The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body.
It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses.

The brain is made up of many specialized areas that work together:
• The cortex is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex.
• The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here.
• The basal ganglia are a cluster of structures in the center of the brain. The basal ganglia coordinate messages between multiple other brain areas.
• The cerebellum is at the base and the back of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.

The brain is also divided into several lobes:
• The frontal lobes are responsible for problem solving and judgment and motor function.
• The parietal lobes manage sensation, handwriting, and body position.
• The temporal lobes are involved with memory and hearing.
• The occipital lobes contain the brain’s visual processing system.

The brain is surrounded by a layer of tissue called the meninges. The skull (cranium) helps protect the brain from injury

Brain Conditions

* Headache: There are many types of headaches; some can be serious but most are not and are generally treated with analgesics/painkillers.
* Stroke (brain infarction): Blood flow and oxygen are suddenly interrupted to an area of brain tissue, which then dies. A blood clot, or bleeding in the brain, are the cause of most strokes.
* Brain aneurysm: An artery in the brain develops a weak area that swells, balloon-like. A brain aneurysm rupture can causes a stroke.
* Subdural hematoma: Bleeding within or under the dura, the lining inside of the skull. A subdural hematoma may exert pressure on the brain, causing neurological problems.
* Epidural hematoma: Bleeding between the tough tissue (dura) lining the inside of the skull and the skull itself, usually shortly after a head injury. Initial mild symptoms can progress rapidly to unconsciousness and death, if untreated.
* Intracerebral hemorrhage: Any bleeding inside the brain.

* Concussion: A brain injury that causes a temporary disturbance in brain function. Traumatic head injuries cause most concussions.
* Cerebral edema: Swelling of the brain tissue in response to injury or electrolyte imbalances.
* Brain tumor: Any abnormal tissue growth inside the brain. Whether malignant (cancer) or benign, brain tumors usually cause problems by the pressure they exert on the normal brain.
* Glioblastoma: An aggressive, malignant brain tumor (cancer). Brain glioblastomas progress rapidly and are very difficult to cure.
* Hydrocephalus: An abnormally increased amount of cerebrospinal (brain) fluid inside the skull. Usually this is because the fluid is not circulating properly.
* Normal pressure hydrocephalus: A form of hydrocephalus that often causes problems walking, along with dementia and urinary incontinence. Pressures inside the brain remain normal, despite the increased fluid.

* Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain tissue, usually from infection with a virus. Fever, headache, and confusion are common symptoms.
* Traumatic brain injury: Permanent brain damage from a traumatic head injury. Obvious mental impairment, or more subtle personality and mood changes can occur.
* Parkinson’s disease: Nerves in a central area of the brain degenerate slowly, causing problems with movement and coordination. A tremor of the hands is a common early sign.
* Huntington’s disease: An inherited nerve disorder that affects the brain. Dementia and difficulty controlling movements (chorea) are its symptoms.
* Epilepsy: The tendency to have seizures. Head injuries and strokes may cause epilepsy, but usually no cause is identified.
* Dementia: A decline in cognitive function resulting from death or malfunction of nerve cells in the brain. Conditions in which nerves in the brain degenerate, as well as alcohol abuse and strokes, can cause dementia.

* Alzheimer’s disease: For unclear reasons, nerves in certain brain areas degenerate, causing progressive dementia. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia.
* Brain abscess: A pocket of infection in the brain, usually by bacteria. Antibiotics and surgical drainage of the area are often necessary.

Brain Tests

• Computed tomography (CT scan): A scanner takes multiple X-rays, which a computer converts into detailed images of the brain and skull.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scan): Using radio waves in a magnetic field, an MRI scanner creates highly detailed images of the brain and other parts of the head.
• Angiography (brain angiogram): A special substance doctors call “a contrast agent” is injected into the veins, and travels into the brain. X-ray videos of the brain are taken, which can show problems in the brain’s arteries.
• Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA): A special MRI scan of the brain’s arteries. An MRA scan may show a blood clot or another cause for stroke.
•Lumbar puncture (spinal tap): A needle is inserted into the space around the spinal nerves, and fluid is removed for analysis. Lumbar puncture is often done if meningitis is suspected.

• Electroencephalogram (EEG): Brain activity is monitored through electrodes placed on the skin on the head. EEG can help diagnose seizures, or other brain problems.
• Neurocognitive testing: Tests of problem-solving ability, short-term memory, and other complex brain functions. Usually, neurocognitive testing is done through questionnaires.
• Brain biopsy: In rare situations, a very small piece of the brain is needed to make the diagnosis of a brain condition. Brain biopsies are generally done only when the information is needed to provide proper treatment

Brain Treatments

* Thrombolytics: Clot-busting medicines injected into the veins can improve or cure some strokes if given within a few hours after symptoms start.
* Antiplatelet agents: Medicines like aspirin and clopidogrel (Plavix) help prevent blood clots. This can reduce the chance of a stroke.
* Cholinesterase inhibitors: These medicines can improve brain function slightly in mild or moderate Alzheimer’s disease. They do not slow or prevent Alzheimer’s disease.
* Antibiotics: When a brain infection is caused by bacteria, antibiotics can kill the organisms and make a cure more likely.
* Levodopa: A medicine that increases brain levels of dopamine, which is helpful in controlling symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.
* Brain surgery: An operation on the brain can cure some brain tumors. Brain surgery may be performed any time increased pressure in the brain threatens brain tissue.

* Ventriculostomy: A drain is placed into the natural spaces inside the brain (ventricles). Ventriculostomy is usually performed to relieve high brain pressures.
* Craniotomy: A surgeon drills a hole into the side of the skull to relieve high pressures.
* Lumbar drain: A drain is placed into the fluid around the spinal cord. This can relieve pressure on the brain and spinal cord.
* Radiation therapy: If cancer affects the brain, radiation can reduce symptoms and slow the cancer’s growth.

Water (chemical formula H2O) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth’s hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a solvent[1]). It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. Its chemical formula H2O, indicates that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds. The hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom at an angle of 104.45°.[2] “Water” is the name of the liquid state of H2O at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.

A globule of liquid water, and the concave depression and rebound in water caused by something dropping through the water surface

A block of solid water (ice)

Clouds in Earth’s atmosphere condense from gaseous water vapor.

A number of natural states of water exist. It forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous state of water is steam or water vapor.

Water covers approximately 70.9% of the Earth’s surface, mostly in seas and oceans.Small portions of water occur as groundwater (1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and in the air as vapor, clouds (consisting of ice and liquid water suspended in air), and precipitation (0.001%).Water moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea.

Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture.[6] Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world. Much of the long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, and manufactured products) is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of substances both mineral and organic; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and in cooking and washing. Water, ice and snow are also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating and skiing.

Chemical and physical properties

Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. This simplest hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the “universal solvent” for its ability to dissolve many substances.[8][9] This allows it to be the “solvent of life”:[10] indeed, water as found in nature almost always includes various dissolved substances, and special steps are required to obtain chemically pure water. Water is the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in normal terrestrial conditions

States

Along with oxidane, water is one of the two official names for the chemical compound H
2O;it is also the liquid phase of H
2O.The other two common states of matter of water are the solid phase, ice, and the gaseous phase, water vapor or steam. The addition or removal of heat can cause phase transitions: freezing (water to ice), melting (ice to water), vaporization (water to vapor), condensation (vapor to water), sublimation (ice to vapor) and deposition (vapor to ice)

Density

Water differs from most liquids in that it becomes less dense as it freezes.In 1 atm pressure, it reaches its maximum density of 1,000 kg/m3 (62.43 lb/cu ft) at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F).The density of ice is 917 kg/m3 (57.25 lb/cu ft), an expansion of 9%.This expansion can exert enormous pressure, bursting pipes and cracking rocks (see Frost weathering).

In a lake or ocean, water at 4 °C (39.2 °F) sinks to the bottom, and ice forms on the surface, floating on the liquid water. This ice insulates the water below, preventing it from freezing solid. Without this protection, most aquatic organisms would perish during the winter.

Phase transitions

At a pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice melts or water freezes at 0 °C (32 °F) and water boils or vapor condenses at 100 °C (212 °F). However, even below the boiling point, water can change to vapor at its surface by evaporation (vaporization throughout the liquid is known as boiling). Sublimation and deposition also occur on surfaces.For example, frost is deposited on cold surfaces while snowflakes form by deposition on an aerosol particle or ice nucleus.In the process of freeze-drying, a food is frozen and then stored at low pressure so the ice on its surface sublimates.

The melting and boiling points depend on pressure. A good approximation for the rate of change of the melting temperature with pressure is given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:

where {\displaystyle v_{\text{L}}}{\displaystyle v_{\text{L}}} and {\displaystyle v_{\text{S}}}{\displaystyle v_{\text{S}}} are the molar volumes of the liquid and solid phases, and {\displaystyle L_{\text{f}}}{\displaystyle L_{\text{f}}} is the molar latent heat of melting. In most substances, the volume increases when melting occurs, so the melting temperature increases with pressure. However, because ice is less dense than water, the melting temperature decreases.In glaciers, pressure melting can occur under sufficiently thick volumes of ice, resulting in subglacial lakes.

The Clausius-Clapeyron relation also applies to the boiling point, but with the liquid/gas transition the vapor phase has a much lower density than the liquid phase, so the boiling point increases with pressure. Water can remain in a liquid state at high temperatures in the deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures exceed 205 °C (401 °F) in Old Faithful, a geyser in Yellowstone National Park.In hydrothermal vents, the temperature can exceed 400 °C (752 °F).

At sea level, the boiling point of water is 100 °C (212 °F). As atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the boiling point decreases by 1 °C every 274 meters. High-altitude cooking takes longer than sea-level cooking. For example, at 1,524 metres (5,000 ft), cooking time must be increased by a fourth to achieve the desired result. (Conversely, a pressure cooker can be used to decrease cooking times by raising the boiling temperature.) In a vacuum, water will boil at room temperature.

Triple and critical points

On a pressure/temperature phase diagram (see figure), there are curves separating solid from vapor, vapor from liquid, and liquid from solid. These meet at a single point called the triple point, where all three phases can coexist. The triple point is at a temperature of 273.16 K (0.01 °C) and a pressure of 611.657 pascals (0.00604 atm); it is the lowest pressure at which liquid water can exist. Until 2019, the triple point was used to define the Kelvin temperature scale.

The water/vapor phase curve terminates at 647.096 K (373.946 °C; 705.103 °F) and 22.064 megapascals (3,200.1 psi; 217.75 atm).This is known as the critical point. At higher temperatures and pressures the liquid and vapor phases form a continuous phase called a supercritical fluid. It can be gradually compressed or expanded between gas-like and liquid-like densities, its properties (which are quite different from those of ambient water) are sensitive to density. For example, for suitable pressures and temperatures it can mix freely with nonpolar compounds, including most organic compounds. This makes it useful in a variety of applications including high-temperature electrochemistry and as an ecologically benign solvent or catalyst in chemical reactions involving organic compounds. In Earth’s mantle, it acts as a solvent during mineral formation, dissolution and deposition.

