & Exemptions) Act, 1981 was challenged on the ground of immortality as it extended immunity to tax-evaders and hoarders of black money but the Supreme Court by majority of 4: 1 upheld the validity of the Act on the ground of reasonability because it was enacted to unearth black money which was an ‘obstinate economic problem’ and other efforts having failed. The Apex court took a positivist view and observed that ‘Law is Law’ and, therefore, immunity to black-money hoarders by itself could not be ground of constitutional challenges under Article 14 of the Constitution.

The study of the evolution of ancient Indian law and jurisprudential philosophy would reveal the conception of justice in the form of Dharma governed the communal life with a view to safeguarding the common interests of the people. As rightly pointed out by S. Vardhachariar, there appears to have been a logical order in the historical evolution of the ancient legal system in which desire for justice and respect for law were greatly influenced by the public opinion. Kohler also believed that the essential element of law in ancient Indian was not that it should lead to objectively right results, but that society should recognize the domain of the law in administration of justice.

As the time advanced, there was a radical change in social conditions and human behavior which resulted in shift of trend and jurisprudence come to be envisaged in a broader perspective.

Adaptive Physical Education (APE) is a direct service that can be provided to a special needs child, should the Committee on Preschool Special Education (CPSE) or the Committee on Special Education (CSE) determine that the child is in need of such service. In many cases, if a child is identified as visually impaired, physically handicapped, severely multiply impaired, or other health impaired, he or she will be warranted APE services.

Adaptive Physical Education (APE) is an adapted, or modified, physical education program designed to meet the individualized gross motor needs, or other disability-related challenges, of an identified student. The program can be provided one-on-one, in a small group, or within the general physical education setting. The APE instructor needs to be trained in assessing and working with special needs children. Lesson plans, rubrics, and worksheets need to be adapted for the needs of the children.

The need for Adaptive Physical Education (APE) is determined by the CPSE or CSE. The APE instructor assesses the child and presents the information to the committee. The assessment must include diagnostic and curriculum-based data, observations, and input by the child’s general physical education teacher. If the child is receiving OT, PT or Vision Therapy (VT), then input should be obtained by these providers as well.

Based on the assessment and any other information provided by committee members, the committee determines whether or not APE services are needed. If the committee recommends such services, then APE becomes a part of the child’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP). The plan must include the assessment information, the amount of APE to be received, whether or not the child will be in the general physical education setting, and goals with measurable objectives/benchmarks.

It’s important to note that APE should not be viewed as a related service. Because physical education is federally mandated for all students, the APE teacher is a direct service provider. The APE teacher is to provide adaptations or modifications that will allow the special needs child to participate in age-appropriate physical educational activities. Adaptations or modifications can be made in four areas:

1. Instruction. Rules, lesson plans, strategies, etc. can be modified or included to help the child be successful in physical education. For example, a down’s syndrome child may respond to one word signs as reminders for doing a summersault correctly.

2. Rules. A rule can be adapted or changed if it allows the special needs child to be successful. For example, if the students are working on volley ball skills, a wheelchair bound student is allowed to serve the volley ball from four feet ahead of the serving line.

3. Equipment. Standard gym equipment can be replaced with other objects that vary in shape, color, size, etc. For example, when playing kickball, provide a large bright orange ball for a visually impaired child to kick.

4. Environment. If need be, change the size of the playing area or use tape to define the area. For example, if the general education students are pitching softballs back and forth, work with a severely mentally handicapped child on rolling a ball back and forth by starting out being two feet apart and gradually increasing the space.

For some special needs students, Adaptive Physical Education may be needed every school year. For other students, as they continue to make gains with their gross motor skills, APE services might be tapered back and at some point no longer needed. APE students need to be encouraged to do their best. Programs, such as the Special Olympics, have provided a wonderful and positive opportunity for APE students to experience competing just like their non-disabled peers.

Adapted games for disabilities

The adaptation and development of games for children with disabilities is fundamental for the progression and stimulation of children with disabilities. Apart from adapting the games and toys design according to certain standards to comply with the needs of children with disabilities, we should not forget, that adapting them to the universal standards will benefit, not only children with disabilities, put also children without them, so they can share moments together while playing, favouring social inclusion.  

Games and toys for children with disability: inclusion, encouragement and development

Games for children are a synonym with psychomotor activity, development and stimulation. They are a source of assertiveness, motivation, satisfaction and social interaction.