Phases of ice and water

The normal form of ice on the surface of Earth is Ice Ih, a phase that forms crystals with hexagonal symmetry. Another with cubic crystalline symmetry, Ice Ic, can occur in the upper atmosphere.As the pressure increases, ice forms other crystal structures. As of 2019, 17 have been experimentally confirmed and several more are predicted theoretically.The 18th form of ice, ice XVIII, a face-centred-cubic, superionic ice phase, was discovered when a droplet of water was subject to a shock wave that raised the water’s pressure to millions of atmospheres and its temperature to thousands of degrees, resulting in a structure of rigid oxygen toms in which hydrogen atoms flowed freely.When sandwiched between layers of graphene, ice forms a square lattice.

The details of the chemical nature of liquid water are not well understood; some theories suggest that its unusual behaviour is due to the existence of 2 liquid states.

Taste and odor

Pure water is usually described as tasteless and odorless, although humans have specific sensors that can feel the presence of water in their mouths,and frogs are known to be able to smell it.However, water from ordinary sources (including bottled mineral water) usually has many dissolved substances, that may give it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding water that is too salty or putrid.

Color and appearance

Pure water is visibly blue due to absorption of light in the region ca. 600 nm – 800 nm. The color can be easily observed in a glass of tap-water placed against a pure white background, in daylight. The principal absorption bands responsible for the color are overtones of the O–H stretching vibrations. The apparent intensity of the color increases with the depth of the water column, following Beer’s law. This also applies, for example, with a swimming pool when the light source is sunlight reflected from the pool’s white tiles.

In nature, the color may also be modified from blue to green due to the presence of suspended solids or algae.

In industry, near-infrared spectroscopy is used with aqueous solutions as the greater intensity of the lower overtones of water means that glass cuvettes with short path-length may be employed. To observe the fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or of an aqueous solution in the region around 3500 cm−1 (2.85 μm) a path length of about 25 μm is needed. Also, the cuvette must be both transparent around 3500 cm−1 and insoluble in water; calcium fluoride is one material that is in common use for the cuvette windows with aqueous solutions.

The Raman-active fundamental vibrations may be observed with, for example, a 1 cm sample cell.

Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms can live in water up to hundreds of meters deep, because sunlight can reach them. Practically no sunlight reaches the parts of the oceans below 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) of depth.

The refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at 20 °C (68 °F)) is much higher than that of air (1.0), similar to those of alkanes and ethanol, but lower than those of glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). The refraction index of ice (1.31) is lower than that of liquid water.

Polar molecule

In a water molecule, the hydrogen atoms form a 104.5° angle with the oxygen atom. The hydrogen atoms are close to two corners of a tetrahedron centered on the oxygen. At the other two corners are lone pairs of valence electrons that do not participate in the bonding. In a perfect tetrahedron, the atoms would form a 109.5° angle, but the repulsion between the lone pairs is greater than the repulsion between the hydrogen atoms.The O–H bond length is about 0.096 nm.

Other substances have a tetrahedral molecular structure, for example, methane (CH
and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). However, oxygen is more electronegative (holds on to its electrons more tightly) than most other elements, so the oxygen atom retains a negative charge while the hydrogen atoms are positively charged. Along with the bent structure, this gives the molecule an electrical dipole moment and it is classified as a polar molecule.

Water is a good polar solvent, that dissolves many salts and hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols such as ethanol. Water also dissolves many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide—the latter giving the fizz of carbonated beverages, sparkling wines and beers. In addition, many substances in living organisms, such as proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, are dissolved in water. The interactions between water and the subunits of these biomacromolecules shape protein folding, DNA base pairing, and other phenomena crucial to life (hydrophobic effect).

Many organic substances (such as fats and oils and alkanes) are hydrophobic, that is, insoluble in water. Many inorganic substances are insoluble too, including most metal oxides, sulfides, and silicates.

Hydrogen bonding

Because of its polarity, a molecule of water in the liquid or solid state can form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds are about ten times as strong as the Van der Waals force that attracts molecules to each other in most liquids. This is the reason why the melting and boiling points of water are much higher than those of other analogous compounds like hydrogen sulfide. They also explain its exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/g/K), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization (2257 J/g), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/m/K). These properties make water more effective at moderating Earth’s climate, by storing heat and transporting it between the oceans and the atmosphere. The hydrogen bonds of water are around 23 kJ/mol (compared to a covalent O-H bond at 492 kJ/mol). Of this, it is estimated that 90% is attributable to electrostatics, while the remaining 10% is partially covalent.

These bonds are the cause of water’s high surface tension and capillary forces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees.

Self-ionisation

Water is a weak solution of hydronium hydroxide – there is an equilibrium 2H
2O ⇔ H
3O+
+ OH−
, in combination with solvation of the resulting hydronium ions.

Electrical conductivity and electrolysis

Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, which increases with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as common salt.

Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg)

Mechanical properties

Liquid water can be assumed to be incompressible for most purposes: its compressibility ranges from 4.4 to 5.1×10−10 Pa−1 in ordinary conditions.Even in oceans at 4 km depth, where the pressure is 400 atm, water suffers only a 1.8% decrease in volume.

The viscosity of water is about 10−3 Pa·s or 0.01 poise at 20 °C (68 °F), and the speed of sound in liquid water ranges between 1,400 and 1,540 meters per second (4,600 and 5,100 ft/s) depending on temperature. Sound travels long distances in water with little attenuation, especially at low frequencies (roughly 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz), a property that is exploited by cetaceans and humans for communication and environment sensing (sonar).

Reactivity

Metallic elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen, particularly the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals such as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium and cesium displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen. At high temperatures, carbon reacts with steam to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

feudalism, also called feudal system or feudality. derived from the Latin words feudum and feodalitas, both of which were used during the Middle Ages and later to refer to a form of property holding. The terms feudalism and feudal system were generally applied to the early and central Middle Ages the period from the 5th century, when central political authority in the Western empire disappeared, to the 12th century, when kingdoms began to emerge as effective centralized units of government. For a relatively brief period, from the mid-8th to the early 9″ century, the Carolingian rulers, especially Pippin and Charlemagne had remarkable success in creating and maintaining a relatively unified empire. In the absence of forceful kings and emperors, local lords expanded the territory subject to them and intensified their control over the people living there. A broader definition of feudalism, as described by Marc Bloch includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry, all of whom were bound by a system of manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a “feudal society”. the concept of feudalism is often used by analogy, most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the shoguns, and sometimes in discussions of the Zagwe dynasty in medieval Ethiopia. Some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as China during the Spring and Autumn period ancient Egypt, the Parthian Empire, the Indian subcontinent and the Antebellum and Jim Crow American South. Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire: especially in the Carolingian Empire in 8th century AD, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure necessary to support cavalry without allocating land to these mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and their power over the territory came to encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres. These acquired powers significantly diminished unitary power in these empires. However, once the infrastructure to maintain unitary power was re-established-as with the European monarchies feudalism began to yield to this new power structure and eventually disappeared. scholars in the 17th century, the medieval “feudal system” was characterized by the absence of public authority and the exercise by local lords of administrative and judicial functions formerly performed by centralized governments; general disorder and endemic conflict and the prevalence of bonds between lords and free dependents which were forged by the lords’ bestowal of property called”fiefs” and by their reception of homage from the vassals. The terms feudalism and feudal system enabled historians to deal summarily with a long span of European history whose complexities were and remain confusing The Roman Empire and the various emperors’ accomplishments provided a key to understanding Roman history, and the re emergence of states and strong rulers in the 12th century again furnished manageable focal points for historical narrative, particularly since medieval states and governmental practices can be presented as antecedents of modern nations and institutions. Those who formulated the

“Health is wealth” and Health is better than wealth” are well-known and oft repeated sayings. These underline a vital fact of life. Without good health nothing is of much use. If any sensible person is asked what he would prefer, health or wealth. He would immediately answer ‘health’. Without good health and physical fitness life would become a burden and a tasteless thing.

Those who are sick, ill or weak in health are found dejected, nervous, hopeless and without any zest for life and its activities. He who has health and a fit body has hope, inspiration and so everything in fife.

Health goes far, even farther than wealth and any other thing in life. It is a sure key to success. Without physical fitness and good health nothing good or substantial can be achieved. Only the healthy citizens, and men and women make a healthy and happy nation. Only healthy people can work hopefully, steadily, constantly and at people can work hopefully, steadily, constantly and at their best, to achieve better and better results. Again, it is only a healthy man or woman who can desire and strive for perfection. Weak men can never make good citizens, leaders, businessmen, soldiers or a brave people.

Healthy minds reside in healthy bodies. Men and women indifferent to their health cannot either be intelligent or make good artists, poets, public servants and useful members of the society. Most of the great and successful men and women owe their success to their outdoor physical activities, playing habits and exercise in their youth. Their athletic habits, cultivated in their youth, always stood them in good stead later in life. Consequently, they always possessed sound health and mind, leading them to the crowning glory. Their mental vigor, exuberance of thoughts, vivacity and enthusiasm for work came from their robust health, and physical fitness, which they obtained through regular exercise, game and sports, long walks, swimming, horse-riding, yogic postures and such other activities. The way to health, happiness and success lies through physical work, exercise and animal robustness.

Therefore, look to your health, if you have it; praise your luck and stars. If you do not have it, then ponder we over your life-style and try to develop athletic habits. Go to your garden, grasp a spade and engage yourself in digging or wood-cutting. Run a mile early in the morning, play some game like football, volley ball or badminton, and you will soon regain your health and energy. And these in their turn will fill your life with a new hope and meaningfulness. Every man and woman should undertake some physical work or exercise regularly. It is the sound body that brings sound mind with it. It was in the playgrounds of Eton school that the battle of Water­loo was actually won and Napoleon defeated. The toughness acquired in the school playground was turned to good account in the battlefield. It is such physical activities as wrestling, boating, cricketing, sporting, and playing games and exercise which promote national health and strength. The player or a sports-prison who would win races honorably must have an honorable and successful career.

To do one’s work cheerfully and well. Every man and woman should possess a good constitution, and this can be got only by daily exercise in the open air. Physical education should be an integral part of education and training in our schools, colleges and universities. Physical fitness is a must for everybody. It is in the very young age that athletic habits and. love for physical work and exercise should be developed. The best time to have physical exercise is early in the morning and late in the evening. It is heartening to note that yogic exercises, postures etc., have been introduced in our schools and colleges. Through yogic exercises we can develop both our minds and bodies. These exercises are very scientific and time- tested and goes a long way in facing and eliminating stresses, tensions and worries of modern materialistic life.