In the case of children with disability, games are more than that. All these benefits mentioned above are duplicated when disabilities are present, so that the game turns to be an occupational area which is a very basic element for their social, cognitive, sensory, prescriptive, affective and communicative development.

We need to take into account that games for children with disabilities are also essential tools to accomplish educational objectives. Nevertheless, children with disabilities usually find obstacles in the game, not only if toys are not adapted to their own needs, but also when interacting with other children.

Furthermore, since there is not only a type of disability (there could be motor, cognitive, sensory, perceptive, relational disabilities), it is hard to set global patterns to define games for every kind of disability. Professionals (doctors and specialists) and family members are the ones who need to be in charge of spotting the features each child needs.

Some of the esential things we need to take into account when choosing a toy or a game for children with disabilities are the age and type of disability. For instance, in cases of motor disability, adaptations in toys for babies is quite high per se. This is due to the fact that at an early age the mobility of babies with or without disabilities is practically the same, but the differences in motor activity are more notable as children grow.

But not only the age and the type of disability are key when choosing any toy or game, children (not only the ones with disabilities), usually have different learning rhythms, so it is important to call certain specifications into question with regard to the age, depending on the case.

Even so, when talking about games for children with disabilities, we can establish the following general guidelines.

• Look for toys with different visual designs, use and play (characteristics of toys with universal design)
• Choose those that allow you to change the rules so you can easily adapt them.
• Encourage them to explore and participate so that they realise what they are or not able to do, and get to know their preferences too
• Don’t forget that stimulation through games for the disabled is both an individual and group experience. The former reinforces personal autonomy while the latter promotes communication and teamwork.
• Adapted toys are those that, in a group of children with and without disabilities, all of them can play with it and none feels excluded.
• “Dirty game” (using sand, water, finger paints, play dough, kneading, wax, modelling clay…) stimulates sensory and motor development.
• If you suggest games for disabled children, try to mix tradition and innovation together. Traditional games (clapping games, songs, etc.) promote the sensorimotor development and enhance social relations. On the contrary, innovative toys use interesting and useful programmes and technological adjustments for children with disabilities.

Games for children with physical disabilities: challenges and basic modifications

Children with motor disabilities usually start their physical therapy when their first months of life are taking place and their parents moving their efforts and eagerness into it. In this phase, play is presented as a major element for physical development.

Among the main obstacles that children with physical disabilities may find when playing, are problems with moving certain parts of their body, reaching the elements, and the precision of movement and coordination.

One of the usual elements for adapting games for children with disabilities is the use of push buttons. They, apart from stimulating the game, are used in some day-to-day devices such as computers, controls, switches or keys. Getting to have autonomy with push buttons, will make easier for them the fact of controlling those devices in the future.

Some other basic elements to take into account when choosing accessible games for children with phisical disabilities are:

• Children can handle them without needing the help from others.
• Push buttons (and other elements which they need to interact with) are adapted, distinguishable and easy to run.
• Large structures like kitchen sets, little tables, etc. need to be large enough to allow the entrance of a wheelchair. In the absence of this possibility, the structure should be detachable.
• The need to perform multiple actions at the same time is excluded (for example, the need of pressing two buttons simultaneously).

Technology integration is the use of technology resources — computers, mobile devices like smartphones and tablets, digital cameras, social media platforms and networks, software applications, the Internet, etc. — in daily classroom practices, and in the management of a school. Successful technology integration is achieved when the use of technology is:

• Routine and transparent
• Accessible and readily available for the task at hand
• Supporting the curricular goals, and helping the students to effectively reach their goals

When technology integration is at its best, a child or a teacher doesn’t stop to think that he or she is using a technology tool — it is second nature. And students are often more actively engaged in projects when technology tools are a seamless part of the learning process.

Defining Technology Integration

“Effective integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyse and synthesize the information, and present it professionally. The technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions — as accessible as all other classroom tools.” — National Educational Technology Standards for Students, International Society for Technology in Education.

The success behind technology integration in education

There are two keys to successfully integrating technology in the classroom. The first lies in understanding the role of technology in the classroom. Keeping students — not the technology — at the center of instruction is the second.

Authentic and meaningful technology integration is a relationship between the teacher, the student, and the curriculum. Technology is the vehicle that makes it happen.