Yoga, the oldest science of life, teaches us how to work, rest, relax and breathe to maintain good health and mental capacities. Yogic asana and postures help us lubricate the body-machine, keep the muscles and joints running smoothly, tone all the internal organs and increase blood circulation without causing any fatigue. Our body is like a perfect and subtle machine that needs proper maintenance, care and running. Anyone can practice Yoga and maintain his health and peace of mind. People who do not take regular exercise or do Yogic postures easily fall sick. Many of our modern diseases like obesity, diabetes, blood-pressure, mental tension, rheumatism, piles etc., have their roots in our lethargy, comfortable living, ease and convenience of life. They can be very easily checked and eliminated by taking daily physical exercise. Lethargy and inactivity, coupled with easy living, make our body an easy victim of diseases.

From the very young age the boys and girls should be properly trained in physical fitness and exercises. They should be helped to cultivate and develop athletic habits. It may be repeated once again that physical fitness is imperative and should not be neglected. It is high time that we pay more attention and use greater resources to develop and promote national physical standards. We should create a harmonious atmosphere where the body is given no less importance than the mind, because without physical powers there cannot be any mental power. Physical exercise, taken regularly, works like a wonderful tonic both for mind and body. But there should be moderation and there should not be too much of it. Neglect of exercise is as bad and injurious as the overdose of it.

The World Health Organisation commemorates the World Health Day celebration every year on April 7, to create awareness among people about health and cleanliness.

A healthy body holds major components that aid the functioning of the body. The first essential component is the state of physical health. Physical health refers to the state of being physically healthy devoid of any illness or diseases. When one maintains good physical fitness, they tend to have an extended lifespan. The best way to maintain physical well-being is through a balanced diet. Intake of essential nutrients in appropriate quantities helps one manage their physical health.

The next essential component is everyday exercise. To help the body maintain it’s physical fitness, one must never forget to exercise, even if it’s for ten minimum minutes. It is not advisable to consume junk food all the time. Do not drink alcohol or smoke as it is a hazard to one’s health. Lastly, try to take adequate sleep ( 7-8 hours) regularly over the use of the phone. It is best advised to not use the phone two hours before sleep.

The next health component is mental health or mental well-being. Mental health refers to a state of emotional and psychological well-being of the individual. A person’s mental well-being impacts their emotions and behavior in handling situations. The best-recommended way to maintain mental health is by staying positive and meditating.

Subsequently, cognitive and social health add equal importance to a person’s overall well-being state. A person maintains their social well-being through effective communication with other people. A person who attends social gatherings and possesses a friendly nature is stated to be socially healthy. Similarly, one’s cognitive health refers to the regular performance of mental processes leading to an effective state of health. To achieve that, one must consume healthy food and play brain boosters such as puzzles, riddles, chess, etc. This helps one to sharpen their brains.

A healthy body is a sign of a healthy mind, while unhealthy body weakness one’s ability to succeed and excel in life. However, there is this stigma about mental health. To be healthy also include mental health, but people do not consider mental disorders as an issue. Psychological well-being is as equally important as physical well-being. When people criticize mental illness, it instantly creates an adverse impact.

Parents often concentrate only on their children’s physical needs. They dress up wounds and injuries and feed their kids with nutritious food. However, they often fail to notice the crumbling mental health of their child. This is because they do not think mental health is essential. Even among elders, one fails to see their psychological well-being. It is due to a lack of awareness among people.

Therefore, one must be able to identify the signs regarding mental illness. A laughing person is not always a happy person. Never brush off mental illness as a taboo, instead pay attention and save people’s life.

As Mahatma Gandhi quoted, ‘ Health is the real wealth, not gold and silver.’ Thus, a healthy person is a happy person.

What Is a Debit Card?

Debit cards offer the convenience of a credit card but work differently. Debit cards draw money directly from your checking account when you make the purchase. They do this by placing a hold on the amount of the purchase. Then the merchant sends in the transaction to their bank, and it is transferred to the merchant’s account. It can take a few days for this to happen, and the hold may drop off before the transaction goes through.

You will have a personal identification number (PIN) to use with your debit card at stores or ATMs. However, you can also use your debit card without a PIN at most merchants. You will sign the receipt like you would with a credit card. Below are some other facts regarding debit cards.

You won’t pay interest on your purchases.Your credit history will be unaffected by debit card spending.Paying with debit will take the money from your account pretty much immediately.

What Is a Credit Card?

A credit card is a card that allows you to borrow money against a line of credit, otherwise known as the card’s credit limit.3 You use the card to make basic transactions, which are reflected on your bill; the bank pays the merchant, and later, when you receive your bill, you pay the bank.

You will be charged interest on your purchases. To avoid paying interest, don’t carry a balance over from month to month. Credit cards have high interest rates, and your credit card balance and payment history can affect your credit score.

Advantages of credit card:

Convenience: Credit cards eliminate the need for carrying cash all the time. You can use the card for payment in most places.

Future loans: If you plan to opt for any loan in the future but have a low credit score, the card will help you improve it.

Rewards: Using a credit card enables you to receive many rewards in the form of points, cash back, and other facilities.

Spending flexibility: Unlike debit cards, a credit card’s spending limit does not depend on your bank balance. This flexibility is helpful when you need to make significant purchases and do not have enough money in your account.

Disadvantages of credit card:

Transaction charge: When you use the card in a shop or restaurant, the credit card company charges the establishment a transaction fee. The business includes this charge in your bill; so, eventually, you end up paying it.

Maintenance charge and other fees: Some credit card companies charge you a flat annual maintenance fee. They also charge a minimum spending fee if you do not spend a fixed minimum amount in a year. Additionally, you need to pay a 3.5% cash advance fee when using the card to withdraw cash from ATMs. Moreover, they charge interest on the withdrawn amount per day until you pay the credit card bill.

Minimum payment amount: Credit card bills come with a ‘minimum amount due’ option. But, if you pay only the minimum amount, the company will charge you interest on the remaining balance next month. Suppose your credit card bill amount is ₹10,000 and the minimum amount due is ₹500 (5% of the total due). If you pay only the minimum amount, the company will charge you a 3% interest on the remaining ₹9,500. So, you would have to pay an additional amount of ₹285 in the following month. If you keep paying only the minimum due amount every month, it will take you 34 years to pay off the bill! The total amount will be ₹23,254 (₹10,000 + interest).

When it comes to making a choice out of laptop and desktop computer, you need to consider several important factors and make a decision according to your needs. Here we have listed the advantages and disadvantages of the laptop over the desktop computer that will allow you to make an informed decision.

Advantages of Laptop Over Desktop Computer:

1. Portability:

Laptops are highly portable on the virtue of their compact size. They can be easily taken from one place to another in a carrying case or backpack. This is what makes them a highly convenient device that you can carry even while traveling. You don’t need to worry about delays in submitting your work reports or sending an important file from your system as you can very much do it using laptops while on the go.

On the other hand, desktop computers come in large size and they are assembled from multiple components. Though it is possible to take desktop computers from one place to another, the overall process is quite burdensome. They are specially designed to be used in one location rather than constantly moving them from one place to another.

2. The convenience of assembly:

The laptop is extremely user-friendly as it needs only a few minutes to start running. You can simply take it out of your bag and press the power key to start the system. Within only a few minutes, your system is good to go. On the other hand, desktop computers require a bit of time to install and begin use. They also require a larger space to set up as compared to laptops. The laptop allows you to do your work while keeping them on the lap, while desktop computers require a formal table or specific furniture to complete the setup.

3. Power usage:

A laptop consumes less power as compared to a desktop computer on the virtue of its smaller components that require minimal power to keep running. Laptop computers also feature battery which means there is no work loss because of fluctuations in power or accidentally shutting down of the system. In the case of desktop computers, power fluctuations can cause a risk of losing your current work files if they are not saved properly.

4. Dimensions & Weight:

The laptop contains similar components that desktop components have but they weigh only around 2-3 kgs thereby making it easy for you to carry it even in one hand. While desktop computers are known for their bulky appearance and you can’t even carry them in both hands. Laptops are slimmer than desktop computers and you can keep them even in a highly congested place.

5. Information at your fingertips:

Another key benefit of the laptop over desktop computers is that they give you access to unlimited information at your fingertips. If you are traveling or away from your home or office then you will require a laptop to get hold of all your vital information from a place of your choice. No matter where you are, you can switch on your system and get access to your data or even try the internet using laptops.

Advantages of Desktop Computer over Laptop:

1. Cost:

Desktop computers offer you a wide variety of options when choosing different components that make a device highly powerful. On the other hand, laptops come with few limitations while choosing the components and sometimes you need to compromise with an average device. In order to achieve the ideal configuration of your desktop, you don’t need to pay a very high price. In the case of the laptop, you need to create a big hole in your pocket to avail a highly powerful system that is equipped with massive storage space, outstanding graphics, and higher speed.

2. Processor:

Desktop computers have the luxury of installing powerful processors than laptop computers. In fact, any of the recently launched processors you will find in the market, are more compatible with a desktop computer than laptops. You can easily run high graphics games on desktop computers, while laptops may face a few performance issues when running powerful games.

3. Screen size:

Desktop computers are available in a wide range of sizes and you even have the flexibility to enjoy the high-user experience that you can avail yourself with your home theatre or TVs. You also have an option to connect your CPU to a projector or larger screen to enjoy a better viewing experience. This is not the optimal case with laptops as they are manufactured considering the portability aspect in mind and you rarely get a screen size of more than 19 inches in laptops. Although, you can connect your laptop to external monitors or projectors if you are willing to do so.

4. Keyboard:

Desktop computers feature full-size keyboards that also include a number pad and you don’t have any limitations while accessing specific keys offering unique functionality. On the other hand, laptops with larger sizes also struggle to offer you an all-inclusive keyboard and you have limitations on accessing the functionality directly through shortcut keys.

5. Convenience in upgrading:

Most of the key components of desktop computers can be removed easily and they are very convenient to upgrade. Desktop cases also come in a large size that facilitates easy upgrading. In the case of laptops, you will find hard drive and memory are the only components that can be upgraded easily. The rest of the components in the laptop are either non-removable or built-in that makes upgrading almost impossible. If you need to upgrade any specific component of your laptop other than hard drive and memory, then you need to purchase a laptop with the latest configuration.

6. Easy maintenance:

Repairing your desktop computer is quite easy as most of the replacement parts are easily available in local computer shops. In the case of laptops, opening your device for repair is quite a cumbersome task. Besides this, some of the replacement parts of laptops can be purchased only from the manufacturer or any other online platform that demands a significant amount of money and time from your side. As each of the laptop models has its unique design and structure, they are quite hard to upgrade and incur a high cost for maintenance purposes.

7. Video cards:

Desktop computers can easily run video cards that demand efficiency in heat dissipation and require higher power. Most desktop computers are capable of managing extreme power supply which means you can easily run multiple video cards on your device at the same time. In the case of laptops, you face a lot of limitations when it comes to graphics capabilities. The heat reduction efficiency is also quite less on laptops when compared with desktop computers.

8. Health issues:

The elongated use of laptops on a user’s lap can cause health issues as the device becomes warm after prolonged use. The integrated display of the laptop also persuades users to search for the perfect view which may cause spinal or neck injuries in the long term.

While using desktop computers, you need to achieve a perfect sitting position on a chair which means you will be facing fewer body issues. When you are using desktop computers, a distance of more than 2ft is automatically maintained between your eyes and screen.

While in the case of laptops, this distance is less than 2ft which means you have a higher risk of damaging your eyesight with laptops as compared to desktop computers.

Information technology has deeply penetrated many areas of our lives. Almost any modern person can hardly imagine himself without such devices as a smartphone, a computer, a laptop, etc. And if only recently, a stationary computer was the limit of dreams, now this area has expanded enormously. The era of portable devices, such as laptops, has come and it’s absolutely not surprising. If you look at the statistics, then the notebook market is developing much faster than the computer and technology, and the filling of modern models, and the demand for them, the market is being improved very quickly.

However, life in modern cities simply boils down to the key, and most people become more active they are striving to receive new relevant information. Be aware of the latest developments in public and political life, have a source of new impressions, the opportunity to communicate with friends, and maintain business ties in a chronic lack of time. Therefore, laptops are the best innovative tool to accomplish all their requirements.

Every technology product of today’s time is excelling in some of the key parameters while showing limitations in other parameters. The same is the case with laptops that come with strengths as well as weaknesses. So before start shopping for any of your favorite laptop model available in the market, it is necessary to make yourself well versed with its unique features and limitations. Here we have made a list of the advantages and disadvantages of laptops that will allow you to make a better comparison.

Advantages of Laptops:

1. Mobility:

The first and main advantage of a laptop, in comparison with a stationary computer, is its mobility. The lightweight, compact size, the built-in battery in the laptop allowing it to easily move from one place to another. Many models can be worn at all times, used in a park, cafe, or carted in a car. Thanks to this mobility, you can quickly access the necessary data wherever you are.

2. Finished product:

The laptop is easy to use without any additional devices. It has everything such as its own keyboard, built-in mouse (touchpad), built-in speakers, built-in microphone, many laptops have a built-in camera, and even there are options with 2 built-in cameras on both sides of the laptop cover.

3. Internet access:

Internet access is the second advantage for the rise in demand for the laptop because it provides the ability to access the Internet through wireless technology Wi-Fi. However, this possibility can be on a stationary computer, but you can only connect to the network at home. The laptop can be taken with you to any cafe, restaurant, park, or another public place, where there is Wi-Fi coverage, and connect to the Internet. Moreover, some laptops allow you to install SIM cards for access to the mobile Internet 3G or 4G.

4. Offline operation:

The laptop is also convenient to use for all kinds of presentations. In this case, you do not depend on the technical equipment of the venue. Even the connection to the mains is not necessary since the laptop can work offline from its battery (with proper use). True, batteries have their lifespan, they are not eternal.

Disadvantages of Laptops:

1. Sensitivity:

Laptops are easier to damage as compare to ordinary computers. For example, it is not uncommon for a laptop to drop, fall with rain, sit on it, etc. All this leads to a breakdown of the device. And the repair of portable computers is much more expensive than an ordinary computer.

2. Unpredictable battery:

Often, the battery pack built into the laptop breaks down because it is not eternal, and it needs to be operated according to strict rules. In addition, many users have a habit of operating a laptop in exactly the same way as a stationary PC by enacting with power while using that is the foremost reason for damaging the battery.

3. Reinstalling the native operating system:

A very important point is that laptops really do not like reinstalling the operating system. The native system that comes with the laptop works with it in the best possible way. However, it is necessary to switch to another operating system, problems with function keys, with device drivers of the laptop, etc., can begin.

The Importance of the English Language:

Nowadays, more and more people are dedicating time to studying English as a second language. Many countries include English in their school syllabus and children are starting to learn English at a younger and younger age. But what is the true value of learning English?

Whether you are looking for a new job or planning to travel the world, studying English can help you progress in life both personally and professionally. You can compete in the global job market, increase your career skills and start to meet people around the world.

However, do you know why learning English is so important? Here are ten good reasons to take an English language course.

Why did English become important?

It’s easy to see just how important English is around the world. Many international businesses conduct meetings in English, universities teach courses in English and, around the world, tourists and travellers use English as a common language.

But how did English become so important? Well, it all goes back to the British Empire, which at its peak covered 25% of the earth’s surface. During colonial times, British rulers often obliged the people in those countries to speak English rather than their native language. Although the origins of English as a global language has a complicated past, the language has left an important mark on media, trade and business. If you’re still not sure about whether to learn the language, then check out the reasons below.

Reasons to Learn English:

1. English is a global language:

English is the most commonly spoken language in the world. One out of five people can speak or at least understand English!

2. Studying English can help you get a job:

English is the language of science, aviation, computers, diplomacy, and tourism. Knowing English increases your chances of getting a good job in a multinational company within your home country or of finding work abroad.

3. Learning English can help you meet new people:

English is the official language of 53 countries and is used as a lingua franca (a mutually known language) by people from all around the world. This means that whether you’re working in Beijing, or travelling in Brazil, studying English can help you have a conversation with people from all over the world.

4. Many scientific papers are written in English:

In the last century, the number of scientific papers written in English has started to outweigh the number of papers written in the native language of the researcher. In the Netherlands, for example, the ratio is a surprising 40 to 1. For this reason, having a knowledge of English is incredibly important to those working in the scientific field.

5. English is the language of the media industry:

Because of the prominence of Hollywood in global media, an enormous amount of films, TV shows and popular songs are written in English. If you speak English, you won’t need to rely on translations and subtitles anymore to enjoy your favourite books, songs, films and TV shows.

6. English is the language of the Internet:

English is a particularly important language online with more than half the content on the internet written in English. As well as this, some of the world’s largest tech companies are based in English speaking countries.

7. Travelling is a lot easier with a good knowledge of English:

Imagine you’re a Spanish person on holiday in Thailand, while your hotel receptionist might not be able to answer your question in Spanish, it’s likely they will be able to answer your question in English.

8. English is one of the most important languages for business:

Whether you’re a business owner, student or employee, English is incredibly important in the business world. English is considered to be one of the most important business languages due to being the de facto language of the United States and the official language of the UK, Canada, India and South Africa.

9. With English, you can study all over the world:

Since English is spoken in so many different countries there are thousands of schools and universities around the world that offer programmes in English. If you speak good academic English, there’re lots of opportunities for you to find an appropriate school and course to suit your needs. Find out about going to university in an English speaking country.

10. English gives you access to multiple cultures:

Good knowledge of English will allow you to access films, music and literature from hundreds of countries around the globe. Not to mention the fact that numerous books from across the world are translated into English. Few experiences will make you grow as a person more than learning the values, habits and way of life in a culture that is different from yours.

11.English is the Language of International Communication:

HomeBook Now Search NowELC Brighton students4 reasons why learning English is so importantOur coursesEnglish courses in BrightonEnglish courses in ChesterEnglish courses in EastbourneWhy is Learning English is so Important?English is the language of science, of aviation, computers, diplomacy, and tourism. Knowing English increases your chances of getting a good job in a multinational company within your home country or for finding work abroad. It’s also the language of international communication, the media and the internet, so learning English is important for socialising and entertainment as well as work!ELC Students visit LewesLet’s look at the top 4 reasons why studying English is so important:1. English is the Language of International Communication English may not be the most spoken language in the world, but it is the official language of 53 countries and spoken by around 400 million people across the globe. Being able to speak English is not just about being able to communicate with native English speakers, it is the most common second language in the world. If you want to speak to someone from another country then the chances are that you will both be speaking English to do this.

The British Council projects that by 2020 two billion people in the world will be studying English. Learning English is important as it enables you to communicate easily with your fellow global citizens. When you study English at ELC schools, you will be making friends with people from lots of different countries, using English as your common language!

12. English is the Language of Business:

HomeBook Now Search NowELC Brighton students4 reasons why learning English is so importantOur coursesEnglish courses in BrightonEnglish courses in ChesterEnglish courses in EastbourneWhy is Learning English is so Important?English is the language of science, of aviation, computers, diplomacy, and tourism. Knowing English increases your chances of getting a good job in a multinational company within your home country or for finding work abroad. It’s also the language of international communication, the media and the internet, so learning English is important for socialising and entertainment as well as work!ELC Students visit LewesLet’s look at the top 4 reasons why studying English is so important:1. English is the Language of International Communication English may not be the most spoken language in the world, but it is the official language of 53 countries and spoken by around 400 million people across the globe. Being able to speak English is not just about being able to communicate with native English speakers, it is the most common second language in the world. If you want to speak to someone from another country then the chances are that you will both be speaking English to do this.The British Council projects that by 2020 two billion people in the world will be studying English. Learning English is important as it enables you to communicate easily with your fellow global citizens. When you study English at ELC schools, you will be making friends with people from lots of different countries, using English as your common language!2. English is the Language of BusinessEnglish is the dominant business language and it has become almost a necessity for people to speak English if they are to enter a global workforce. Research from all over the world shows that cross-border business communication is most often conducted in English and many international companies expect employees to be fluent in English.

The importance of learning English in the international marketplace cannot be understated – learning English really can change your life.

13. Speaking English gives you Access to a World of Entertainment:

Many of the world’s top films, books and music are published and produced in English. Therefore, by learning English you will have access to a great wealth of entertainment and will be able to have a greater cultural understanding.

If you speak English, you won’t need to rely on translations and subtitles anymore to enjoy your favourite books, songs, films and TV shows. Watching movies and television programmes in the English language is also a great and fun way to learn it!

At ELC we encourage students to participate in the social programme to practice English outside a class environment. Activities include watching popular English films, sports, art galleries, museums, trips and excursions to local and historical areas. The programme is designed to encourage students to use and learn English in British culture.

14.Learning English gives you Access to more of the Internet:

According to a report by Education First, English is the language of the internet. An estimated 565 million people use the internet every day, and an estimated 52 percent of the world’s most visited websites are displayed in the English language.

Learning English is important as it gives you access to over half the content on the internet. Knowing how to read English will allow you access to billions of pages of information which may not be otherwise available!

Sports and games are not mere physical activities alone. They play a more significant role in making people confident, adaptable, alert, and happy but in most of our schools, the games period is for relaxation.

It is for breaking the humdrum of academic lessons. A sport as a career choice is still not a lucrative option for many in our country.