In Ms. Hart’s classroom, students used technology as an appropriate medium for completing their assignment. Their focus remained on the learning objectives and project goals — the tech was just a tool. Learning how to use the available technology also supplemented their learning experience and helped them work more efficiently.

Digital automation and machinery alone will never make school a better place. Technology integration in education doesn’t shift the focus from instruction. Instead, it enhances an existing educational program by serving as a learning device.

Benefits of technology integration

First, technology meets students where they are in the learning continuum by assessing their strength and weaknesses. Then, the programs identify appropriate learning objectives and establish learning pathways for each student.

Second, instructional software allows students to access their classwork anytime. Students may extend their learning by working on programs outside of class: before school, during lunch time, or from home if they have access to the apps from their own devices.

Third, learners find technology responsive and engaging. In the classroom, students with access to technology have useful tools that assist with active learning and problem-solving. Integrated technology encourages engagement and exploration in a way that traditional textbooks can never fill. Classroom lessons are less about the technology itself and more about deep learning. Students use technology to achieve the task at hand: understanding content.

Additionally, software and digital voice assistants provide alternative, reliable sources of information or fact-checking. These programs patiently repeat directions and lessons, customizing instruction through differentiation.

Finally, as learners engage with software and other technology, certain algorithms can collect data about student achievement for teachers to analyze. This data allows them to better plan future lessons and attend to their students’ needs

Career counseling, also known as career guidance, is counseling designed to help with choosing, changing, or leaving a career and is available at any stage in life. One’s career is often one of the most important aspects of adulthood, and embarking on a new career, whether for the first time, the second time, or any time thereafter, can be a stressful event, especially when economic difficulties such as recession are a factor. A career counselor can help by outlining and discussing one’s potential career options.

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Career Counseling

Career counseling, also known as career guidance, is counseling designed to help with choosing, changing, or leaving a career and is available at any stage in life. One’s career is often one of the most important aspects of adulthood, and embarking on a new career, whether for the first time, the second time, or any time thereafter, can be a stressful event, especially when economic difficulties such as recession are a factor. A career counselor can help by outlining and discussing one’s potential career options.

WHAT IS CAREER COUNSELING?

Most Americans will spend a third of their lives at work, but a 2014 study showed that only 52.3% of Americans report being satisfied with their jobs. Job stress may lead to anxiety or depression, so finding a fulfilling career is considered to be important to mental well-being. When choosing the most fitting career or finding a new job when one proves unsatisfying or frustrating, the services of a career counselor may be helpful.A career counselor could be a therapist, life coach, or a volunteer from the business world but will generally be trained to provide career information resources, discuss career development, and administer and interpret aptitude and ability assessments. Students might see a guidance counselor in high school before applying to college and then again in college before choosing or changing majors, but career counseling can help anyone who wishes to change careers, leave work altogether, or explore ways to be more satisfied with a current career.

CHOOSING A CAREER

Choosing a career is an important task, but it may also be a difficult one. It may not be easy to decide what type of job will be the best fit, and since career counseling helps people assess their skills, needs, and desires in order to find a career that works for them, this type of counseling is considered to be an important step to take before deciding on a permanent career. Researching a wide variety of potential careers may be overwhelming, and information on the skill sets and education needed for a particular position may be contradictory or difficult to find. A career counselor will often be able to provide valuable information in these areas and others.

Some of the following questions may be helpful for narrowing one’s focus when considering a career change:

• What do I enjoy doing?
• What kinds of activities are fun and fulfilling for me?
• What am I good at?
• What is my skill set?
• What qualifications do I have, such as a degree or experience?
• How much money do I need to make to feel satisfied?
• What jobs are available in the place(s) I’d like to live?
• Do I want to travel?
• What are my values?
• Is it important to me to be of service to others?
• Am I looking for intensely challenging work or something relatively easy?
• Am I willing to do what others tell me without question, or would I rather make most decisions on my own?
• To what degree do I need stability and security?

HOW CAREER COUNSELING CAN HELP

In a career counseling session, the counselor will help a person explore skills and strengths, consider education levels and give advice about continuing education, and determine interests and personality type. Counselors may also administer an IQ test or an aptitude test. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has also been shown to be useful at helping individuals determine possible careers based on personality traits.