We perform poorly in international sports events like the Olympics despite having a demographic advantage. It is not that we are not capable enough. We lack awareness, and our players don’t get the required encouragement and support.

1.Physical benefits:

Sports and games make you more fit. They make your muscles stronger and keep the bones, heart, and lungs in good condition. When you play sports regularly, you use up the fatty molecules. It implies that you have less chance of blood clotting and heart attack. Physical games are the natural healer for the obesity menace. At least now, we should make sports a mandatory part of the curriculum in schools and colleges. Once people enjoy playing, they may not go for exercise routines to decrease weight. Children who learn to play sports become active adults.

2. Sports make you a moral human being:

Sports teach many life skills required for good conduct in society. When you play sports, you imbibe qualities such as honesty, teamwork, leadership, and strategic planning. These skills will be helpful in every walk of life. Children in sports learn to follow the rules and respect teammates and opponents. As adults, they will not readily resort to dubious and corrupt practices.

3. Sports help in enhancing your EQ:

Players are not afraid of losing a game. Sportspeople can accept rejections and defeats better. Similarly, they do not get carried away by their victories. They understand that success and failure are both part of the game. Life becomes a lot easier when a similar thought process is applied to all aspects.

4. Sports can boost academics:

Playing games increase concentration power. The more you practice, the higher the potential of your brain. You become good at decision making. You are ready to take up challenging subjects. Therefore, sportspeople can study faster and are good at solving logical and analytical problems. Moreover, sports teach you the value of time. Students who play sports do not waste their precious time in gossiping and fault-finding.

5. Sports help in healthy socializing:

One of the main problems in the present hyper-connected world is loneliness. Our social media presence seems dubious, and people have fake friendliness. While playing, people have a delightful time together and develop a healthy social life too.

6. Sports – an excellent stress-buster:

For students, sports are a source of recreation. They help in breaking the monotony of academic studies. Serious sports require intense training. Thus, sportspeople have a proper way to channelize their energy. By actively participating in games, one can balance his mood well and is likely to experience less stress in life.

7. Sports inculcates adventure spirit:

People who play in national teams, often travel abroad for their games. They get to experience different cultures and have a broader mind. They become more exploring in nature. These qualities can make you a global citizen. With more people in sports, our communities are more open to experiments. From a business point of view, it makes the country more attractive to foreign investors.

Builds a sense of teamwork:

Some sports need individual participation, while some require teamwork. Thus sports enlists teamwork in a person. Which is essential in every fieldwork. A company can only run by working together and not individually. So it is important for a person to know how to work together in a team. Only then you can achieve the desired goal.

National Development:

The main contribution of sports to nation building is by fostering feelings of unity and national pride. Students learn to be mutually loving and peaceful citizens. Team-building and cooperation are values built up by sporting activities in school. Sports help develop character and increase confidence levels in youth.

Sports also help build a good health status of the citizens of a country. Good health contributes to the high standards of living. Sports encouragethe growth of sports-related industries, which brings employment opportunities and booststhe economy.

These are all some top facts about the utility of sports in the school curriculum,which even the best schools in Lebanon swear by. In the era of budget cuts in schools, decision-makers must realize the importance of sports for all kinds of benefits.

Social and Personality Development:

Sports not only contribute to physical health but also enhance social and personality development. They helpin enhancing leadership skills and in improving capacity for goal setting and character building. A student, who is active in sports, will naturally have greater self-esteem, improved social interaction, and a more positive outlook on life.

Sports activities make children acquire ethics, values, responsibility, discipline, and a sense of confidence and mutual trust. The sportsmanship spirit helps a person deal more gracefully with the ups and downs of life. He/she will lead his/her life with good morals and a positive attitude and is thus less likely to be a victim of social evils. As per some studies, students, who compete in sports get better grades, have more confidence and graduate at higher rates. The majority of them avoid evils,such as drugs, unplanned pregnancies, obesity, suicide, and depression.

Importance for Health:

By indulging in sports, you can get the best exercises, which help maintain youroverall fitness. Regular sporting activities can prevent chronic diseases and help develop healthy heart, strong bones, and enhanced lung function. Sports help control diabetes, manage weight, enhance blood circulation, and manage levels of stress. Through sports, there is a good balance of physical and mental growth, which helps tone muscles and makes bones strong.

Sports inculcates in students the importance of a healthy lifestyle. Sports help in preventing obesity and in encouraging healthy eating habits. Young people involved in sports typically consume more fruits and vegetables, have less chance to be obese, and are more likely to become physically active adults.

Regular sports and physical activity help prevent communicable and non-communicable diseases. Hence, sports are cost-effective methods to help improve the health of the general public in developed and developing countries.

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), aquifer, or a reservoir with percolation, so that it seeps down and restores the ground water. Dew and fog can also be collected with nets or other tools. Rainwater harvesting differs from stormwater harvesting as the runoff is collected from roofs, rather than creeks, drains, roads, or any other land surfaces. Its uses include watering gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and domestic heating. The harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage or groundwater recharge.

Rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water for households, and residential and household-scale projects, usually financed by the user. However, larger systems for schools, hospitals, and other facilities can run up costs only able to be financed by owners, organizations, and governmental units.

Advantages

Rainwater harvesting provides the independent water supply during regional water restrictions, and in developed countries, it is often used to supplement the main supply. It provides water when a drought occurs, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on wells which may enable groundwater levels to be sustained. It also helps in the availability of potable water, as rainwater is substantially free of salinity and other salts. Applications of rainwater harvesting in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water supply and wastewater subsystems by reducing the need for clean water in water distribution systems, less generated stormwater in sewer systems,and a reduction in stormwater runoff polluting freshwater bodies.

A rainwater harvesting system that could be easily installed and maintained by local people

A large body of work has focused on the development of life cycle assessment and its costing methodologies to assess the level of environmental impacts and money that can be saved by implementing rainwater harvesting systems.

Independent water supply

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during water restrictions. In areas where clean water is costly, or difficult to come by, rainwater harvesting is a critical source of clean water. In developed countries, rainwater is often harvested to be used as a supplemental source of water rather than the main source, but the harvesting of rainwater can also decrease a household’s water costs or overall usage levels. Rainwater is safe to drink if the consumers do additional treatments before drinking. Boiling water helps to kill germs. Adding another supplement to the system such as a first flush diverter is also a common procedure to avoid contaminants of the water.

Supplemental in drought

When drought occurs, rainwater harvested in past months can be used. If rain is scarce but also unpredictable, the use of a rainwater harvesting system can be critical to capturing the rain when it does fall. Many countries with arid environments, use rainwater harvesting as a cheap and reliable source of clean water. To enhance irrigation in arid environments, ridges of soil are constructed to trap and prevent rainwater from running downhills. Even in periods of low rainfall, enough water is collected for crops to grow. Water can be collected from roofs and tanks can be constructed to hold large quantities of rainwater.

In addition, rainwater harvesting decreases the demand for water from wells, enabling groundwater levels to be further sustained rather than depleted.

Life-cycle assessment

Life-cycle assessment is a methodology used to evaluate the environmental impacts of a system from cradle-to-grave of its lifetime. Devkota et al,developed such a methodology for rainwater harvesting, and found that the building design (e.g., dimensions) and function (e.g., educational, residential, etc.) play critical roles in the environmental performance of the system.

To address the functional parameters of rainwater harvesting systems, a new metric was developed – the demand to supply ratio (D/S) – identifying the ideal building design (supply) and function (demand) in regard to the environmental performance of rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing. With the idea that supply of rainwater not only saves the potable water but also saves the stormwater entering the combined sewer network (thereby requiring treatment), the savings in environmental emissions were higher if the buildings are connected to a combined sewer network compared to separate one.

Cost-effectiveness

Although standard RWH systems can provide a water source to developing regions facing poverty, the average cost for an RWH setup can be costly depending on the type of technology used. Governmental aid and NGOs can assist communities facing poverty by providing the materials and education necessary to develop and maintain RWH setups.

Some studies show that rainwater harvesting is a widely applicable solution for water scarcity and other multiple usages, owing to its cost-effectiveness and eco-friendliness. Constructing new substantial, centralized water supply systems, such as dams, is prone to damage local ecosystems, generates external social costs, and has limited usages, especially in developing countries or impoverished communities. On the other hand, installing rainwater harvesting systems is verified by a number of studies to provide local communities a sustainable water source, accompanied by other various benefits, including protection from flood and control of water runoff, even in poor regions. Rainwater harvesting systems that do not require major construction or periodic maintenance by a professional from outside the community are more friendly to the environment and more likely to benefit the local people for a longer period of time.Thus, rainwater harvesting systems that could be installed and maintained by local people have bigger chances to be accepted and used by more people.

The usage of in-situ technologies can reduce investment costs in rainwater harvesting. In-situ technologies for rainwater harvesting could be a feasible option for rural areas since less material is required to construct them. They can provide a reliable water source that can be utilized to expand agricultural outputs. Above-ground tanks can collect water for domestic use; however, such units can be unaffordable to people in poverty.

Limitations

Rainwater harvesting is a widely used method of storing rainwater in the countries presenting with drought characteristics. Several pieces of research have derived and developed different criteria and techniques to select suitable sites for harvesting rainwater. Some research was identified and selected suitable sites for the potential erection of dams, as well as derived a model builder in ArcMap 10.4.1. The model combined several parameters, such as slope, runoff potential, land cover/use, stream order, soil quality, and hydrology to determine the suitability of the site for harvesting rainwater.

Harvested water from RWH systems can be minimal during below-average precipitation in arid urban regions such as the Mideast. RWH is useful for developing areas as it collects water for irrigation and domestic purposes. However, the gathered water should be adequately filtered to ensure safe drinking.

Quality of water harvesting

Rainwater may need to be analyzed properly, and used in a way appropriate to its safety. In the Gansu province, for example, solar water disinfection is used by boiling harvested rainwater in parabolic solar cookers before being used for drinking.These so-called “appropriate technology” methods provide low-cost disinfection options for treatment of stored rainwater for drinking.

While rainwater itself is a clean source of water, often better than groundwater or water from rivers or lakes,the process of collection and storage often leaves the water polluted and non-potable. Rainwater harvested from roofs can contain human, animal and bird feces, mosses and lichens, windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx). High levels of pesticide have been found in rainwater in Europe with the highest concentrations occurring in the first rain immediately after a dry spell; the concentration of these and other contaminants are reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of run-off water to waste. Improved water quality can also be obtained by using a floating draw-off mechanism (rather than from the base of the tank) and by using a series of tanks, withdraw from the last in series. Prefiltration is a common practice used in the industry to keep the system healthy and ensure that the water entering the tank is free of large sediments.

A very interesting concept of rainwater harvesting and cleaning it with solar energy for rural household drinking purposes has been developed by Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute.