Some potential topics of discussion in career counseling:

• Particular skills or talents. In which careers might they be useful?
• The educational commitment required of various careers.
• The potential earnings of various careers.
• The daily working environment. Some people enjoy working in an office, while others might be more successful in a fast-paced or outdoor environment.
• The opportunities for change or advancement in a particular career. Some careers are more flexible than others. Lawyers and doctors, for example, may shift their focus or area of specialty but will generally remain lawyers and doctors. Other careers or education paths might more allow mobility between positions in a given field.
• The necessary skills/education for a desired career.

Who is a Career Counselor?

The Career Services staff member assisting you holds a masters degree and has expertise in career development theory, counseling techniques, administration and interpretation of assessments, and career information resources. Career Counselors have masters degrees in Counseling or Career Counseling.

Your job search/ career attainment process is also a critical aspect of your career development, and therefore, Job Search Advising and Career Counseling are intertwined. Your Career Counselor is also fully trained to assist with all aspects of your job search.

“I am living in hell from one day to the next. But there is nothing I can do to escape. I don’t know where I would go if I did. I feel utterly powerless, and that feeling is my prison. I entered of my own free will, I locked the door, and I threw away the key”
Above words of Haruki Murakami precisely echo the sentiments of millions of souls suffering the agony of tourture and harrassment in the hands of their loved ones. Domestic Violence is a multifaceted problem. It roots from our verandah and branches out nationally and globally. There is hardly any village, hardly any city, hardly any country which is free from this social evil.
But the question arises: “What is domestic violence?” We all know the answer: the violence against women done by her husband in perticular or any male in general is known as domestic violence. Wrong! Domestic Violence is not limited to violence against women alone. It is a much broader concept. Shortly put, Domestic Violence is any form of violence which is born inside the four walls of the house. It has nothing to do with the gender of the victim or the victimizer. Any act of violence and torture whether physical or emotional, against anyone whether male or female inflicted by their intimate partners or any other member of the family is Domestic Violence.
Let’s take the case of this young woman for example which was highlighted by the Deccan Herald. A young married woman sought refuge in her mother’s home in Delhi to save herself from the verbal and physical abuse of her spouse. Just after that the country wide lockdown was imposed so she was not able to return to her husband’s home for long. She felt safe here but not for long as her brother saw her to be an extra burden on the family in the time of financial crisis and in a fit of anger and frustration beat her black and blue. Another famous case is of former stuntman of the ‘James Bond movie’, Eddie Kidd. According to a report Eddie was subject of constant physical torture by his wife Samantha for years. After the imprisonment of his wife Eddie narrated his plight while talking to an English Newspaper. He said that Samantha had a drinking problem and she used to punch him and slap him in front of their house help. Eddie was rendered unable to walk after a work mishap and hence became the recipient of verbal, physical and emotional abuse in the household.Both of the above-mentioned cases tell us about the universality, genderlessness and seriousness of the problem.
Let’s talk about the present scenario for example, the pandemic and the lockdown. There has been a soaring increase in the rate of domestic violence during the lockdown period globally. According to WHO data, the cases of domestic violence reported in Jingzhou (Hubei), tripled during lockdown as compared to the number of last year. There is a report by National Commission of Women (NCW) released in mid April 2020, which claims that there has been an increase of 100% in the cases of domestic violence against women during the period of lockdown. This is the data of domestic violence against women specifically in lockdown. But, we know that the problem is neither limited to lockdown nor to women alone. So where is the data of men you ask? Well there are none available. Yes you read it right!

Domestic Abuse against men is not legally recognised by Indian Law. The gender biased law only sees men as the abuser and not the abused. The cases of domestic violence against men have risen as alarmingly as women’s in recent years; maybe more because we have no systematic data. Most of the cases go unreported because most men suffer from the additional stigma of public humiliation if matter is highlighted. Moreover, the form of violence is different than the one we have presumed in our minds. Many victims told that they were beaten by the male members of the wife’s family or were pressurized by the wife in ways unimaginable which left them traumatized both physically and emotionally.
Society is a coin and male and female are the two faces of the coin. Evils like domestic violence are heinous crimes not against sexes but against humanity as a whole. It is inopportune that such a nefarious atrocity exists in our society and we are responsible for it. As civilized humans it is our duty to raise our voices against the malpractices of our surroundings. We need to be more sensitive as citizens, more observant as neighbours, more vigilant as colleagues. We need to stop stigmatizing and stereotyping the people around us. We can’t shrek our responsibility by saying “How can we interfere in someone else’s private affairs“. It is time to intervene. There are numerous laws to correct this felony and to safeguard the victims. Both the central and Government along with NGOs are working to eradicate it. But, our support and encouragement is needed. We need to strengthen the law, reduce the loopholes and extend a helping hand to protect the victims. The need of the hour is to remove the spectacles of prejudice and ignorance and to come together as a society.