Conceptually, a water supply system should match the quality of water with the end-user. However, in most of the developed world, high-quality potable water is used for all end uses. This approach wastes money and energy and imposes unnecessary impacts on the environment. Supplying rainwater that has gone through preliminary filtration measures for non-potable water uses, such as toilet flushing, irrigation, and laundry, maybe a significant part of a sustainable water management strategy.

Indus civilization, also called Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization is the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. Among the world’s three earliest civilizations the Indus civilization was the most extensive. The civilization was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region and then in 1922 at Mohenjo daro near the Indus River in the Sindh oth sites are in present day Pakistan, in Punjab and Sindh provinces, respectively. The ruins of Mohenjo-daro were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980. The Indus civilization is known to have consisted of two large cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and more than 100 towns and villages, often of relatively small size. The population was estimated to be 23,500-35,000 in Harappa and 35,000-41,250 in Mohenjo daro. The civilization subsisted primarily by farming, supplemented by an appreciable but often elusive commerce. Domesticated animals included dogs and cats, humped and shorthorn cattle, domestic fowl, and possibly pigs, camels, and buffalo. Trade was extensive and apparently well-regulated, providing imported raw materials for use at internal production centres, distributing finished goods throughout the region, and arguably culminating in the establishment of Harappan colonies in both Mesopotamia and Badakhshan. The remarkable uniformity of weights and measures throughout the Indus lands were seen. Further, the widespread occurrence of inscriptions in the Harappan script almost certainly indicates the use of a single lingua franca. Stone sculpture is extremely rare, and much of it is quite crude. The figures are apparently all intended as images for worship. Such figures include seated men, recumbent composite animals a standing nude male and a dancing figure. The popular art of the Harappans was in the form of terra-cotta figurines. The majority are of standing females, often heavily laden with jewelry, but standing males some with beard and horns are also evident. Copper and bronze were the principal metals used for making tools and implements. Bronze is less common than copper, and it is notably rarer in the lowerlevels. Other special crafts include the manufacture of faience for making beads, amulets, sealings, and small vessels and the working of stone for bead manufacture and for seals. Beads were made from a variety of substances, but the carnelians Shell and ivory were also worked and were used for beads, inlays, combs, bracelets, and the like.. There are more than 500 signs, many appearing to be compounds of two or more other signs, but it is not yet clear whether these signs are ideographic, logographic, or other. The Harappans also employed regular systems of weights and measures. The decline probably occurred in several stages, perhaps over a century or more: the period between about 2000 and 1750 BCE is a reasonable estimation. The collapse of the urban system does not necessarily imply a complete breakdown in the lifestyle of the population in all parts of the Indus region, but it seems to have involved the end of whatever system of social and political control had preceded it. The end of Mohenjo-daro is known, however, and was dramatic and sudden

Dissociative personality disorder also known as multiple personality disorder r split personality disorder is a disorder intriguing the interest of a lot of people. It is characterized as endurance of a lot of personality in one person which are certainly unaware about each other as well. These personalities control their behaviour at different times. They might be accompanied by post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) substance abuse disorder, depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, eating disorder etc. In about 90% of cases, there is a history of abuse in childhood while other cases are linked to experiences of war, or medical procedures during childhood, where as Genetic and biological factors are also believed to play al role. Treatment generally involves supportive care and psychotherapy. It is believed to affect about 1.5% of the general population DID is diagnosed about six times more often in females than males. According to the fifth Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders the presence of two or more distinct personality states accompanied by the inability to recall personal information, beyond what is expected through normal forgetfulness is a major symptom of dissociative identity disorder. The majority of patients with this disorder report childhood sexual or physical abuse. It can lead to gaps in memory and hallucinations. It is one of several dissociative disorders. These disorders affect a person’s ability to connect with reality. Other dissociative disorders include Depersonalized or derealization disorder, which causes a feeling of detachment from your actions where as the other, Dissociative amnesia is a condition in which a person cannot remember important information about his or her life his forgetting may be limited to certain specific areas or may include much of the person’s life history and/or identity. In some rare cases called dissociative fugue, the person may forget most or all of his personal information and may sometimes even travel to a different location and adopt a completely new identity in all cases of dissociative amnesia, the person has a much greater memory. loss than would be expected in the course of normal forgetting. Sometimes dissociative identity disorder develops in response to a natural disaster or other traumatic events. A person with DID has two or more distinct identities. The “core” identity is the person’s usual personality. “Alters” are the person’s alternate personalities. Some people with DID have up to 100 alters The identities might have different genders, ethnicities, interests and ways of interacting with their environments. Its symptoms might include Memory loss Suicidal thoughts or self harm, drug abuse. There is no cure for it. Most people will manage the disorder for the rest of their lives. But a combination of treatments can help reduce symptoms. A strong support system can make living with DID more manageable

In computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems.

Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation.

In other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation.

ROLES:

An instruction set architecture (ISA) is the interface between the computer’s software and hardware and also can be viewed as the programmer’s view of the machine. Computers do not understand high-level programming languages such as Java, C++, or most programming languages used. A processor only understands instructions encoded in some numerical fashion, usually as binary numbers. Software tools, such as compilers, translate those high level languages into instructions that the processor can understand.

Besides instructions, the ISA defines items in the computer that are available to a program—e.g., data types, registers, addressing modes, and memory. Instructions locate these available items with register indexes (or names) and memory addressing modes.

The ISA of a computer is usually described in a small instruction manual, which describes how the instructions are encoded. Also, it may define short (vaguely) mnemonic names for the instructions. The names can be recognized by a software development tool called an assembler. An assembler is a computer program that translates a human-readable form of the ISA into a computer-readable form. Disassemblers are also widely available, usually in debuggers and software programs to isolate and correct malfunctions in binary computer programs.

ISAs vary in quality and completeness. A good ISA compromises between programmer convenience (how easy the code is to understand), size of the code (how much code is required to do a specific action), cost of the computer to interpret the instructions (more complexity means more hardware needed to decode and execute the instructions), and speed of the computer (with more complex decoding hardware comes longer decode time). Memory organization defines how instructions interact with the memory, and how memory interacts with itself.

During design emulation, emulators can run programs written in a proposed instruction set. Modern emulators can measure size, cost, and speed to determine whether a particular ISA is meeting its goals.

Computer organization:

Computer organization helps optimize performance-based products. For example, software engineers need to know the processing power of processors. They may need to optimize software in order to gain the most performance for the lowest price. This can require quite a detailed analysis of the computer’s organization. For example, in an SD card, the designers might need to arrange the card so that the most data can be processed in the fastest possible way.

Computer organization also helps plan the selection of a processor for a particular project. Multimedia projects may need very rapid data access, while virtual machines may need fast interrupts. Sometimes certain tasks need additional components as well. For example, a computer capable of running a virtual machine needs virtual memory hardware so that the memory of different virtual computers can be kept separated. Computer organization and features also affect power consumption and processor cost.

Implementation:

Once an instruction set and micro-architecture have been designed, a practical machine must be developed. This design process is called the implementation. Implementation is usually not considered architectural design, but rather hardware design engineering. Implementation can be further broken down into several steps:

Logic implementation designs the circuits required at a logic-gate level.

Circuit implementation does transistor-level designs of basic elements (e.g., gates, multiplexers, latches) as well as of some larger blocks (ALUs, caches etc.) that may be implemented at the logic-gate level, or even at the physical level if the design calls for it.

Physical implementation draws physical circuits. The different circuit components are placed in a chip floorplan or on a board and the wires connecting them are created.

Design validation tests the computer as a whole to see if it works in all situations and all timings. Once the design validation process starts, the design at the logic level are tested using logic emulators. However, this is usually too slow to run a realistic test. So, after making corrections based on the first test, prototypes are constructed using Field-Programmable Gate-Arrays (FPGAs). Most hobby projects stop at this stage. The final step is to test prototype integrated circuits, which may require several redesigns.

For CPUs, the entire implementation process is organized differently and is often referred to as CPU design.

Computer Architects:

Computer architects oversee the implementation of architecture strategies and policies within companies. They create computer models and standard solutions that save costs, increase capabilities and align with business needs. Their architectural solutions must deliver stability, availability and sustainability. Computer architects may deal with server storage, data backup, virtual recovery and internal applications. In order to produce efficient systems, they must stay up to date on the latest computer, programming and technology trends.

Computer architects formulate strategies that evolve compute architecture, leverage new features, explore new capabilities and improve user friendliness. They may be expected to manage and maintain enterprise-wide architecture patterns, offerings and policies. They may partner with peers and vendors regarding the integration, alignment and convergence of architectural strategies and standards. Computer architects may create communications and presentations that articulate the logic behind programming and production changes.

The Challenge of Architecting:

Creating a computer’s architecture, framework and infrastructure can be quite challenging. Computer architects must be able to present and drive the alignment and adoption of system evolution to programmers, engineers, designers and leaders. This means that they must be able to gain support and elicit alignment for project funding, strategies and recommendations. Computer architects may perform root cause analysis to understand and eliminate reoccurring incidents that impact the architectural structure and performance.

Senior computer architects may update, maintain and create system architectures that support product lines and business goals. They may review, modify and approve existing architectural designs through careful comparative research. Senior computer architects may communicate architecture strategies in order to convince executive management, technical teams and third-party vendors. Senior computer architects must have significant experience in the design, development and deployment of enterprise solutions. They should fully understand computer infrastructure, middleware and integration.

Computer architecture involves the broad infrastructure of modern PCs. All modern computers, mobile devices and similar technology rely on this architectural knowledge. Anyone who wants to become a computer architect should consider becoming an electrical, software or computer hardware engineer.

The hill stations are high-altitude towns for recreation, enjoyment and used as a place of refuge to escape the blistering heat in India during summertime. As India is a vast peninsular country with limited amounts of the coastal area most of its towns and districts face continental type of climate with summer being very hot so hill stations (as situated on high altitude due to which it faces low temperature) becomes an excellent spot to escape such hot and humid conditions as well as a place of enjoyment to spent quality time with your family and partner during summer break.

The Indian subcontinent has seven principal mountain ranges and the largest of all is the Himalayas that lies in the northern part of India. The famous peaks and ranges include the Kangchenjunga range in the Eastern Himalayas which frames the hill stations of Darjeeling and Gangtok as well as the Nanda Devi in Uttarakhand. The Shivalik range that also lies within the same region also has some famous hill stations that include Mussoorie, Drass, Dalhousie, Kullu, Shimla, Nainital and many more.

Most of the hill stations in India were developed by the British around a central mall to get respite from the oppressive summer heat. Many have picturesque lakes as their focal point, making them excellent places for boating activities.

Most of the hill stations in India are located in Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Meghalaya in the Himalayas and in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Kerala, and Tamilnadu in Western ghats.[2] Some are located in Eastern ghat Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. Some of the hill stations in India are listed below by state.

Since a number of these hill stations attract large numbers of tourists in summer as well as other times of the year, they are well connected by rail, road, and air services to major Indian cities.

The Most Popular Hills In India are: 1.Shivalik Hills 2.Anamalai Hills 3.Ashambu Hills 4.Cardamom Hills 5.Biligiriranga Hills 6.Palani Hills 7.Nilgiri Hills 8.Nallamala Hills 9.Lushai Hills 10.Garo-Khasi-Jainitia Hills.

Hill stations in India were established for a variety of reasons. After the revolt of 1857 the “British sought further distance from what they saw as a “disease-ridden” land by escape to the Himalayas in the north and Nilgiri Hills in the south”, a pattern which started even before 1857. Other factors included anxieties about the dangers of life in India, among them “fear of degeneration brought on by too long residence in a debilitating land.” The hill stations were meant to reproduce the home country, illustrated in Lord Lytton’s statement about Ootacamund, in the 1870s, “such beautiful English rain, such delicious English mud.”[3] Shimla was officially made the “summer capital of India” in the 1860s and hill stations “served as vital centers of political and military power, especially after the 1857 revolt.

Dane Kennedy, following Monika Bührlein, identifies three stages in the evolution of hill stations in India: high refuge to hill station, and hill station to town. The first settlements started in the 1820s, primarily as sanitoria. In the 1840s and 1850s, there was a wave of new hill stations, with the main impetus being “places to rest and recuperate from the arduous life on the plains”. In the second half of the 19th century, there was a period of consolidation with few new hill stations. In the final phase, “hill stations reached their zenith in the late nineteenth century. The political importance of the official stations was underscored by the inauguration of large and costly public-building projects.”

The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world’s oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi) or 19.8% of the water on Earth’s surface.[5] It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean or Antarctica, depending on the definition in use.[6] Along its core, the Indian Ocean has some large marginal or regional seas such as the Arabian Sea, the Laccadive Sea, the Somali Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Andaman Sea.

Location – South and Southeast Asia, Western Asia, Northeast, East and Southern Africa and Australia

Max. length -9,600 km (6,000 mi) (Antarctica to Bay of Bengal)

Max. width-7,600 km (4,700 mi) (Africa to Australia)

Surface area -70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi)

Average depth-3,741 m (12,274 ft)

Max. depth -7,258 m (23,812 ft)

Shore length1 -66,526 km (41,337 mi)

History:

The Indian Ocean, together with the Mediterranean, has connected people since ancient times, whereas the Atlantic and Pacific have had the roles of barriers or mare incognitum. The written history of the Indian Ocean, however, has been Eurocentric and largely dependent on the availability of written sources from the colonial era. This history is often divided into an ancient period followed by an Islamic period; the subsequent periods are often subdivided into Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods.

A concept of an “Indian Ocean World” (IOW), similar to that of the “Atlantic World”, exists but emerged much more recently and is not well established. The IOW is, nevertheless, sometimes referred to as the “first global economy” and was based on the monsoon which linked Asia, China, India, and Mesopotamia. It developed independently from the European global trade in the Mediterranean and Atlantic and remained largely independent from them until European 19th-century colonial dominance.

The diverse history of the Indian Ocean is a unique mix of cultures, ethnic groups, natural resources, and shipping routes. It grew in importance beginning in the 1960s and 1970s and, after the Cold War, it has undergone periods of political instability, most recently with the emergence of India and China as regional powers.

First settlements:

Pleistocene fossils of Homo erectus and other pre-H. sapiens hominid fossils, similar to H. heidelbergensis in Europe, have been found in India. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, a supereruption c. 74000 years ago at Lake Toba, Sumatra, covered India with volcanic ashes and wiped out one or more lineages of such archaic humans in India and Southeast Asia.

The Out of Africa theory states that Homo sapiens spread from Africa into mainland Eurasia. The more recent Southern Dispersal or Coastal hypothesis instead advocates that modern humans spread along the coasts of the Arabic Peninsula and southern Asia. This hypothesis is supported by mtDNA research which reveals a rapid dispersal event during the Late Pleistocene (11,000 years ago). This coastal dispersal, however, began in East Africa 75,000 years ago and occurred intermittently from estuary to estuary along the northern perimeter of the Indian Ocean at a rate of 0.7–4.0 km (0.43–2.49 mi) per year. It eventually resulted in modern humans migrating from Sunda over Wallacea to Sahul (Southeast Asia to Australia).[67] Since then, waves of migration have resettled people and, clearly, the Indian Ocean littoral had been inhabited long before the first civilisations emerged. 5000–6000 years ago six distinct cultural centres had evolved around the Indian Ocean: East Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, the Malay World, and Australia; each interlinked to its neighbours.

Food globalisation began on the Indian Ocean littoral c. 4.000 years ago. Five African crops — sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, cowpea, and hyacinth bean — somehow found their way to Gujarat in India during the Late Harappan (2000–1700 BCE). Gujarati merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indian Ocean as they traded African goods such as ivory, tortoise shells, and slaves. Broomcorn millet found its way from Central Asia to Africa, together with chicken and zebu cattle, although the exact timing is disputed. Around 2000 BCE black pepper and sesame, both native to Asia, appear in Egypt, albeit in small quantities. Around the same time the black rat and the house mouse emigrate from Asia to Egypt. Banana reached Africa around 3000 years ago.

At least eleven prehistoric tsunamis have struck the Indian Ocean coast of Indonesia between 7400 and 2900 years ago. Analysing sand beds in caves in the Aceh region, scientists concluded that the intervals between these tsunamis have varied from series of minor tsunamis over a century to dormant periods of more than 2000 years preceding megathrusts in the Sunda Trench. Although the risk for future tsunamis is high, a major megathrust such as the one in 2004 is likely to be followed by a long dormant period.

A group of scientists have argued that two large-scale impact events have occurred in the Indian Ocean: the Burckle Crater in the southern Indian Ocean in 2800 BCE and the Kanmare and Tabban craters in the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia in 536 CE. Evidences for these impacts, the team argue, are micro-ejecta and Chevron dunes in southern Madagascar and in the Australian gulf. Geological evidences suggest the tsunamis caused by these impacts reached 205 m (673 ft) above sea level and 45 km (28 mi) inland. The impact events must have disrupted human settlements and perhaps even contributed to major climate changes.

Antiquity:

The history of the Indian Ocean is marked by maritime trade; cultural and commercial exchange probably date back at least seven thousand years.Human culture spread early on the shores of the Indian Ocean and was always linked to the cultures of the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. Before c. 2000 BCE, however, cultures on its shores were only loosely tied to each other; bronze, for example, was developed in Mesopotamia c. 3000 BCE but remained uncommon in Egypt before 1800 BCE.During this period, independent, short-distance oversea communications along its littoral margins evolved into an all-embracing network. The début of this network was not the achievement of a centralised or advanced civilisation but of local and regional exchange in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea. Sherds of Ubaid (2500–500 BCE) pottery have been found in the western Gulf at Dilmun, present-day Bahrain; traces of exchange between this trading centre and Mesopotamia. The Sumerians traded grain, pottery, and bitumen (used for reed boats) for copper, stone, timber, tin, dates, onions, and pearls.Coast-bound vessels transported goods between the Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE) in the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan and Northwest India) and the Persian Gulf and Egypt.

The Red Sea, one of the main trade routes in Antiquity, was explored by Egyptians and Phoenicians during the last two millennia BCE. In the 6th century, BCE Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda made a journey to India, working for the Persian king Darius, and his now-lost account put the Indian Ocean on the maps of Greek geographers. The Greeks began to explore the Indian Ocean following the conquests of Alexander the Great, who ordered a circumnavigation of the Arabian Peninsula in 323 BCE. During the two centuries that followed the reports of the explorers of Ptolemaic Egypt resulted in the best maps of the region until the Portuguese era many centuries later. The main interest in the region for the Ptolemies was not commercial but military; they explored Africa to hunt for war elephants.

The Rub’ al Khali desert isolates the southern parts of the Arabic Peninsula and the Indian Ocean from the Arabic world. This encouraged the development of maritime trade in the region linking the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to East Africa and India. The monsoon (from mawsim, the Arabic word for season), however, was used by sailors long before being “discovered” by Hippalus in the 1st century. Indian wood have been found in Sumerian cities, there is evidence of Akkad coastal trade in the region, and contacts between India and the Red Sea dates back to 2300 B.C. The archipelagoes of the central Indian Ocean, the Laccadive and Maldive islands, were probably populated during the 2nd century B.C. from the Indian mainland. They appear in written history in the account of merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir in the 9th century but the treacherous reefs of the islands were most likely cursed by the sailors of Aden long before the islands were even settled.

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an Alexandrian guide to the world beyond the Red Sea — including Africa and India — from the first century CE, not only gives insights into trade in the region but also shows that Roman and Greek sailors had already gained knowledge about the monsoon winds.[72] The contemporaneous settlement of Madagascar by Austronesian sailors shows that the littoral margins of the Indian Ocean were being both well-populated and regularly traversed at least by this time. Albeit the monsoon must have been common knowledge in the Indian Ocean for centuries.

The Indian Ocean’s relatively calmer waters opened the areas bordering it to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific oceans. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed ancient Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar around 1 CE.

In the 2nd or 1st century BCE, Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. The probably fictitious sailor Hippalus is said to have learnt the direct route from Arabia to India around this time.[78] During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this route, as well as the commodities that were traded along various commercial ports on the coasts of the Horn of Africa and India circa 1 CE. Among these trading settlements were Mosylon and Opone on the Red Sea littoral.

Unlike the Pacific Ocean where the civilization of the Polynesians reached most of the far-flung islands and atolls and populated them, almost all the islands, archipelagos and atolls of the Indian Ocean were uninhabited until colonial times. Although there were numerous ancient civilizations in the coastal states of Asia and parts of Africa, the Maldives were the only island group in the Central Indian Ocean region where an ancient civilization flourished.Maldivians, on their annual trade trip, took their oceangoing trade ships to Sri Lanka rather than mainland India, which is much closer, because their ships were dependent of the Indian Monsoon Current

Arabic missionaries and merchants began to spread Islam along the western shores of the Indian Ocean from the 8th century, if not earlier. A Swahili stone mosque dating to the 8th–15th centuries has been found in Shanga, Kenya. Trade across the Indian Ocean gradually introduced Arabic script and rice as a staple in Eastern Africa.Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to c. 4000 during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870. Slave trade also occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean before the Dutch settled there around 1600 but the volume of this trade is unknown.From 1405 to 1433 admiral Zheng He said to have led large fleets of the Ming Dynasty on several treasure voyages through the Indian Ocean, ultimately reaching the coastal countries of East Africa.The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage in 1497 and became the first European to sail to India. The Swahili people he encountered along the African east coast lived in a series of cities and had established trade routes to India and to China. Among them, the Portuguese kidnapped most of their pilots in coastal raids and onboard ships. A few of the pilots, however, were gifts by local Swahili rulers, including the sailor from Gujarat, a gift by a Malindi ruler in Kenya, who helped the Portuguese to reach India. In expeditions after 1500, the Portuguese attacked and colonised cities along the African coast.