India is known for a quiet a few things through out the world. For example india’s information technology one of the leading factor in shaping the future of the world.
Similarly India has also emerged as an important player in the field of outsourcing . India’s economy is the 5th largest in the world with a GDP of $2.94 trillion, overtaking the UK and France in 2019 to take the fifth spot.There are a number of reasons for such dramatic success of India but the most important one is the education system of india as two third of India’s GDP is due to the skilled jobs created in tertiary sector. And in order to predict the future of india it is necessary to determine the future of the education system of India. Therefore this article will be discussing the promising future offered in education as well as the dark abyss that the country must overcome to walk on the boulevard of development.

As Robert Kiyosaki once said “The best way to predict the future is to study the past, or prognosticate.” it is essential to learn about the past of education in India and how it has changed up till now. Since independence providing education to all has been the major goal of the government. During 1952-2014 the percentage of total government expenditure increased from 7.92 to 16 %
But the increase in education exoentiure has not been uniform and there has been irregular rise and fall. However the total educational expenditure including the private expenditure by individuals and charitable institutions has been quite much.

Indian government is trying there best to make the promising dream offered by the education system come true and due to this there are a number of positive changes that are expected to take place in the near future. Firstly education for all ,that is, 100 per cent literacy might just not be a distant dream and can become a realty as free and compulsory education is already a fundamental right and in addition to this government sanctioned a large outlay for the promotion of higher education and new loan schemes for students. Secondly, education might change into e-education, that is, technology will innovate the present education system. For example-Examination patterns will change completely with increased use of online quizzes and group discussions, classes would be more computer based and become more paperless. Thirdly there would be more subjects to chose from and education system would be more flexible as with more subjects to chose from students can actually study subjects according to there interest.

However for these to positive changes to take place the government needs to overcome a lot of challenges. Like the Indian education system is like a pyramid indicating lesser and lesser number of people for higher level of education. Therefore the government needs to increase allocation for higher education and also improve the standard of higher education institutions, so that students are imparted employable skills in such institutions. Similarly there is huge difference in educational opportunities across states. The per capita educational expenditure differs considerably across states from as high as ₹34651 in Himachal Pradesh to as low as ₹4088 in Bihar. This leads to differences in educational opportunities and attainments across states.

The work that you do regularly to earn money.

A job ,employment ,work or occupation is a person role of society .morespecifically .A job is an activity. Often regular and often performed in exchange for payment .many people have multiple jobs.A person can being a job by becoming an employee, volunteering,starting a business ,or becoming a parent.

A job is homogeneous tasks related by similarity of functions. When performed by an employee in an exchange for pay, A job consists of duties, responsibilities and task

BENEFITS OF JOB you have an identity ,not just a name ,image credit. The paycheck. The joy of being independent. Adding the new one to your slam book polishes to your skills. Have happy retirement let your personal life breathe let you enjoy some extra perks . It gives you money and purpose.

The job is just not about working for few hours. It’s more than that,working ,improving you as the person ,learning the skills will make certainly help u in full filling your purpose.no matter how small your work is ,remember that u are adding value to the organization and ultimately to the world. Having the job will give you the satisfaction. Happiness of maximization of wealth.

DISADVANTAGES OF JOB

wastage of time and effort . Employees take time . Leads to a whole lots of stress . It doesn’t check the time wasted. Zero results.

can be costly and time consuming. Could end up with dusgruntied employees.

Some jobs name are.

teacher. Doctor. Lawyer. Artist. Scientists. Etc.

What is education?

In general terms, it is the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.

Four types of Education:

1. Indigenous Education- It focuses on spreading knowledge of cultural beliefs, rules and customs and its oral transmission from one generation to another. Indigenous education can be seen as a response to a strong wave of globalization. This type of education is more accepted and valued in some systems than in others, but in African context it is seen as a vital part of protecting and maintaining a nation’s cultural spirit.