European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c. 200 slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640)

The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into the Indian Ocean in 1517 with the conquest of Egypt under Sultan Selim I. Although the Ottomans shared the same religion as the trading communities in the Indian Ocean the region was unexplored by them. Maps that included the Indian Ocean had been produced by Muslim geographers centuries before the Ottoman conquests; Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Battuta in the 14th Century, had visited most parts of the known world; contemporarily with Vasco da Gama, Arab navigator Ahmad ibn Mājid had compiled a guide to navigation in the Indian Ocean; the Ottomans, nevertheless, began their own parallel era of discovery which rivalled the European expansion.

The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in the volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various Dutch colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the Colombo fortress in Dutch Ceylon. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with c. 100,000–150,000 slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.

The East India Company (EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Dutch East Indies. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Mascarene Islands, a number which had reached 133,000 in 1807. The British captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had prohibited the slave trade in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Mascarene Islands from 1670 until 1848.

In all, European traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost that same amount were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to c. 12,000,000 slaves exported across the Atlantic.

Modern era:

Scientifically, the Indian Ocean remained poorly explored before the International Indian Ocean Expedition in the early 1960s. However, the Challenger expedition 1872–1876 only reported from south of the polar front. The Valdivia expedition 1898–1899 made deep samples in the Indian Ocean. In the 1930s, the John Murray Expedition mainly studied shallow-water habitats. The Swedish Deep Sea Expedition 1947–1948 also sampled the Indian Ocean on its global tour and the Danish Galathea sampled deep-water fauna from Sri Lanka to South Africa on its second expedition 1950–1952. The Soviet research vessel Vityaz also did research in the Indian Ocean.[1]The Suez Canal opened in 1869 when the Industrial Revolution dramatically changed global shipping – the sailing ship declined in importance as did the importance of European trade in favour of trade in East Asia and Australia.[86] The construction of the canal introduced many non-indigenous species into the Mediterranean. For example, the goldband goatfish (Upeneus moluccensis) has replaced the red mullet (Mullus barbatus); since the 1980s huge swarms of scyphozoan jellyfish (Rhopilema nomadica) have affected tourism and fisheries along the Levantian coast and clogged power and desalination plants. Plans announced in 2014 to build a new, much larger Suez Canal parallel to the 19th-century canal will most likely boost the economy in the region but also cause ecological damage in a much wider area.

Throughout the colonial era, islands such as Mauritius were important shipping nodes for the Dutch, French, and British. Mauritius, an inhabited island, became populated by slaves from Africa and indenture labour from India. The end of World War II marked the end of the colonial era. The British left Mauritius in 1974 and with 70% of the population of Indian descent, Mauritius became a close ally of India. In the 1980s, during the Cold War, the South African regime acted to destabilise several island nations in the Indian Ocean, including the Seychelles, Comoros, and Madagascar. India intervened in Mauritius to prevent a coup d’état, backed up by the United States who feared the Soviet Union could gain access to Port Louis and threaten the U.S. base on Diego Garcia.[88]Iranrud is an unrealised plan by Iran and the Soviet Union to build a canal between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf.Testimonies from the colonial era are stories of African slaves, Indian indentured labourers, and white settlers. But, while there was a clear racial line between free men and slaves in the Atlantic World, this delineation is less distinct in the Indian Ocean — there were Indian slaves and settlers as well as black indentured labourers. There were also a string of prison camps across the Indian Ocean, from Robben Island in South Africa to Cellular Jail in the Andamans, in which prisoners, exiles, POWs, forced labourers, merchants, and people of different faiths were forcefully united. On the islands of the Indian Ocean, therefore, a trend of creolisation emerged.

On 26 December 2004 fourteen countries around the Indian Ocean were hit by a wave of tsunamis caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves radiated across the ocean at speeds exceeding 500 km/h (310 mph), reached up to 20 m (66 ft) in height, and resulted in an estimated 236,000 deaths

In the late 2000s, the ocean evolved into a hub of pirate activity. By 2013, attacks off the Horn region’s coast had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols, especially by the Indian Navy.

Malaysian Airlines Flight 370, a Boeing 777 airliner with 239 persons on board, disappeared on 8 March 2014 and is alleged to have crashed into the southern Indian Ocean about 2,500 km (1,600 mi) from the coast of southwest Western Australia. Despite an extensive search, the whereabouts of the remains of the aircraft is unknown.

The Sentinelese people of North Sentinel Island, which lies near South Andaman Island in the Bay of Bengal, have been called by experts the most isolated people in the world.

The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius.[94] In February 2019, the International Court of Justice in The Hague issued an advisory opinion stating that the UK must transfer the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius.

Seeing the popularity and power of Social Media Channels, businesses and marketers look for different types of Social Media networks that they can use to target and convert their audiences.General people are only aware of Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and Instagram sorts of social channels.

Social media will help you build up loyalty of your current customers to the point that they will willingly, and for free, tell others about you.

Over 88% of the companies are now marketing on Social Media.But for a marketer or any brand, many other types of Social Media channels are there to explore, as they play a significant role in targeting and converting prospects.

Different Types of Social Media Networks:

1. Social Networks: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn:

Such types of Social Media are used to associate with individuals (and brands) on the web. They help your business via branding, social awareness, relationship building, customer service, lead generation, and conversion.You can channelize different types of Social Media campaigns on these networks that will help you widen your reach. Some of the benefits of these Social Marketing Networks are-(i) They encourage individuals and businesses to interact online and share data and thoughts for ensuring mutually productive relationships.

(ii) In case you are searching for the best ways to optimize current marketing campaigns then you will discover a variety of organic and paid ways to do this on Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn sorts of social networks.

2. Media Sharing Networks: Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube:

Media sharing types of Social Media are used to find and share photographs, live video, video and other kinds of media on the web.They are also going to help you in brand building, lead generation, targeting and so on. They give individuals and brands a place to discover and share media so the target audiences can be targeted and converted into a convincing and result-driven way possible.Social networks nowadays also offer these features, however, for Media Sharing Networks, sharing of media is their basic role.(i) Starting with image or video on Instagram, YouTube and Snapchat types of media sharing networks would be more beneficial for you.(ii) To decide whether you should use these networks for your business or not, you should consider your resources and target audiences. These channels will help you run well-planned campaigns to generate leads and widen your audience base.

3. Discussion Forums: Reddit, Quora, Digg:

Such types of Social Media channels are used for finding, sharing and discussing different kinds of information, opinions, and news.They help businesses by being a top-notch resource for doing immaculate market research. These forums are the oldest ways of running Social Media Marketing campaigns.Before the entry of popular Social Media players like Facebook, these forums were the places where professionals, experts and enthusiasts used to do different kinds of discussions concerning a variety of fields.(i) These discussion forums have a massive number of users and it ensures unprecedented reach for your business. These are the places that provide the answers to different queries of any domain.(ii) In case your business needs deep customer research then these places would the most befitting one for your business.(iii) Along with sharing information and knowing answers, these places are very impactful in advertising as well.

4. Bookmarking & Content Curation Networks: Pinterest, Flipboard:

Opting for such types of Social Media will help you find out, share, discuss and save a variety of latest content and media that are trending as well.They are very helpful in channelizing brand awareness for your business, plus, choosing this one to run different types of Social Media Marketing campaigns will help you generate website traffic and customer engagement.In case you want to run some out of the box highly creative campaigns that can not only inform your audience and but also attract them then this one is the best fit.(i) To run a Social Media campaign on Pinterest, you need to have a site that is bookmark-friendly. You should optimize headlines and images for the feeds that Bookmarking and Content Curation Networks use for accessing and sharing your content.(ii) Flipboard lets you create your own Flipboard magazine by using most engaging content and then you can showcase that to your audiences.

5. Consumer Review Networks: Yelp, Zomato, TripAdvisor:

Using Customer Review networks will help you find out, share and review different information about a variety of products, services or brands.When a business has positive reviews on these networks, their claims turn more credible because reviews on these networks act as Social Proof.For running a successful Social Media Marketing Campaigns, it is very important for today’s businesses to have positive reviews on these sites.In addition, resolving all the issues that your customers are posting on these Review platforms is another thing that is going to be very important for the positive and productive outcomes for your business.(i) These networks offer a place to users for reviewing different kinds of products and services that they have used.(ii) Review content adds great value to any brand because it will influence more and the number of new buyers to attempt your services.(iii) Yelp and Zomato are the types of social media platforms that offer location-based review services that will help you run location-based social campaigns.

6. Blogging & Publishing Networks: WordPress, Tumblr, Medium:

You should choose these types of Social Media networks for publishing, discovering and commenting on articles, social media blogs and other content on the web.Content marketing is one of the most powerful ways to target, attract, engage and convert a target audience. It is going to be the base of successful online marketing campaigns that play the most important role in conversion funnels of Digital Marketing campaigns.WordPress and Blogger are the traditional blogging platforms while Tumblr (micro-blogging service) and Medium (Social Publishing Platform) is the latest blogging and publishing networks.(i) These networks are must for the businesses that want to effectively use Content Marketing, plus, you can share this content on a variety of Social Networks like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.(ii) Content that you use on these networks will also help you create a niche for your business and audiences who are in search of information concerning that niche will for sure visit your blog or site.

7. Social Shopping Networks: Polyvore, Etsy, Fancy:

Want to find out all the latest trends in the marketing or crave to know the shopping tips then such types of Social Media channels are for you.In addition, they help you follow different brands, share interesting things and make a purchase on these Social Shopping networks.Businesses can use such types of Social Media Platforms for creating brand awareness, boosting engagement and selling products on some new and effective platforms. These channels transform e-commerce by making them more engaging via some interesting social elements.(i) To use these networks effectively you should create a site that integrates shopping experience with social experience.(ii) These networks are very result-driven for small businesses and startups as they can sell their products without any land-based office or store.

8. Interest-Based Networks: Goodreads, Houzz, Last.fm:

You can use such types of Social Media networks for connecting with other people who have the same sorts of hobbies or interests.You can easily find the audiences who are interested in knowing more and more about the kinds of products and services that you offer.This makes it one of the best networks for engaging with your audience and creating exclusive brand awareness online. Compared to big social networks, using Interest-based networks would help you run a more targeted campaign.(i) Choosing these networks will help you focus solely on a single product or service related to any particular subject, for instance, home décor, Digital Marketing Training, Music, Books, etc.(ii) These networks are the best places to engage with the audiences of a particular niche.