2. Formal Education- As a prototype of the picture we have of education, is set in a formal, school environment with professional teachers, who follow a specific and planned teaching program. This program concentrates on specific skills, knowledge and education goals. Formal education is in most countries fully-funded by the state and in Nigeria there are different levels of formal education system: kindergarten, primary, secondary (divided in junior and senior secondary school) and tertiary education. Children would spend 6 years in a primary school, 3 in a junior secondary and 3 in senior secondary school, and at the end 4 years in a tertiary institution i.e. institution of the third level education such as university.

3. Informal Education- As the name says, takes place in an informal setting and is a lifelong process. People learn from each other in everyday situations about various topic. This can be illustrated as a parent teaching his/her child how to determinate sides of the world or how to cook a family meal. There are no specific teaching/learning methods when it comes to informal education and a person can gain informal knowledge by visiting museums, reading books in library or being a part of a local community.

4.Non-formal Education- This form mostly focuses on specific needs and goals of a group. Students of the non-formal education can be from different age and this system and its program, although pre-planned, takes place outside the institutional system. Non-formal education aims often adult literacy problems and other continuing education and skill programs such as, for example, swimming lessons for children. Methods used in non-formal education are very flexible and can last for different period of times, depending on the goals and the student group.

Through different types and methods it is easy to use children’s natural curiosity. And although different, every type of education is a part of a puzzle, which leads to youth having good career opportunities and living conditions in the future.

DOWRY: A CURSE FOR SOCIETY

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On Prima facie, this matrimonial advertisement published in a daily national newspaper bears testimony to the fact that marriage in Indian society has undergone a transformation. But while going deep into the root of the matter, we find out that no matter how marriage proposals have undergone a transformation, from arranged one to advertisement to the online matrimonial application, dowry system which is not seen in any of the forms but is still under the practice of ‘give and take.’ In many societies, the union of souls is not the sole criterion for marriage, rather dowry plays the role of ‘requisite criteria.’

So what is dowry? Dowry is the money, goods or estate that a woman brings to a marriage. In a court judgement “The Dowry Prohibition Act 1961’’ legal definition of dowry is defined as:-
“Dowry” in the sense of the expression contemplated by Dowry Prohibition Act is a demand for property or valuable security having an inextricable nexus with the marriage, i.e., it is a consideration from the side of the bride’s parents or relatives to the groom or his parents and/or guardian for the agreement to wed the bride-to-be.

Although Dowry is illegal in India by the Dowry Prevention Act 1961, it is still prevalent and widely practised in many societies.
Pertaining to the history of the dowry system in India different scholars claim different things based on interpretation of ancient Sanskrit fiction and inconsistent smritis from India. The Shastras, the reservoirs of Indian culture and heritage is replete with references to the practices of dowry. The marriage hymns of Rigveda and Atharveda are its instances. The Smritis have recognized the right forms of marriage. It was only in Brahmin marriage and the gifts to be given in dowry were left entirely at the discretion by the bride’s father.
Al-Biruni further claims that a daughter, in 11th century India had legal right to inherit from her father, but only a fourth part of her brother. The daughter took this inheritance amount with her when she is married, claimed Al-Biruni, and she had no rights to take income from her parents after her marriage or to any additional inheritance after her father’s death. If her father died before her marriage, her guardian would first pay off her father’s debt, then allocate a fourth of the remaining wealth to her upkeep till she is ready to wed, and then give the rest to her to take along with herself after her marriage. (source: Wikipedia)

The idea behind the dowry system was very clear. Brides’ parents used to give money, land, assets, to the bride as a gift or blessing. But when British Rule came into the picture, they restricted women to own any property. Women were not allowed to buy any property, land, or assets. This leaves women dependent upon their husbands and in-laws, who keep the dowry when she marries. In 1956, India gave equal legal status to daughters and sons among Hindu, Sikh and Jain families, under the Hindu Succession Act (India grants its Muslim population the Sharia derived personal status laws). Despite the new inheritance law, dowry has continued as a process whereby parental property is distributed to a daughter at her marriage.

CURRENT SCENARIO
The magnitude of the problem of dowry today is to be assessed not only on the basis of money/goods, land etc given by brides family but also on grounds of reported cases of different forms of violence on a bride. These outbreaks of violence vary from burning of brides, cruelty, domestic violence against women, abetment to suicide, dowry murder, female infanticide and many more.
Although there are laws and acts which makes practising dowry illegal.

THE DOWRY PROTECTION ACT 1961
This legislation came into force from 1 July 1961. This act prohibits the practice, request, payment or acceptance of a dowry by either party to a marriage. This law also punishes demanding and advertising dowry. Any violation of the act leads to imprisonment up to 5 years plus fine of up to Rs 15000 or the value of the dowry given, whichever is true.

There are also sections in IPC that deal with dowry like:-
Section 304B
It is related to dowry deaths
Stipulates that death of a woman within 7 years of her marriage by burns or bodily injury with evidence of cruelty or harassment by her husband or his relatives in connection with dowry demand is ‘dowry death’ and punishable with imprisonment for not less than 7 years.

Section 406
Related to the recovery of streedhan (It is what a woman claim as her own property within a marital household. It may include jewellery, gifts, and dowry articles.)
It is Non-bailable and cognizable offence.

Section 498A
For any act of cruelty, imprisonment of husband or his relative for up to 3 years plus fine.
It is also Non-bailable and Non-compoundable(once a case is lodged there can’t be a compromise)

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act,2005
It was passed in order to provide a civil law remedy for the protection of women from domestic violence in India.
It encompasses all forms of physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse and forms a subset of the anti-dowry laws to the extent it is one of the reasons for domestic violence.

Despite such stringent laws and acts which are in force, Dowry practice is prevailing. In 2019, 913 cases pertaining to dowry deaths have been reported. And this is the number of reported cases. In Bengaluru, only the number of cases filed under the Dowry Prohibition Act witnessed a rise from 690 in 2018 to 739 in 2019.

Consequences of the dowry system
This system of dowry has solidified its root in our society that it is seen as a form of prestige in Indian marriages. The more dowry means more respect to the grooms family. Dowry or the amount of money given as dowry is proportional to the groom’s income. It is very clear that dowry is creating violence. Apart from this, sometimes brides’ parents have to lend money to give a huge amount of money demanded as dowry by the groom’s side. There are other ill consequences also like:-
Low Women Literacy:- In many cases girls are not allowed to pursue higher education after 12th or graduation because of the ill mentality that they have to take care of the family after marriage and from where the capital is going to be arranged for her marriage if all savings will be invested in her education.
Female Foeticide:- In the avarice of dowry, and because our society gives more preference to the boys, female foeticide takes place. Although Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal gender screening or testing are illegal in India by Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994.
Gender Discrimination:- Dowry coupled with female foeticide is the leading reason to gender discrimination and low sex ratio in India.
Violence against women:- Domestic violence, marital rape, physical and verbal abuse, torturing of women etc. There are many forms of violence which took place and still unreported either due to lack of knowledge or suppressed voices because few women try to save the sanctity of marriage which never really existed.

It should also be noted here that there are also false cases of harassments reported and these laws and acts are being misused as it happened in case of Nisha Sharma Dowry case in which IPC 498A was misused. But this does not show that every case or violence pertaining to dowry is false or fabricated.

So, Dowry is the tool of harassment and inhuman expression out of the coalescence of processes and relationship which are degrading women turning them into commodities. The central message of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and honour” only echoes a hollow concern. Be it in democracy or dictatorship, war or peace, women’s rights have been violated daily, systematically. Their freedom, dignity and parity are persistently compromised by law and customs.

WAY FORWARD
The dowry system developed from India’s inheritance laws in which it is the mentality of people that Dowry is a form of inheritance which the bride brings along with her to the groom family. Law and acts should be made enforceable on the ground, not on paper only.
All groom need to take a step up and say “NO” to dowry as they can be a milestone in abolishing this dowry system. Boys need to convince their parents that they will not take dowry. They should have the confidence to earn for their living.
Parents must educate their daughters so that they can have dignity and become self-dependent or start earning which will make them financially stable and courageous. A well-educated girl will also be able to compete against any turmoil or raise her voice against the mishaps.
All the expenses of marriage must be shared by both families according to their own capability.
People must give encouragement to simple marriages without taking/giving dowry.
Dowry is a social stigma that can be removed with all our contributions and awareness. It will take time to abolish but it can happen if preferred.

There is a very well known quote- “There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition of a woman is improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on only one wing.
There is no hope for that family or country where there is no estimation of women, where they live in sadness. For this reason, they have to be raised first.” – Swami Vivekanand.